Notesale: Turn your study into money

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LECTURE ONE: WHAT IS ECONOMICS? WHAT IS ECONOMICS OF EDUCATION? 

Economics is a study of scarce resources and how best they can be produced and distributed to
meet the given ends (i
...
goals, objectives etc)
...
e
...

LECTURE ONE
Economics & Economics of Education
WHAT IS ECONOMICS?
Economics is concerned with two primary phenomena: (i) desires, as expressed by man, and (ii)
resources, as provided by nature (Rogers D
...
& Ruchlin H
...
, 1971)
...
e
...
This confrontation comes into being due to the fact that desires are infinite (unlimited)
while resources are finite (limited)
...
e
...

Choices must be made regarding:
I
...


How much of each good to produce;

III
...


For whom
...
Economics is a study of scarce resources and how best they can be produced and distributed to meet the given
ends (i
...
goals, objectives etc)
...
Economics is the study and exercise of choice
...

3
...
This is achieved by using the stock of available resources as
efficiently as possible so as to derive the greatest benefit from them (i
...
deriving
maximum output from minimum input)
...


What are the economic tools of analysis?
The question of choice plays a central role in economics
...

Some of the tools used by economists to achieve the above are:
I
...
Discounted cash flow
III
...
Cost-effectiveness analysis
Demand and Supply

Goods:
A good is anything that satisfies or is capable of satisfying a human want
...
g
...


b) Economic good: A good that is scarce and is capable of being apportioned or
economized, e
...
education
...

ii) Material goods versus Non-material goods: Economic goods are either material or nonmaterial
...

b) A non-material good is a service rendered by a free person which satisfies a want,
e
...
education
...
When the use of a good such
as a school, hospital, a highway etc
...
When an individual or a firm acquires a good for
private use, it is a private good
...
As a result,
economists of education would like to acquaint themselves as to the magnitude of costs and
benefits that may be associated with investment decisions on education and training
...
g
...

Definitions:

1
...

2
...


3
...
Colines E
...
Therefore, it enables the policy makers to
know the magnitude of the costs and benefits that may be associated with investment decisions on
education and training
...

It will enable them to know how the scarce resources can be produced/or mobilized to be utilized within the
education section
...

1
...

Education has both investment and consumption aspects
...
As a consumer good, education is sought as an end product
in itself or for present enjoyment
...
Education as an investment involves present sacrifices, e
...
foregoing present
consumption or satisfaction for the sake of future benefits (both monetary and nonmonetary)
...
Education investments involve some
present sacrifice by parents, community or country in form of foregone present
consumption or alternative investments
...
Education as both a Public and Private Good:
Education can also be classified as a Quasi-Public good (semi-public good)
...
e
...
e
...
These social benefits (also referred to as
neighbourhood effects or externalities) qualify education to be a public good as well
...


LECTURE TWO: THEORY OF HUMAN CAPITAL


For many years, education was viewed more as a consumption rather than an
investment
...
It was not until 1960 that one scholar, Theodore
Schultz, came up with the idea of investment in human capital
...


LECTURE TWO: THEORY OF HUMAN CAPITAL
BRIEF HISTORY OF ECONOMICS OF EDUCATION
a) Dichotomization of education as a good
1
...

Education has both investment and consumption aspects
...
When the educational experience is valued as an end in itself, in which
case the resulting quality in the learner is regarded as an end product, such education is regarded as a
consumption service or good
...
As a consumer good, education is sought as an end product

in itself or for present enjoyment
...
Education as an investment involves present sacrifices, e
...
foregoing present
consumption or satisfaction for the sake of future benefits (both monetary and nonmonetary)
...
Education investments involve some

present sacrifice by parents, community or country in form of foregone present
consumption or alternative investments
...
Education as both a Public and Private Good:
Education can also be classified as a Quasi-Public good (semi-public good)
...
e
...
e
...
These social benefits (also referred to as
neighbourhood effects or externalities) qualify education to be a public good as well
...
The following is a summary of the views that have
historically evolved in course of time on education as consumption and or investment
items
...
Early Greek and Roman Philosophers
Pioneering Greek philosophers such as Socrates and Plato saw education as an instrument
to be utilized in shaping the youth to be useful citizens who would serve the state
...

ii
...

iii
...

They saw education as a means of developing attitudes and habits conducive to population
control and maintenance of civil liberty
...
John Stuart Mill

John Stuart Mill was a utilitarian and he advocated for the provision of education to all so
that they could make maximum use of their total environment including their abilities of
doing useful work
...


v
...
He therefore advocated for a partnership of the
government and parents in the provision of education
...

vi
...
He supported the
costing of the value of man just like other productive goods and stressed that such costing
ought to be seen beyond the concept of slavery
...


vii
...
He envisaged education as acting as a counter balance to the
tendency of capitalist development which erodes the workers’ security and helps in
anticipating the wastage of the workforce and any potential discontent
...
In
1960, T
...
Schultz argued that the development of human beings (through education,
health, etc) should be considered as a process of investment in human capital to be used in
production in the same manner as physical capital is regarded
...
He computed the human capital(% contribution of education to economic growth)
for the USA between 1930 and 1960
...
The theory can be traced to
Schultz (1960) who argued that education should not be viewed merely as a form of
consumption but rather as a productive investment
...

Another scholar, Mark Blaug(1968) defines human capital as: " the idea that people spend
on themselves in diverse ways not for the sake of present enjoyments but for the sake of
future pecuniary and non-pecuniary benefits
...

The human capital theory postulates that the most efficient path to national development of
any society lies in the improvement of its population, i
...
, human capital( Fagerlind & Saha,
1983)
...
The improvement and greater efficiency of technology
...


2
...

Human capital theorists observe that the skills and motivation for productive behaviour are
imparted by means of formal education
...

Central notions(beliefs) to the Human Capital Theory
1
...
the skills and knowledge acquired are a form of capital embodied in man;
3
...
the capital yields returns just like investment in other forms of capital do;
5
...

From the foregoing, it is clear that the main concern of the Human Capital Theory is with the
computation and comparison of costs and benefits associated with educational investments
...

Costs:
Costs incurred on education fall into two broad categories: Private and Social costs
...
These costs can be direct or indirect
...

Indirect private costs include foregone earnings by learners, i
...
, the opportunity cost of schooling
including loss of labour for the family concerned
...

They are also categorized into direct and indirect social costs
...

Indirect social costs mainly take the form of productivity and tax revenue foregone
...
Benefits
Educational investments yield benefits to individuals and society, i
...
, private and social
benefits
...

Private benefits could be direct (e
...
, higher lifetime earnings or income) or indirect
(e
...
psychological satisfaction, movement up the social economic ladder etc)
...

Similarly, social benefits could be direct( e
...
increased productivity,
high tax revenue, economic growth etc) or indirect
...


e) Comparison of costs and benefits
The comparison of costs and benefits of an educational investment can be
captured by rates of returns computations (social rates of return for society
and private rates of return for individuals)
i
...
Private rates of return have generally been found to be highest at tertiary level of
education and to fall down the educational ladder
...

ii
...
Social rates of return are highest at basic level of education and
fall with rising levels of education
...
For example, in Kenya, we have FPE and FDSE but not
free university education
...
This is because earnings depend upon a person’s age, educational qualification
and experience
...
e
...
The profiles are used to compare the earnings attributable
to less education with those of more education, for example, comparison between net
income of secondary school leavers and University graduates; and comparison between
primary school leavers and secondary school leavers
...
Age earnings profiles are therefore used to calculate average lifetime
earnings associated with different levels of education
...
Earnings are highly correlated with education; at every age, the highly educated as a
group, earn more than their counterparts with less education and therefore, there is no
crossing of profiles
...
Earnings rise with age to a single peak after which there is a slow decline
iii
...
the higher the level of education attained by a worker, the later the age at which earning
reach their peak
Limitations of age-earnings profiles:
i
...
It should be obvious that productivity is more likely to be lower than wages because
wages will not be equal to the value of workers marginal producer
...
Differences in earning are not entirely determined by differences in education
...
g
...

iii
...


LECTURE THREE: EDUCATION AND DEVELOPMENT


Studies have shown that education plays a critical role in the socio-economic
development of any nation
...
This emergence of a globalized
knowledge society puts a high premium on education
...


LECTURE THREE
EDUCATION AND DEVELOPMENT
The concept that investment in human capital promotes economic growth can be traced back to
the time of Adam smith and the early classical economists who stressed the importance of
investment in human skills
...
Schultz {1961} and Denison {1962} showed that education
contributes directly to the growth of national income by improving the skills and productive
capacity of the labour force
...
S economic growth between 1910 and 1960 in terms of increases
in labour and physical capital immediately established, however, that, there was a large ‘residual’
that could not be explained this way
...

In this respect, Denison calculated that between 1930 and 1960, for example, 23% of the rate of
growth of out put in the United States was due to the increased education of the labour force
...
e
...
S was due to investment in education
...
Growth Accounting Studies which estimate the contribution of economic growth in a given
time period of investment in education of the labour force
...
Productivity Studies which estimate contribution of additional education to the physical
productivity of workers and farmers
...
Cost-benefit studies which evaluate the economic contribution of formal education in
terms of their private costs of other expenses incurred by students while in such public
costs as the additional income earned by those who take the education
...
Studies which estimate women’s education’s effect on long-term and quality of life
...
Studies that estimate the role of education in poverty alleviation
...
Educational investment has been one of the most important factors contributing to
economic growth
...
Expenditures on education contribute positively to labour productivity
...
The economic pay off to spending on education from an individual (private) and public
(social) stand point is high in absolute terms and compared with other investments
...
Increased education of parents especially mothers has an important impact on child
health and reduced fertility at all levels of economic development
...

1
...
As countries industrialize and invest more in education
rates of return tend to fall overall especially at lower education level
...


2
...

3
...
When productivity increases
economic growth is realized
...
At the individual level, the worker is rewarded by the
employer with a higher wage for the increase in productivity
...

SIX WAYS IN WHICH EDUCATION INCREASES WORKERS’ PRODUCTIVITY:

1
...

2
...

3
...

4
...

5
...

6
...

INDIRECT CONTRIBUTIONS OF EDUCATION TO DEVELOPMENT
Education also has important effects on social aspects of the life of the people but which cannot
be measured using economic tools of analysis
...
These
benefits are variously referred to as: externalities/ spill-over benefits/neighbourhood effects
...
Reduced need for other services, e
...
, increased investment in education will tend to
reduce the necessity of placing more public revenue into health, welfare and penal system
...

2
...
Education also fosters harmonious living
...
Reduction in fertility: Education itself acts as a natural contraceptive by delaying child
bearing and marriage
...


4
...
A Study by Craves (1978) showed that mothers with
no schooling had more malnourished children while one additional year of mothers
schooling was found to result in significant reduction of infant mortality
...
Improved social cohesion or national integration
...
Creation of a more enlightened society/population/electorate that can make wiser choices
...
Demand for education is that level of quality or
quantity of education or schooling that one is financially capable of attaining over a
definite period of time
...

Law of Demand:
A fundamental characteristic of demand is the inverse relationship between price and quantity;
that is, as price increases, the quantity demanded decreases, and as price decreases, the quantity
demanded increases
...
: The Demand Schedule
Though price is a major determinant of the demand of a given commodity, other factors such as
tastes, income and prices of substitute goods and complementary goods also influence demand
...


Figure
...

A change in quantity demanded refers to a movement along a given curve and results from a
change in the price of the good under discussion with all other factors held constant
...

FACTORS INFLUENCING DEMAND FOR EDUCATION
1
...
Cost [price] of education: This includes both the direct and indirect costs
...
g
...

2
...
As
long as the level of family disposable income is low, demand for education will be
invariably low and vice-versa
...
Benefits accruing from educational investments: e
...
, increased life time earnings
...
Social reasons: Sometimes demand for a particular educational programme is high due
to prevailing fashion e
...
, current demand for post – graduate degrees by Kenyan
teachers
...
Peristaltic process: i
...
, parental desire for their children to climb higher the academic
ladder than they did
...
2: SUPPLY OF EDUCATION
Def: Supply is defined as a schedule of various amounts of good or services that producers are
willing and able to sell at each specific price in a set of possible prices during a specified time
period
...

At a higher price more will be supplied; at a lower price less will be supplied
...
: Supply Schedule
A part from price, other factors that determine supply are:

1- Technology
2- Price of factors of production
3- Price of related goods
Changes in these three factors result to shift in the supply curve
...
Nevertheless, some of the factors that influence
the supply of education are:
1
...

Indirect benefits: Declining fertility, improved health, increased national
cohesion
2
...
Due to scarcity of resources the supply of education is determined by the
budget allocation available to education
...
Due to this challenge of scarcity,
resources have to be used well so as to ensure there is no wastage
...

On the other hand, equity is a normative term concerned with justice and fairness in
distribution of resources
...

When used this way, the term efficiency normally entails achieving maximum output from a
specified set of inputs while utilising a minimum quantity of inputs
...

In education, efficiency can be described as achieving the greatest amount of educational output
from a given level of inputs
...
Technical efficiency: A situation in which as few inputs as possible are used to produce a
given output
...
The inputs in this case are tangible ones, e
...
classrooms,
libraries, laboratories, furniture, equipment etc
...
For example, if a classroom with a capacity of 40 students has got only 20, then
there is technical inefficiency
...


2
...
The economically efficient method of production is
that technically efficient method of production that has the lowest cost
...

3
...
It is usually measured by the flow of students through the system with a
minimum of waste
...

4
...
This is usually measured by the quality of learning which is determined by the
inputs and outputs of the education system
...
External efficiency does not imply Internal efficiency
...

Cost-Function analysis and internal efficiency
Economics of education was defined as the application of Economic tools of analysis to Education
...
Cost-Function analysis is the inter-relationship
between Marginal costs and Total Average costs
...
Average cost is calculated by dividing the Total Cost by the total
number of students
...
It shows how much a new student would cost an education
system/institution if an extra student was to be enrolled
...

Diseconomies of scale: Refers to an increase in per unit cost as a result of an increase in output
...
There are two
reasons:
1
...
As the size of the firm increases, team spirit or morale generally decreases
...
Comparison of MC and AC shows the levels of efficiency in an institution as
whether or not the Marginal Costs equals the Average Costs depends on the degree of utilization
of resources within the institution
...

a) MC less than AC
Both MC and AC will be falling but MC falls faster than AC
...
Therefore, it is possible to
expand enrolment without incurring corresponding substructure increases in
expenditure
By increasing enrolment economies of scale sets in
...

Summary:
As enrolment in a school goes up, the unit cost goes down (economies of scale) which is a
reflection of efficiency
...
This is
referred to as constant return to scale and it is an indicator that efficiency is running out
...
This is referred to as
diseconomies of scale and it shows the resources are being used inefficiently
...
Wastage: Drop out and repetition
...
Teacher salaries: Consume about 90% of education budget
...

Ways of boosting efficiency
1
...
Utilize new technologies, e
...
e-learning,
3
...
e
...
Equity in educational finance and distribution at all levels
5
...

Equity is not the same as equality
...

However, recent literature shows that thinking has moved from equality to equity
...
Where the need is greater, more resources should be allocated
...

Equity in education is therefore the fair and equal treatment of all members of the society who are
entitled to participate in and enjoy the benefits of an education
...

Equity in education can be discussed at two levels
...
With regard to the latter, education enhances equity in society in two ways:
1
...
Education affects equity via changes of the earnings structure or the number of people belonging to
a given income class-stratification of earning by education level
...
Investment in human capital
2
...
Reduction of social safety nets
...
Social-economic status (rich/poor)
2
...
Gender(Male/female)
4
...
Individual abilities (able/disabled; bright/dull)
Three dimensions of educational equity
1
...
)
2
...
Equity of outcomes( learning achieved, impacts on later life)
Measures of Equity in Education:
1
...
Quartiles - Measures of dispersion
3
...
Gini coefficient - Measure of inequality
Signs of inequity with regard to participation in education:
This is manifested by children falling behind through:
i
...
Children completing basic education but not enrolled till the end of compulsory schooling
iii
...
The achievement of children in national comparison
ii
...
The comparative achievement of students belonging to target groups
Signs of inequity with regard to selectivity:
i
...
The system of elite public schools
iii
...
Low value repositories in vocational training
Efficiency-Equity trade off:
Question 1- Can education be equitable and run efficiently?
Does making the provision of education be of a roughly comparable standard throughout the
community both socially and geographically make it more equitable? This egalitarian approach to
opportunity often only reinforces the tendency for the educationally successful to participate more
fully and hence take more from the education system thus reinforcing the inequitable aspects of
resource expenditure
...
g
...

Question 2- What should be done about the inequitable distribution of resources between the
different education sectors, e
...
spending 20 times as much in one year on an undergraduate as on
a primary school pupil?

Discussion Topics
Why is it difficult to attain equity and efficiency at the same time?

LECTURE SIX: FINANCING EDUCATION 
 

As seen in Lecture 1, education is an economic good
...
These resources come at a cost and thus the need to address the issue of financing
education
...
This lecture will look
at different sources of educational financing and the accompanying challenges
...
Public sources
This is support channelled to education from public coffers/government budget
...

Under general taxation, the education sector receives its share of the national budget alongside
other sectors
...
This is a tax
levied on all firms exceeding a certain size and it is quite common in Latin America where it is 1
% of the payroll
...

2
...
This includes:
-Direct financing, e
...
fees paid by students
-Indirect financing, e
...
direct labour: For example, local communities may undertake to build a
school or to provide goods or services in kind
-Endowments/donations from NGOs, FBOs, CBOs and other philanthropists
...
g
...

For example, the FPE programme in Kenya has benefited immensely from external aid
...
g
...
On the one hand, the high private rates of return to educational investments at all levels
justify large investments by individuals and their families through immediate or deferred cost
sharing
...
Consequently, many governments are
involved in the provision of education at all levels, an activity which in many cases takes up a
significant portion of public expenditure
...

V
...
Equality of

distribution of education usually results in equality of distribution of income
...
Normally, not all groups
in society can afford to meet the direct and indirect costs associated with investing in education
and the state/government therefore has a role in promoting equality of opportunity
...
This would result to not only underinvestment in education from the social point of
view but also to the preservation of income inequalities from one generation to the next as
education itself is a major determinant of lifetime income (60%)
...
Capital Market Imperfections
In many countries, the private cost of education, is beyond the means of many poor families
...
Ideally, the financial constraints can be
overcome by borrowing given the high private rates of return to education
...
The failure of the capital
markets thus affects not only the lower income groups but also middle income groups that cannot
finance tertiary education without credit
...
g
...

VII
...
In the UK, working class parents
tend not to encourage their children to aspire to a university education (Barr, 1993)
...
Students from poor households are
understandably reluctant to saddle themselves with debt or to enter fixed obligations because
they do not know their future incomes
...

On the other hand, lenders hesitate to accept risks backed only by the uncertain future incomes of
reluctant debtors (Arrow, 1993)
VIII
...
In the absence of government
provision, expenditures on education are smaller than would be desirable
...

Therefore, the state invests in the education of its citizens due to the following spill-over
benefits:
b) Reduction in fertility for women:
-The more educated a woman is, the lower is her fertility
...
Thus, education plays a
major role in controlling population growth
...

e) Better social relations:
Education brings together people from different social-cultural backgrounds thus creating social
cohesion
...
Misallocation among education sub-sectors:
Public spending on education is often inefficient when it is misallocated across levels and within
levels
...
Therefore,
basic education should ideally get priority when it comes to public spending in education
especially in countries that are yet to achieve universal enrolment in basic education
...
This subsidization increases the demand for higher
education even though education at that level is generally less efficient for society as a whole in
countries that have yet to achieve UPE and basic secondary education
...
Although private rates of return to higher education are 2
...

6
...
For example, in Kenya and many other
developing countries, about 80% of the public education budget is consumed by salaries for
teachers and education personnel leaving very little for acquisition of vital teaching-learning
resources
...
They would thereby use fewer teachers and would be able to
allocate resources from teachers to other inputs that improve achievement e
...
text books, inservice teacher training etc
...

7
...
g
...

Similarly, although public spending on primary education generally benefits the poor, total
public spending on education in low and middle income countries often favours the rich mainly
due to the fact that relatively fewer poor children attend secondary and higher education
institutions
...
It is also inequitable that those students who gain access to higher education receive
a larger absolute subsidy than those at lower levels bearing in mind that higher education
students come disproportionately from richer families which are better able to pay for higher
studies
...
Inadequate funds for education:
Although many developing countries devote almost a 1/3 of their national budgets to education,
the funds are in a majority of the cases inadequate due to the numerous educational needs at all
levels of education
...

Diversifying Sources of Financing Education
During the 1960 and 1970s, most of the expansion of education in many countries was financed
by increased public expenditure on education which rose in relation to national income and
public expenditure as a whole
...
One, many countries suffered serious budget deficits as
a result of the ‘oil shock’ which led to a sharp increase in the prices of oil seriously affecting the
terms of trade and increasing the international indebtedness of oil importing nations
...

Thus, education has over the years faced growing financial constraints
...
e
...

Some of the steps that can be taken to diversify sources of finance for education are:
V
...
This has mainly been through charging of
tuition fees for students especially at post-primary school levels
...
In Kenya, the cost-sharing system in
education was formally introduced in 1988 through Sessional Paper No
...
Public universities started charging
tuition fees in 1991/1992 financial year
...

VI
...
This levy
once collected is used to finance specific educational programmes
...

VII
...
For example,
in Kenya, many educational institutions have been developed through the ‘Harambee system’
...
Income generating activities:
Educational institutions have been encouraged to undertake initiatives that can generate income
rather than just relying on the government
...
In Kenya, public universities have started the parallel degree
programmes which charge full fees as a way of generating extra income to bridge the deficit in
government funding
...

The National Polytechnics in Kenya generate about 25% of their income from Income
Generating Activities (Njihia 2005)
...

Schools in China have also been running businesses since the 1950s
...
A plan is like a map showing the routes, obstacles, facts etc of an area
...
It is a guide to achieving
previously established objectives in an optimum manner and by use of an orderly sequence of
steps
...


EDUCATIONAL PLANNING
Definitions:
A plan:
Is a document depicting
o Policy,
o Direction or processes to be used in accomplishing a project
...
A plan can also be said to be
a recommended future course of action
...


PLANNING:
It is a process of making a set of decisions for future action
It is the intellectual anticipation of possible future situations, selection of desirable situations
to be achieved (objectives) and the determination of relevant actions that need to be taken
in order to reach those objectives at a reasonable cost

FUNCTIONS OF PLANNING

1
...
Technical Function:
Carried out by planners or technocrats trained in statistics and in social
sciences
Focuses on the formation of plans, identification of targets, and evaluation
of required resources
Deals with quantitative and qualitative aspects of education e
...
provision
of teaching facilities, qualified teachers, building educational facilities,
finances (recurrent and Development)
3
...
e
...
Control Function:

Involves discovery of discrepancies between actual and planned
achievement
Establish errors and problems
Modification of the plan

EDUCATIONAL PLANNING
The application of rational and systematic analysis to the process of educational development
with the aim of making education more effective and efficient in responding to the needs
and goals of its student s and society
...
This also ensures that society achieves optimum use of human material and
financial resources
...

iii Education Core to Development: Education being a prime mover of development
(economic political social and cultural) and basics of national development need to be
provided in a planned/systematic manner/way
...
g
...


iv Equity: To ensure equity in educational provision
...
Educational planning
enables us to establish priorities in an educational system
...


Discussion Topic 1 (Lecture 7)
As an individual, how often do you engage in planning? For how long did you plan before
enrolling for a Bachelor of Education degree? What did the planning entail?

LECTURE 8: METHODOLOGIES OF EDUCATIONAL
PLANNING
This lecture will take you through both the traditional and conventional approaches to educational
planning
...


TRADITIONAL METHODOLOGIES/APPROACHES TO
EDUCATIONAL PLANNING
The Social Demand Approach
Based on the UN Declaration of Education as a basic human right
This approach requires the education authorities to provide schools and find facilities for all
students who demand admission and who are qualified to enter
...
g
...

Advantages of the Social Demand Approach
1
...

2
...

3
...

Limitations of the Approach

1
...
The approach has no control over factors such as the price of education
3
...

4
...

5
...


The Man-Power Requirement Approach
The focus of this approach is to forecast the manpower needs of the economy
...

The approach focuses on 3 main elements, namely:
(i) Specification of the composition of manpower need at some future date e
...
20152020
...
g
...

(iii) Specification which reconciles the former specification with the later
...

Given the length of time taken to produce educated professional people, such forecasts may
have to be made for some years hence, perhaps fifteen years in the case of scientists,
engineers, or medical doctors
...
Man-Power could usefully call attention to extreme gaps and imbalances in the education
out-put pattern that need remedy
...

2
...
That is, the relative 02 proportion of people who
would have primary education, secondary education and various amount of postsecondary training
...
The unemployment and underemployment which may result from some over-emphasis on
man-power approach may become a challenge to move towards the right kind of education
which may be development-oriented, and thereby creating its own job
...
It gives educational planner a limited guidance in the sense that it does not tell what can be
actually achieved in every level of education e
...
primary education, secondary education,
etc
...
The approach says nothing about primary education, which is not considered to be work
connected
...
Hence, attention is focused
on the cream of education that will contribute to manpower development in the society
...
Most manpower needs are mostly needed in the urban employment
...

5
...
and the assumed education qualifications
corresponding to each category of job borrowed ideas from industrialized countries or
economy
...

6
...

7
...
e
...
Limits itself to headcounts and ignores the effects of movements in wages and other prices;
largely makes use of employment data relating to the public sector and/or to large private
firms, whereas in developing countries the majority of workers are liable to be in small
firms and/or in the informal sector; is based on the historical relationship between output
and labour, which is then extrapolated forward decades ahead;
9
...

Assumptions —
i
...
Variations in productivity result from different amount and kind of education people receive
...
Education is
perceived by the approach from two angles, namely:
i) the social rates of return
ii) Private rates of return the Social Rates of Return:
The social rates of return
This stresses the benefit to be derived by the state of investing in a particular form of
education
...
G
...

The Private Rates of Return
This is the investment by private individual and the expected benefits for acquiring a
particular type of education
...
g
...
By looking at the age earnings structure of the educated person, it is possible to measure or
quantify the increase in productivity of an educated person
...
The analysis can show or suggest the directions in which education systems in a society
should expand so as to maximize the earning capacity of their products
...
It shows the relationship between the cost of gaining more education and the increase in
payment which results from additional education
...
In African states, it is a wrong assumption to say that salaries reflect productivity
...
It is difficult to measure the indirect benefits, which derives from investing in any type of
education
...
In developing countries, differentials in earnings of workers cannot be attributed to
additional education acquired but to other things such as habits, customers, family
background, primordial factor etc
...
Primary education gives the highest return to society, according to some studies done on
the calculation of the social rates of return for all levels of education in Nigeria
...
The salaries of civil servants are more influences by economic variables than by
productivity considerations
...
A financial return from education has been inflated in African by past scarcity of people
with particular type and level of education
...
Civil servants salaries owe much to economic context of the country but little to
productivity considerations
...
Tracer Studies/Graduate Survey
Also called graduate or alumni survey since its target group is former students
...

The main objective of this approach is
i)
...
To evaluate the operation of the labour market and to assess the outcomes of education and
training
...
To get valuable information for the development of universities/institutions of higher learning
iv)
...
To contribute to the accreditation/certification process
vi)
...
e
...
”
The transition process from the educational system to the world of work requires the
intervention of the labour market which performs a categorization function in identifying
graduates with specific characteristics for a particular occupation
...
Employment characteristics - sector of employment income at the hiring point, and earnings
several years later, job satisfaction, relevance of education /training, length of time it
took to obtain employment (if employed), the nature of the job landed,
ii)
...
Community characteristics - urban, rural, regional, religion etc

iv)
...

v)
...

In addition a tracer study entails a follow-up of the career path of graduates to evaluate the
operation of the labour market in terms of:
o recruitment practices,
o wage/salary policy,
o working conditions
Tracer Studies seek to answer the following questions:
i)
...
To what extent do graduates consider their education and training as wastage or an opportunity?
iii)
...
How broad or narrow is knowledge fostered in individual degree programmes in comparison
to the demands of the labour market?
The results of the tracer study could be used in;
(a) An in-depth analysis of the demand of schooling
(b) Providing curricular options and career choice
(c) Enhancing employment through an efficient labour market;
(d) Instituting curricular reform

(e) Providing a meaningful role for graduates in social and economic development
...

ADVANTAGES
i)
...

ii)
...

iii)
...
Information gathered can also be used to modify programmes to attract the ever expanding
market of prospective students looking for personal and professional advancement
v)
...
Tracing of graduates help in establishing co-operation/contacts between higher education
institutions and their alumni
...
It is sometimes difficult to locate graduates and have them complete questionnaires
...
Graduate might not always be able to identify the relationship between the knowledge acquired
during study and their professional lives
iii)
...


LABOUR MARKET ANALYSIS (opposes manpower planning)
This approach/methodology presents a major shift from the manpower planning approach
...
For example, although nobody planned for the creation of
electronic clock makers or computer literate typists, these skills sprang up overnight in the
labour market, because there was demand for them
...
That is not true for education encompasses a wider
perspective of producing a human person who would be able to play a meaningful role in
society
...

Labour-market analysis considers not only the short-term supply and demand for labour, but
their allocation among regions, occupations and industries
...
Policy has more
modest, short-term affectation than planning
...
The labor
market analyst has a much shorter horizon
...
It is difficult to make reliable
forecasts of manpower requirements for a long period of time
...
In any case,
innovations and inventions are by their nature unplanned
...

A significant focus of labor market analyses is the concern for poverty and equity rather than
strictly production efficiency
...

While manpower planners stress technical efficiency (benefit vs technology), i
...
the best
technical way of producing a particular product, labor market analysts stress economic
efficiency (benefit vs cost)
...

Labor market analysis takes into account the cost involved in increasing the supply of labor
through the provision of a particular type of education or training
...

The dos and don’ts of Labour Market Analysis approach
Less Emphasis on More Emphasis on

1
...
Manpower Labour Force
3
...
Firm Labour Surveys Household Surveys
5
...
Occupational Profile Educational Profile
7
...
Production Efficiency Only Equity/Poverty
9
...
Out-Put Labour Relationships Cost-Benefit Analysis
11
...
Manpower Needs Labour Supply And Demand
13
...
School-Based Training Firm-Based Training
15
...
Public Education/Training Private Education/Training
17
...

It is a decision oriented tool, in that it is designed to ascertain which means of attaining particular
educational goals are most efficient
...

These include the adoption of
o new materials or curriculum,
o teacher training,
o educational television,
o computer-assisted instruction,
o smaller class sizes, and so on
...

Cost-effectiveness analysis is closely related to cost-benefit analysis in that both represent
economic evaluations of alternative resource use and measure costs in the same way
However, cost-benefit analysis is used to address only those types of
alternatives where the outcomes can be measured in terms of their monetary values
...

The underlying assumption is that different alternatives are associated with different costs and
different educational results
...


Those resources that are saved through using more cost effective approaches can be devoted to
expanding programs or to other important educational and social endeavors
...
What is the decision problem?
2
...
which alternatives are being considered and
4
...

i)
...

ii)
...
where benefits or outcomes can not be measured or even approximated in monetary terms
CEA compares alternatives such as different types of schools e
...
public versus primary
vocational, different combinations of inputs(teachers, books and other learning materials) or
different educational programmes in term of their effectiveness, measured by variables such
as examination results, test scores, retention or completion rates
...
The costs of the alternatives must be carefully measured, e
...
expenditure on teacher salaries,
books and learning materials in each school type
ii)
...
g
...
Cost and effectiveness measures are combined to calculate on cost-effectiveness ratios e
...

by dividing the effectiveness of each alternative by its cost to show the unit cost of
achieving a particular objective, such as 1 percent improvement in pupil achievement
Whereas CEA take to account the quality of education (as measured by achievement scores)
CBA takes to account quantitative measures of schooling e
...
salary or years of schooling
The most cost effectiveness alternative can then be identified for example the school that
produces the greatest improvement for a given cost or alternatively the school where pupils
achieve the required examination results at least cost
ADVANTAGES of CEA
i)
...
cost-effectiveness evaluations generally requires less time and other resources than CBA
DISADVANTAGES:
i)
...
A persons ability is not just a function of schooling
iii)
...

Visible groups: All participants

Discussion Topic 2 (Lecture 8)
To what extent has the cost-benefit analysis approach been applied in educational planning in
Kenya?
Visible groups: All participants

Discussion Topic 3 (Lecture 8)
How can Kenya reduce the problem of educated unemployed?
Visible groups: All participants

 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 

LECTURE 9: MICRO AND MACRO PLANNING, THE PLANNING 
CYCLE
LEVELS OF PLANNING
Macro Planning: centralized planning
– Deals with education sector as a whole or with basic components of the levels e
...
ECD, higher
education, teacher demand, relevance of curriculum
– The interest is usually with general overview of education needs or the structure
– This refers to the large scale nature
– Tend to be a technocratic process and also removed from the people from whom education
services are being planned
– In Kenya, we have more of the centralized planning than local level planning
– Input of local stakeholders is not always taken into consideration
– Even execution/ implementation of the plan does not always involve the ordinary people affected
most
...
g
...


- Execution of education plans at the local levels is done by agents of the central government e
...

PGDE, PEB, DEB, DEO
...

- Reasons for the non-participatory nature of education policy is due to the desire by the
government to control the education system in away that is politically palatable to it
...
g
...
4
...
had failed in Canada) Koech (1999) recommended an
education system popular with the people but not implemented
...
Complexity of planning tasks at the national level do not allow for considerations of variations
in local (physical, cultural, economic, religious, social environments)
2
...
Influential leaders could abuse the system to direct more resources and projects to their home
areas (politicized)
4
...
Lack of sufficient knowledge on the prevailing local conditions and constraints bring problems
when it comes to onsite implementation of the centrally/nationally defined plans and
projects
...

- Generating available resources in terms of
i
...
Cooperative action
iii
...

- Planning is based on actual assessment of educational needs for each habitation – carryout
house to house survey on each child, his/her education status, if a dropout-why
- Survey to include also education facilities available in the nearest vicinity
...

- Involves the policy of decentralization – decisions on new schools and their location, teacher
recruitment and deployment made at district/local level
- Local communities have a more profound knowledge of the characteristics and needs of the
population
...

iii) Ensuring enrolment and regular attendance of all children in the School/Centre
...

Steps of Micro-Planning
i) Formation of the core teams (5-7 persons, a teacher included)
ii) Orientation/training of core teams
i
...
Role of team
iii
...
Data compilation
v
...
Child wise house to house survey
ii
...
Number going to school
ii
...
Reasons for not going to school
vi) Sharing information with the community
vii) Preparation of plan based on norms, supported by necessary information
viii) Finalization of education plan

ix) Preparation of village education register
x) Monitoring of children’s progress at definite intervals through Village Registers
i
...
To monitor intervention by the community
iii
...
It ensures efficiency in utilization of scarce resources
ii
...

iii
...
Ensures the provision of required manpower
v
...
Micro Planning gives room for the input of those not at the center (embraces the principle
of participation, inclusiveness and ownership of the product)

Disadvantages of Micro Planning
i) It is complex in nature as views of every stakeholder is considered
ii) It is very expensive to develop
iii) It may take a long period of time to plan

SCHOOL MAPPING (LOCATION)- It is a continuous process that involves logical and
systematic process of identification of sites, for the establishment of educational facilities
- School mapping – expert survey of the location of a school in terms of accessibility and
physical terrain
- A set of techniques and procedures used to plan the demand for school places at the local level
and to decide on the location of future schools and the means to be allocated at the
institutional level
...

- Developed various circulars, regulations, standards and procedures for guiding decision-making
process on where to locate new schools (school map)
...

- School mapping focuses on rationalizing physical location of school based on the demand
within and between specified catchments area
...

- Should be a dynamic vision of what the educational service with their premises, teachers and
equipment should be in future to enable policy implementation
...

- Can also suggest a change in school calendar to allow children to work in the field/assist
parents
...
e
...
Diagnosing /analyze the coverage of present educational service and condition of school
network
...
Projecting the number of pupils to be enrolled in each village
3
...
These norms/qualifications are:
i
...
Minimum number of pupils required to allow the creation of new schools
...
Maximum number of pupils who should enroll in a class
4
...
e
...

Goals of School Mapping
1
...
Extending teaching beyond compulsory education
3
...
Geographical leveling off
ii
...
Equitable distribution of equal social opportunity for access to schooling
4
...

5
...
Environmental Consideration
1
...
Topography – Nature of the landscape, hilly, sloppy, swampy
...

3
...
g
...

4
...
Legal factors: who can start a school, land ownership, sponsorship
6
...
Technological factors- Materials to be used vis-à-vis (in relation to) level of development
B
...
Availability of fund, public, CDF
2
...


numerical data - e
...
traditional’ education management data on schools, teachers and
students

ii
...


The GIS links these two sets so that statistical data can be presented not only as tables and graphs
but also as maps, which helps the reader to look for spatial patterns
...
which regions are the most disadvantaged and do such factors as language, ethnicity or road
infrastructure offer explanations?
ii
...
which primary schools should first be upgraded to secondary to allow for increased access for
the greatest possible number of primary-school leavers?
Advantages of GIS
i
...


ii
...


iii
...


It helps to make the presentation of data more attractive
...


translating data into maps helps in recognizing ‘unexpected’ situations, which need closer
examination e
...
so many schools in one village but with low enrolment which calls for
merging of schools

vi
...


Assists in prospective planning
...
Researchers in England use
a GIS to examine the potential influence of a school closure on enrolment in the
surrounding schools

Constraints sin the use of GIS

i
...
process is still more intricate (complicated) e
...
collecting and computerizing
data on location of rivers power lines, villages

ii
...
There again, this is hardly insurmountable when the system is
limited to the central or regional levels, but becomes more of a headache when a network
of districts needs to be served

iii
...
E
...


Fourthly, ensuring that a GIS be used by district staff implies that such personnel should
be trained
...
The
meeting in this regard drew a distinction between training in the development of a GIS
(which is complicated and could be limited to a few experts at central level), training in the
use of the system (which is more straightforward and could be offered to district staff with
sufficient computer experience) and training in the use and interpretation of the system’s
products, i
...
the maps (useful to a much wider group of people)
...


fifth constraint, which one expert called the need to develop spatial literacy among
education staff who show a lack of interest or awareness in the geographic dimensions of
planning and management

TIME DIMENSION IN EDUCATIONAL PLANNING

There are 4(time dimensions in planning
i) Long-Term planning (Long Range)
ii) Medium-Term Planning (Medium Range)
iii) Short-Term Planning (Short-Range)
iv) Annual Planning e
...
budget
Summary of the types of Planning

Type of Planning

Planning Time (years) End in View

Long-Term

10-20

Goals

Medium-Tem

5-10

Objectives

Short-Term

1-5

Targets

Annual Planning

0-1

Tasks

Purpose
To establish
direction (SP)
To develop
strategies (MTP)
To allocate
To implement
plans (Budget)

EDUCATIONAL PLANNING PROCESS /STAGES CYCLE
It’s the process of laying out a logical structure called a plan
...
e
...
Degree to which the education plan forms the integral part of the economic plan
2
...
The features of the school systems-both private and public
There are five stages: -

i
...
Prepare the draft education plan/determine the best of the alternative
iii
...
Implementation/Decision making
v
...
BASE SITUATIONAL ANALYSIS/DIAGNOSIS
It is quantitative in nature e
...
needs indices like graduation rates, repeater rates, survival
rates
- Is the system meeting the set goals of education
- Aims at establishing the efficiency of the system based on the laid objectives – have you
achieved your objective? Detect problems e
...
low survival rates
- Aims at establishing the cause of these problems is it curriculum, poor teacher training, lack
of facilities etc
...
g
...
g
...

- What is the quality of the output/outcome? Do they meet the requirements of the available
job opportunities?
- Do the output need retraining

- Do we need to review our curriculum
- Is education evolutionary enough
Note:
ii
...
Before going to the next stage study carefully the existing government policies on
education
...

These proposals should be taken to society to get its reaction i
...
parents, students,
teachers, employers, professionals (all stakeholders)
Before they put down specific details about the proposal they must solicit information
from the population e
...

1
...
Teachers – qualifications needed for teachers
3
...
Changes in structure – promotion of students
5
...
g
...

Need to build consensus i
...
those with divergent ideologies e
...
sociologist, economists
also between theorists (those with credentials e
...
educationists) and pragmatists (those
with practical experiences e
...
teachers
...
Lobbing, Approval & Experimentation
- Involves conditions that would influence the achievement of the objectives e
...
govt,
politicians, civil society, consider the rate of inflation which may affect the cost of living,
cost per student place
- The plan should not be dictated to people
- Planners to educate people to understand the document

- Lobby the ministers, Permanent Secretaries – these will be used to educate the cabinet, MPs
and president
Planners are technically qualified: why should they go for MPs (some not competent)
...


Experimentation, Pilot Planning, Pre-testing,
Pilot Study
- This is a stage where planning is tried and tested to identify the areas of weakness
- Choose a few selected schools and sample to implement the plan
...

- Done to avoid continuous repetition of an error
- After piloting: correct and improve the errors based on the results
...
Implementation/Decision making
- Every stakeholder should be involved i
...
teachers, head teachers, parents, government (All
those who were consulted earlier)
- It’s the most difficult stage in the planning process
- It involves dealing or struggling with the reality
- This involves implementation of new methodologies, structures e
...
c
...

- All those involved in the implementation should be firmly in touch with daily practice, should
have clarity of vision, insight and imagination
- The task is to get rid of this barrier and accommodate the change which is of much benefits

- Teachers will implement the changes through in-service training
- As we implement, evaluation is going on
1
...
e
...
Summative i
...
at the end
5
...

- For any planning to be realistic there must be feedback from current experiences
- There must be a self-evaluating mechanism
- What are the problems with the plan
- What have we achieved
- What have we not achieved
- Why have we not achieved it
- How do we improve
After evaluation (answers to these questions), we start to plan on how to improve the situation
...


Discussion Topic 1 (Lecture 9)
What aspects of the Kenyan education system can be micro-planned at the County level to reflect
the devolution spirit of the new constitution?
What aspects of the Kenyan education system require macro‐planning? 
 

LECTURE 10: HISTORICAL REVIEW OF
EXPERIENCES IN EDUCATIONAL PLANNING
Lecture focuses on the historical experiences that have shaped the Kenyan education system since
independence
...

Education stratified on racial lines
TOR: to survey the existing educational resources of Kenya and to advise the government
of Kenya in the formulation and implementation of national policies for education
Recommendations:
i
...
Uniform fees in all secondary schools
ii
...
Minimum of four streams in boarding secondary and three streams in day
iv
...
Positive attitude to agriculture among secondary school staff e
...
Young Farmers Clubs
...
Vacation courses to help teachers to upgrade themselves

GACHATHI REPORT (1976): THE NATIONAL COMMITTEE ON EDUCATIONAL
OBJECTIVES AND POLICIES

Objectives
1
...

2
...
To formulate a feasible programme of action to achieve these objectives with reference to
Major Recommendations:
1
...
Education and training will need to be modified and diversified so as to cater for the majority
of students who terminate their education at any level
...
Education should be geared towards promotion of national unity
4
...
It should create an international consciousness

MACKAY REPORT (1981) SECOND UNIVERSITY IN
KENYA
Objective
- To prepare detailed plans and recommendation on how the decision of the Government to
establish a second university should be carried out
...
O
...

1
...

2
...
Examine the relationship between proposed university with University of Nairobi including
Kenyatta University and other past second institutions

Recommendations
- Establishment of a university which is technically oriented
- Second university should have a bias in technology
- Establishment of a college of continuing education as a part of second university
- Lengthening of university education by one-year (from 3 – 4 years) 7-4-2-3 thus necessitating
consequential restructuring of the education system including removal of ‘A’ level segment
...
Necessary literacy
2
...
One exam a restructure CPE
KAMUNGE REPORT (1988) Presidential Working Party on Education and Manpower
Training for the next decade and Beyond
...
To review the national education and training from the next decade and beyond
2
...
To recommend ways and means of sustaining the momentum of education growth
without sacrificing quality or relevance
4
...

Recommendations:
1
...
Teachers of the upper primary classes be assigned to teach only those subjects they
studied and passed in the KCSE or its equivalent
3
...

Major Recommendations
1
...
The level of fees charged by schools be determined at the district level
3
...
Pupil-teacher ratio in primary schools should be 40:1 including the Head teacher and
the HOD
...
Student-teacher ratio in secondary to be 35:1

 

 
LECTURE 11: CURRENT POLICIES, TRENDS, PROBLEMS AND 
ISSUES IN EDUCATIONAL PLANNING 
 

Lecture addresses contemporary issues and challenges key to educational planning 

CONTEMPORARY ISSUES IN EDUCATIONAL PLANNING- Formerly
referred as Emerging Issues
Equity – It’s the degree/value of fairness or justice extended to all
Equity is the concept or idea of fairness or justice in economics, particularly in terms of taxation
and welfare economics
...

1) Fairness in distribution or access to educational opportunities, resources and outcomes to the
mutually exclusive groups/categories of the society e
...
age, sex, social class, income
levels, occupation, special needs etc
...

4) It justifies the short –term use of affirmative action programmes as a viable strategy for
correcting gross disparities and injustices; Affirmative action- short term strategy for
correcting gross disparities
5) Each school-going child is exposed to the same king of education regardless of geographical
or socio-economic background
6) It is the efforts to equitably distribute opportunities in education
...

In Kenya, there is a large provincial difference in terms of equity in enrolment e
...
Central
Province 100%, North Eastern and Coast-30%
Distribution of Qualified Teachers:
Qualified teachers is an important index of quality of education
There is a high positive correlation between qualified teachers and performance
Schools with professionally qualified teachers perform or have a high chance of performing
better in national examinations than those without qualified teachers
What criteria can we use to ensure equitable distribution of qualified teachers to bridge the
gap between schools
Distribution of other resources:
Involves both monetary and physical
Significance difference is observed in our national documents e
...
statistical abstracts,
Development Plans e
...
c
There are high disparities in provision of classrooms, laboratories, libraries, chairs, desks
etc
Types of Equity
i
...


Horizontal equity is the idea that people with a similar ability to pay taxes should pay the
same or similar amounts
...

ii
...
If
they pay more strictly in proportion to their income, this is known as a proportional tax; if
they pay disproportionately more then this is a progressive tax, more associated with
redistribution
...
Intergenerational equity – lies between the first two
...

At the same time, the present generation is a custodian of the planet for future generations,
obliged to conserve this legacy so that future generations may also enjoy these same rights
...

It implies that learning has a purpose, that of responsibility to actual needs, interests and
problems of the participant and their communities
It encompasses the content of education and the process of acquiring it

Its vital for empowering the individual for intelligent, appropriate and dynamic responses to
the challenges in life
It has serious implications for the process of curriculum needs to be sensitive to local
conditions, while at the same time responding to shared universal issues of human concern
In education, relevance enhances quality
Quality: enrichment in the process and outcomes of learning achievement
Its not mere passing of examinations but development of independent, analytical, creative,
innovative potential of the individual including critical imagination, spiritual and ethical
values
Efficiency: Relationship between inputs and outputs

 It refers to the production of maximum output from minimum input


Educational planners are concerned with how fruitful an education system is
...
eg
...
All these are inputs to educational system
Outputs: results-productivity of the education system e
...
how many students are
graduating from secondary schools, university etc
What is the value of the output
Outcomes: It’s the external effect of the output
...
Productivity of the graduates
Equity efficiency tradeoff/conflict
Its is rare to get situations where resources could be allocated so as to increase both
efficiency and equity

Tradeoff occurs where the geographical area that needs more resources on the ground of
equity are not necessarily those in which social returns are high e
...
should we invest in
Nairobi or in North Eastern
Poor rural areas have fewer and lower quality schools than urban areas, but estimates of
social rates of returns suggest that returns are high in urban
If we just want equity, we invest in rural
...
If we
want both, then it will depend on the relative priority we attach to either
...
'Education expectancy' shows the average amount of time spent in education by the
population
...

Trends in expected quantity of education tell us, alongside trends in enrolment and completion
rates, about wider changes in the environment in terms of the demand for higher levels of
education
...

Causes:
Limited capital to use in production-Low level industrial growth
Fast growing population than the rate of economic growth
...

Curriculum should instill skills, knowledge and attitudes which would make
educational outputs able to engage in a productive economic activity
...

Vocational Education: An education whose main purpose is to shape the learner towards
available employment
POLICIES: A course of action/plan through which a govt
...
Policies control how resources are allocated;
2
...
Policies create reporting systems that establish institutional accountability for actions
1
...

- These are the direct financial levies met by the beneficiary of education
- It takes the form of fees paid by learners for teaching services and the facilities they use
within the institution
- Opposite of user charges is the general taxes which are compulsory payment for public
services
- They are as a result of Rapid increase in government expenditure
- Either charges on tuition (fees) or other charges e
...
boarding fee charges
...

Advantages

i) It relieves the financial burden on part of the Government
...

2
...
g
...
g
...

- Pay after graduating with an interest
- In some countries student receive loans for both tuition and living expenses but in other
countries tuition is free
- Interest on loan is usually below market rates

Advantages
i
...

ii
...
Loan is repaid in future when the graduate is enjoying the financial benefits of higher
lifetime earning

iv
...
Advocated for developing countries because it ensures efficiency and equity
vi
...

vii
...

viii
...


Disadvantages of Loan System
i
...
Loan discourage low income students
iii
...
Likely to have defaulters – Kenya pay once you get a job – likely to wipe out any potential
savings of public funds
v
...
Loan repayment period makes it difficult to provide a significant source of funds for higher
education – thus a study in Latin *** showed that it can take 10-20 years before a
revolving fund could become self sustaining
...
Structural Adjustment Programmes
It is a term used by the IMF to refer to the changes it recommends for developing countries

They are pockets of policies administered by IMF and World Bank with the purpose of
improving macro-economic planning of poor economically performing countries
...
g
...
g
...

These conditions are technically known as “Conditionalities”
Some of the conditions are:
i) Cutting social expenditures
ii) Focusing economic output on direct export
iii) Devaluing currencies against the dollar
iv) Lifting import and export restrictions
v) Balancing budget and not overspending

vi) Removing price control and state subsidies
vii) Privatization or divestiture of all or part of the state-owned corporations /enterprises
viii) Enhancing the rights of foreign investors vis-à-vis (in relation to) national laws
Effects of SAPs
i) Commercializing the sovereignty (independence, power, dominion) of national
economies
ii) Lowered wages-cause reduced local purchasing power
iii) Privatization of public enterprises reduces state capacity
iv) Food trade policies- growth of urban poverty and slums
4
...

- The need to adjust education and training to market economy is necessitated by high rate of
unemployment, irrelevance of education and curricular that results to low quality
graduates
...

PROBLEMS AFFECTING EDUCATIONAL PLANNING IN THE THIRD WORLD
COUNTRIES
These problems involve various areas including social, economics, and political and psychological
aspects
...


Educational planners in attempting to plan, require not only technical know-how relevant to
planning but also knowledge of what their responsibilities are: - they are neither politicians
(formulate education objectives) nor are they administrators (responsible for lacking action to
achieve these objectives)
...
Existing Policies
- Some policies may be against the new plan
- Some policies may require being changed – political implications e
...
location of a school
based on political patronage rather than technical grounds e
...
concentration of school-age
population, size of existing schools etc
...

2
...
g
...

- Free Primary Education, no payment of fees so government funds everything
...

- How much funds should primary level get against other education levels
...

3
...
g
...

- Need to use Sprague multiplier (just an estimate)

- Inaccurate data comes from those who do not know how old they are
- Others state a different age (cheat) e
...
women may reduce their age or some possible reasons
...
g
...
Shortage of Physical Facilities/Resources
- No or limited funds – no laboratories, home science rooms, other teaching/learning materials,
libraries, storage facilities etc
...
Insufficient Qualified Teaching Personnel
- In terms of inspectorate, supervisory etc
...
Time Element
- Delay in accomplishing some key tasks or activities e
...
education planner may decide that
more teachers need to be trained, then several years may elapse before this happens
...


7) Wastage- It’s the human and material resources spent or wasted on pupils who
have to repeat a grade or who drop out of school before completing a cycle
...
Introduce automatic or semi-automatic promotion between grades
- No educational advantage to be derived from making low achievers repeats grades
...
Change examination procedures or reduce the number of examinations taken
...
Improve (review) curriculum to improve quality and make it more relevant to pupils interests
and surroundings
iv
...
Improve teacher training so that empirical learning will replace memorization and note
learning
vi
...

Unemployment (standard definition) includes all persons who during a specified reference
period (e
...
one week) were:
(i) without work, i
...
were not in paid employment or self-employment;

(ii) currently available for work, i
...
were available for paid employment or selfemployment during the reference period; and
(iii) Seeking work, i
...
had taken specific steps (registration at a public or private
employment exchange; application to employers; checking at worksites, farms,
factory gates, market or other assembly places; placing or answering newspaper
advertisements; seeking assistance of friends or relatives;
Types / Kinds of unemployment/Classification by cause
i) Frictional Unemployment: Is the irreducible minimum amount of unemployment
caused by the labour turnover when new people enter the labour force and look for jobs
and existing workers change jobs
Unemployment associated with normal turnover of labour
...
g people
leaving jobs to look for others, young people looking for jobs
People leave jobs for many reasons and they take time to find new jobs
Occurs when even with plenty of jobs available, it takes sometime for people
to search and find new employment
ii) Cyclical Unemployment / Demand Deficient unemployment: Cyclical
Unemployment is associated with an economic recession or a sharp economic
slowdown
...

It occurs due to a fall in the level of national output in the economy causing firms to
lay-off workers to reduce costs and protect profits
...

Can occur due to structural changes in the economy e
...
as economic growth occur,
the patterns of demand and supplies changes constantly
iii) Structural Unemployment:

Occurs when changes in the regional, occupational and industrial structure of
the demand for labour do not match the changes in the structure of the
supply of labour
Structural unemployment exists when there are unfilled job vacancies due to
a mismatch between the skills of the registered unemployed and those
required by employers
...

Some regions, occupations and industries may suffer a decline in the demand
for what they produce while others may enjoy an increase in demand e
...

mechanization of tea picking, introduction of computers to replace some
jobs
Natural forces and social policies that discourage movement among regions
or occupations may cause structural unemployment
iv) Real-Wage unemployment/ classical unemployment:
Real wage unemployment occurs when wages are forced above the normal
market level
...
This leads to excess supply of labour that results to reduced
demand
v) Hidden Unemployment: Those who are qualified to take up jobs but due to long periods
of unemployment have given up and are no longer looking for jobs
...
g
...
g
...
The civilian labor force
includes all those willing and able to work for pay - both unemployed and employed
...
Improving economic growth to enhance creation of more job opportunities
...
Making education curriculum equipment the learners with the skills and knowledge needed in
the employment sector
...
Encouraging the establishment of labour intensive technology
iv
...

Other problems of educational Planning:
(i) Calculating cost of education
...
selective approach
...
private sector
(iv) Educational planning and exceptional children, gifted, backward and handicapped
...

(vi) Analysis of educational expenditure for planning
...
Political authority and atmosphere should allow for the establishment of planning offices
...

2
...
e
...

3
...

4
...

5
...
There should be mutual co-ordination of all those concerned with the development of
education as a wh

Discussion Topic 1 (Lecture 11)
What are the key highlights of Sessional Paper No
...

They highlight the major aspects and elements of this functioning
...
Gross in-take rate:
This is the number of children admitted to the first year of school, regardless of age as a
percentage of children who are entitled to admission
Gross in-take rate = No
...
This happen when class 1 pupils consist not only
of pupils of legal admission, but also underage and overage
Late entrants to Grade 1 are typically found in systems where education has expanded
rapidly in recent years
...

However, these rates indicate that the system has the capacity to admit to Grade 1 those
children who have reached the legal admission age
...
Of these 124,736 are
known to be repeating the grade
...
(125%)
ii)
...
of New pupils in class 1 of specific age x 100 Population of same specific age

One of the prime advantages of the age-specific in-take rate is that, if it is calculated for
different age groups over several years in succession, it can give a fairly precise and
detailed picture of the conditions of admission of any given cohort – that is of any group
of children born in the same year
...
Gross Enrolment rate:
It gives the number of children in a given cycle as a proportion of the population of the
corresponding school age
...

It therefore provide some useful insights when age-related data is not available
...
of all pupils enrolled in the cycle regardless of age
=__________________________________________________________ ×100
Population of related school age

Activity 2
Use the data provided to calculate separate gross enrolment rates for: (a) boys; (b) girls; (c)Nairobi
and (d) Northern Eastern
...
Net Enrolment rate:
It gives the number of children of school going age in a given cycle as a proportion of the
population of the corresponding school age
...

The net enrolment rate for a given cycle of education is:
No
...
Of these
3,529,350 were in the 6-13 age groups
...
Assuming that the legal age of admission to the first level of
education was 6, use the information provided to calculate:
(a) the net enrolment rate, and

(b) the gross enrolment rate
...
They may have been promoted to the next higher grade; (Promotion Rate)
2
...
They may have dropped out (i
...
no longer attend school, or have moved to another school
system or have died)
...


1998

Grade 1
Enrolment 1,250,000

Grade 2
960,000

1999

Repeaters
280,000
Enrolment 1,310,000

150,000
910,000

Repeaters

100,500

295,000

Using the data given above calculate the promotion rate, repeater rate and dropout rate
...

Yea
r
199
Enrol 9
200
Enrol 0
Repeate
rs

Grade Grade
Grade Grade Grade
2
3
Grade 4 Grade 5 6
7
8
913,91 906,84 1,044,94 1,007,37 882,83 920,37 892,07
945,650
2
7
3
7
2
6
3

Grade 1

1,085,52
3

856,66 870,41
4
5
119,05 108,82
163,018
7
2

889,045

988,999

897,30
9

775,06
9

738,70
8

135,455

137,370

73,275

63,506

40,143

Use the data provided to calculate promotion, repetition and dropout rate for primary education
in Kenya
COHORT ANALYSIS
It is an analytical device used to calculate indicators of internal efficiency
A cohort is a group of pupils who enter the first grade of a given cycle in the same school
year and subsequently experience promotion, repetition and dropout or successful
completion of the final grade
...


Activity 1: Using the table below, calculate the yearly rates of promotion, repetition and dropout
...
Construct the flow of 1000 students who entered secondary school in 2006
...
How many students graduated in 2010
Solution:
i)
...
e
...
1
25
...
4

65
...
1
8
...
5
35
...
5

72
...
2
9
...
Construction of a cohort flow for 1000
students

Form
Form
2
3
Form 4 Graduation
104
56
1000
255
6
641
167
18
418
147
266
48
192

iii)

---