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COMMUNICATIONSKILLS

TeachingNotes/Handbook

SUMMARY CONTENTS
INTRODUCTION TO COMMUNICATION

LISTENING SKILLS

STUDY SKILLS

READING SKILLS

NOTE TAKING

PREPARING FOR EXAMINATIONS

INTRODUCTION TO COMMUNICATION
In this section, we shall examine the field of communication to serve as a foundation to what follows in the
course
...
We shall also briefly examine the various types of communication
...

Therefore, communication is a process by which meaning is exchanged between individuals or an individual
and a group through a common system of symbols, signs and behavior
...

A plethora of authors have defined communication including Gamble and Gamble, who define
communication as a desirable or accidental transfer of meaning
...

Communication is more than transfer of ideas and thoughts; it is a dynamic process of action and
interaction towards desired goals
...
2
...

Communication is therefore not static
...

b) Communication involves meaning: meaning is shared understanding of message
...

c) Communication is a system of symbols, signs and behavior: the system may be in form of language,
gesture, demeanor, facial expressions e
...
c
...
You cannot avoid communication and you will engage in
communication nearly every minute of every day in your life
...
Effective communication therefore both enhances your daily life and at the same time
solves problems in your professional and personal life
...

Therefore there are various reasons why studying communication is important:
a) Studying communication helps in understanding and insight of oneself and others
...
Most of our self knowledge comes from
communication with ourselves (intrapersonal communication) and communication with other
people (interpersonal communication)
...

b) Studying communication and using it effectively can lead to more positive feelings of ourselves
...

c) Studying communication can increase our knowledge about human relationships because studying
communication includes learning about how people relate with one another and about what
communication is appropriate for a given situation
...
For instance it can help us acquire

4

problem solving skills
...
t
...
All these skills are important in academic and
career development
...
Employers regard highly written, oral
and other communication competencies
...
Entrepreneurs too regard communication skills as top priority skills for
success
...

Elements of Communication
Elements of communication are the components that constitute the communication process
...
People are involved in communication in two roles
...
Sources initiate/compose the intended message
...
e
...
The participants’ knowledge,
interest and emotional state will affect how the message is sent or received
...

b) Message
This is the verbal or non-verbal form of idea, thought or feeling that one person (source) wishes to
communicate to a group of people (receivers)
...
A
message may be easy to understand or long and complex, it may also be intentional or unintentional
...
It is also called the medium of
transmission
...

d) Feedback
This is the receiver’s verbal, non verbal or written response to the message from the source
...

e) Code
This is the systematic arrangement of symbols used by the source or receiver to create meaning in the
mind of another person(s) or receiver(s)
...
g
...

ii) Grammatical structure, for instance, a statement, question etc
...

iv) Non-verbal codes you may choose
...

g) Noise
Noise is any interference in encoding or decoding process that reduces the clarity of a message
...
Such noise is usually easier to
prevent in a speaking or listening situation
...

ii) Psychological/noise, mental and emotional interferences that distract communication, such as day
dreaming, pain, hunger and the like
...
They include language differences, inattention and
misunderstanding caused by different interpretations of a word or an expression
...


Principles of communication

5

There are important properties of communication that we need to keep in mind as we study and employ
communication
...
It also occurs at the interpersonal level as you
interact with one another
...
Even if you can,
what has been communicated cannot entirely be erased
...

c) Communication is dynamic: all elements in communication (i
...
setting, participants, their knowledge,
their roles etc) affect each other as communication progresses
...
The relationship dimension of
communication constitutes the elements in the communication that seek to signal and acknowledge the
state of the social relation between the communicating parties
...
For instance if you lecturer entered into the lecturer room with an
unzipped trousers and you wanted to alert him to this fact, you will not just blurt out to him the content of
what you want to say to him! You will need to do a lot of damage control about the awkward situation,
while at the same time recognizing his superior position in relation to you as a student
...

e) Communication is contextual: communication does not occur in a vacuum
...
The context of communication is the environment in which communication
takes place
...

ii) Situational context: this involves the place and time of communication, which affects what and how
we communicate
...
t
...

f) Communication is complicated: Communication is complicated in several respects
...
e
...
We also have to make
choices of channel, and all these aspects must be combined strategically in order to pass across a
unified message
...

Types of Communication
Communication can be categorized in two ways
...

b) By the channel or medium used in the communication process
...
This is a continuous process we always engage in but rarely realize we are
involved in it
...
Interpersonal
communication can be of two types:
Dyadic communication: involves two people in communication such as a doctor and a
patient, a lecturer and a student
...

iii) Public communication: it involves one person communicating to a large group of people
...
The transmission system
might be in the form of electronic, audio, audio-visual signal or visual technologies such as
publication in form of books or newspapers
...

ii) Graphic communication: this communication is also known as visual communication
...
g
...

iii) Written communication: this is the use of visual symbols, representing language, on a surface
which is read by receivers
...
This form of
communication is also known as paralinguistic communication and would include forms such as
gestures, posture, distance, facial expression, rate of speech, pause, voice quality, and so on
...
Paralanguage
This includes non-verbal communication such as tone, pitch, quality, rate of speech, laughing, crying,
belching or even hesitating or sighing
...

2
...

Physical attributes such as appearance, facial expressions, eye contact and posture all contribute to kinesics or
body language
...
Wearing the appropriate clothing to
specific events demonstrates taste and style
...
Eye contact may convey
confidence, honesty and interest in the conversation
...

Posture sends a message
...


3
...
For example:
A large desk in a corner office with windows communicates high status within an organization
Fast food restaurants are deigned to move customers through quickly by using plastic seats that is
comfortable for about 10 minutes

4
...
The use of touch can be culturally bound
...
That is, a manager may give an employee an encouraging pat on the back,
but not vice versa

7

People in business must avoid touch that could be considered condescending or sexual harassment

5
...
How you use
space to communicate depends on:
Cultural norms
Your relationship with the receivers of your communication
The activities involved
Space generally falls into 4 categories:

a) Intimate distance: this distance is reserved for personal expression with those we know well
b) Personal distance: this distance is used for casual and friendly conversations
c) Social distance: this distance is used in the workplace for business-related conversations, small
meetings and social functions
...
In a personal conversation, this distance
would constitute a huge communication barrier
Pointers for using non-verbal communication
Avoid conflicting signals: messages are made stronger when both the verbal and non-verbal
communications convey the same thing
...

Interpretation of the non-verbal cues and messages we receive is an essential responsibility of any
communicator
...


c) Other types of communication categorized by direction of flow
Communications creates links between people for different functions or purposes
...
The
following are communication situations that represent a different flow of communication depending on the
purpose:

i)

Upward communication

This is communicating with people who rank above you, such as your boss or instructor
...

Downward communication
This is communicating with people who rank below you, such as the people you might manage at work
...
Internal
communication is the transmittal of information between and among persons within a business or
organization
...
For example, managers
communicating deadline on assignments or employees seeking promotions
...
The goal
is to persuade the recipients to respond favorably to company needs
...

Cross-cultural communication
This refers to communicating, either in writing, verbally or non-verbally, with people who are from a
culture different from your own
...


vii) Grapevine communication
This refers to informal communication within a company/organization, where information spread
bypasses the formal communication structure
...

NOTE: The direction your communication flows at any given time will influence how you communicate – the
words you use and the method you choose
...
Differences in opinion
Our worldviews are largely determined by our past experiences
...
Age, nationality, culture, education, occupation,
sex, status, personality etc, all bring to bear the difference in perception
...
Jumping to conclusions
We often see what we expect to see, thus hear what we expect to hear, rather than what is actually intended
...


3
...


4
...

It requires skill on the part of the communicator to be aware of the discrepancy between the levels of knowledge,
thus communicate accordingly
...
Lack of interest
This is lacking alertness to the message being sent
...


6
...
It includes lack of vocabulary
as well as lack of confidence, both of which can be overcome by improving your vocabulary and preparing
carefully respectively
...
Emotions
Both the receiver and communicator could harbor strongly felt emotions that could prevent almost anything
from being communicated
...

However, any audience knows that a speaker without emotion and enthusiasm is likely to be a dull speaker
...


8
...
We may not be
able to change the personalities of others, but at least we should be prepared to consider our own personality to
see if change in behavior may result in more satisfactory relationships, thus better communication
...
Using these
7Cs will ensure that your communication is coherent and easy to follow
...
Clarity
This refers to being specific rather than vague while communicating
...
e
...

Ask the following key questions to test how clear your communication is:
Have you used familiar words, short sentences?
Have you presented only one idea in each sentence?
Have you avoided "business" and technical terms?
Have you used the reader's language?

2
...
For example – if you receive a message from your lecturer asking you to pick your graded
papers on Wednesday, how do you know which Wednesday it should be?
To be complete, a communication should answer the following questions: Who? What? Where? When? Why?
How? or How much?
Ask the following key questions to test how complete your communication is:
Have you given all the facts?
Have you covered the essentials?
Have you answered all his/her questions?
Did you PLAN what you said?
3
...
Such extra
words may clutter the message and distort it all together
...

For conciseness:
Eliminate wordy expressions
Include only relevant material
Avoid unnecessary repetition

10

Look at the following examples:
WORDY
Due to the fact that
In due course
At this time
Few in number
On a weekly basis
In spite of the fact that
Until such time as
Meet together

CONCISE
Because
Soon
Now
few
Weekly
Although
Until
Meet

In-class exercise:
Revise the following statement, which is too wordy and eliminate seven unnecessary words (‘fillers’)
...


4
...

Consistency in fact refers to agreement with a source document or an established fact
...

Consistency in treatment means treating similar items the same way
...
,
Mrs
...
, or Ms
...

Consistency in sequence refers to the arrangement of listings such as alphabetical, chronological or numerical
order
...


5
...
The following guidelines can ensure your communication achieves correctness:
Use the correct level of language
Check accuracy of figures, facts and words
Maintain acceptable writing mechanics
There should be proper grammar, punctuation, spelling and paragraphing
Ask the following questions to test for correctness:
Have you checked all facts for correctness?
Have you spelled the reader's name correctly?
Have you verified all numbers and amounts?
Is the appearance of the letter effective? Is it clean, well-spaced?
Have you checked your spelling, punctuation, grammar, etc
...
Consideration
This refers to the use of the ‘You-attitude’ instead of the ‘I’ or ‘We-attitude’
...
It means the message is sent with the receiver in mind
...

The following actions can ensure that your communication is considerate:
Focus on ‘You-attitude’ instead of ‘I’ or ‘We’
Show audience benefit or interest in the receiver
Emphasize positive pleasant facts
Look at the following examples:
NEGATIVE EMOTION/EXPRESSION
TRANSFORMS INTO
Anxious
A little concerned, expectant
Confused
Curious
Destroyed
Set back
Disgusted
Surprised
Failure
Learning
I hate
I prefer
Insulted
Misunderstood
Lost
Searching
Painful
Uncomfortable
Stressed
Busy
GOOD WORD
Attractive
Confident
Curious
Fast
Fortunate
Interesting
Like
Nice
Quick
Smart

GREAT WORD
Gorgeous
Unstoppable
Fascinated
Ballistic
Blessed
Captivating
Relish
Fantastic
Explosive
Gifted

Ask the following questions to test your communication for consideration:

12

Have you put the client first?
Have you floodlighted his/her interests?
Have you walked in his/her moccasins?
Have you talked his/her language?

7
...

Be sincerely tactful, thoughtful and appreciative
Use expressions that show respect
Choose non-discriminatory expressions
Ask the following questions to test your communication for courtesy:
Will it win good will?
Have you used positive, "pleasant-toned" words?
Have you used "I appreciate," "please", and "thank you" somewhere in your message?
Would you enjoy reading what you have said?
NOTE: Concreteness: (sometimes used in the place of consistency – either one of them is ok
...
The following guidelines lead to concreteness
...
Use specific facts and figures
2
...
Choose vivid image building words
...
How much to put in
...
What to leave out
...
When to quit
...
We
shall also endeavor to show how listening is connected to critical thinking
...
Listening is the act of receiving sound, constructing meaning and
responding to the spoken message
...


Importance of Listening in our lives

a) Listening is an essential task for effective communicators
...

b) Listening helps us build and maintain relationship
...

c) Listening can help us determine whether people we are communicating with are honest or deceitful
...

e) Listening is directly linked to our ability to remember information
...
The ear
translates the vibration from oral stimuli into sensation that is registered by the brain (Listening)
...
The
interpreted message is then stored in short term memory for immediate use (Retaining) or long term
memory for future recall (Recalling)
...
This process is called attention
...

i) Selective attention – This is sustained focus we give to information we deem important
...

ii) Automatic attention – this is instinctive focus we give to stimuli signaling a change in our
surrounding
...
Automatic attention, therefore, competes with selective attention
...
We may use it without ‘thinking’ about it
...
g
...
The working memory
works in conjunction with the long term memory
...
The short term memory is part of the memory that acts as a
temporary storage place for information
...
It is the least efficient of our
memory resources because information stored here is easily forgotten unless some strategy like
rehearsal is used
...

d) Long term memory – This is the permanent storage place for information including past
experiences, language, values, knowledge, images of people, memories of sights, sounds, smells and
even fantasies
...
Long term memory is organized in schema, which are
organizational filling systems for thoughts held in long term memory
...
If we encounter information for first
time, which is not in the long term memory, a new schema will be created and this information
stored
...

Types of Listening
There are various types of listening, which can be used for various purposes either independently or in
combination
...

ii) Paraphrasing what we hear both mentally and verbally
...

iv) Providing feedback positively or negatively
...
It is putting ourselves in the shoes of
another person in order to feel and understand what the person is going through
...

c) Critical listening – This is listening that analyses, evaluates, critiques or challenges a speaker’s
message by evaluating its accuracy, meaningfulness and utility
...

d) Listening for enjoyment – This type of listening helps us to relax like when we enjoy listening to, for
instance, music
...
Reflective listening is particularly an important tool in one- on-one
situations
...


f) Passive listening
This means concentrating at a low level and absorbing just enough of the speaker’s words to stay involved in a
conversation or speech
...
There are various
ways of improving listening skills that can make your life in academics and beyond very fruitful
...

b) Identifying and understanding barriers to the listening process and genuinely working
towards eliminating them
...

c) Identifying patterns in what we are listening to – Understanding the overall message, its main
points and the supporting points is essential in having a graphical impression of messages and is an
important aid in the recall process
...

ii) Using mnemonic devices (using a series of letters forming a meaningful or pronounceable
word where each letter stands for a particular concept, idea or point for easy recall)
...
For instance, African listeners may look away from you
instead of maintaining eye contact, while Japanese listeners often close their eyes when they are
concentrating
...

You can us these five strategies to enhance, reinforce and develop your listening skills:
Read to gain background information
Repeat a person’s name when you are introduced to someone
Ask questions to clarify information
Take good notes
Use a tape recorder, when permitted, to record a lecture or a meeting
Good listening skills enable you:
To absorb an instructor’s lectures, explanations and directions for assignments
Understand what the speaker is saying
Combined with note-taking, listening skills enable you record information and review it at a later
time
Overcoming listening barriers
Becoming an effective listener requires conscious effort and practice
...

Use filters to manage and control noise – control the two basic kinds of noise; 1)external noise,
which includes sounds from conversations, radio, television, CD players, machinery etc and 2)
internal noise, which includes distractions such as pain, fatigue, preoccupation with other thoughts,
hunger, worry or a personality conflict with the speaker
...

Resist talking instead of listening – it is impossible to be both sender and receiver of information at the
same time
...

Focus on the message – make sure that your own ideas do not interfere with listening to the ideas of
another
...

Improving listening skills
1
...
That is, the listener crystallizes his/her own
understanding of the content presented
...
Evaluate your skills: everyone has listening weakness; you must therefore identify your weaknesses
...
Prepare yourself physically and mentally: listening is a combination of physical and mental activities
...
Set listening priorities: because you are bombarded with several messages at once, decide which ones
deserve your focus
...
Make efficient use of available time: do not rush through your conversation as you may lack full
understanding of the message
...
Listen attentively: be attentive and show interest in the speaker’s message
...
Listen for ideas and feelings: look out for factual information as well as the speaker’s tone of voice
...
Establish eye contact: do not stare at the speaker, instead, glance away periodically to reflect on the topic
...
Use body language to show you are listening: body language can convey you level of interest
...

10
...

11
...

12
...

13
...

One method to help you retain the content of a speaker’s message is to think of the strategies represented by the
letters in the sentence “IS A FACT”:
Identify – identify the speaker’s ideas and connections among the ideas
Summarize – summarize the main points of the message
Assess – assess the correctness or validity of the message
Formulate – formulate appropriate questions
Associate – associate the speaker’s ideas with other known concepts
Consider – consider specific ways the information might be used Take
notes – take notes to assist in better recall (to bring to mind)

For you to succeed in higher education study, there are basic study guidelines, which you can think about and
practice in order to achieve your personal academic objectives
...
Explain the words, effective, study, and methods in your own words
...

2
...
In studying, we are expected to develop
various techniques which will enable us create a good environment for ourselves in order to succeed
...


Setting Goals

We believe that you know what you are doing and that you know what you want in life
...
If you do not know what you want to do in life, then you cannot succeed,
because you will not have something, which you can look up to
...
Those who do not have a central goal fall prey of petty worries, fears, troubles and
self-pity
...
Therefore if your studies are part of that overall aim, then the chances of your
studies succeeding will be very high
...


However, we want to caution you here that when you are setting goals for yourself do not set targets that are
unrealistic
...
For example if you
say ‘I must complete this module in one week’
...


The goals that you set should be those that you can measure
...
How can you measure when
you have worked harder than before? So you can improve on the goal may be perhaps by saying that ‘ I want to
create two free hours per day for my assignments’
...
So what you feel about a study task is very important
...
If the material you are working with is hard,
you will need to set different goals from those that you set when the task seems very easy
...
They may not be fulfilled if you do not have positive
thoughts about yourself
...
If you think of yourself as stupid or bad then you will actually be discouraged and end up giving
up
...


The attitudes about yourself should be positive in order for you to realize your full potential through your abilities
...
If you have a tendency of

negative thoughts about any of the study modules that you will be reading, that will make it hard for you to
complete the courses on schedule
...
A positive attitude towards your abilities will strengthen your self-confidence, which is an essential
ingredient of success
...
You can form study groups with these colleagues in order to make your study tasks easier than they would be
if you were alone
...
Do not struggle on your own if you are not sure of
what you are supposed to do, especially if you have trouble understanding how to use any of the materials
provided to you for the modules that you have registered for
...

2
...

Identify your areas of strength, which you can build on as you relate to others
...
So it is important that after you have
made the decision to study at university level, ensure that you stay healthy psychologically and physically
...
But avail time to interact with whatever makes you happy
...
Take time to listen
to the music and you will be tension free and your study will be enjoyable
...
Do not sit up for long hours that may
not be productive
...
All people do not have same concentration span
...
Being tired and hungry all the time means that you are neglecting yourself
...


Bad Habits

All of us have habits that may not be good in all situations
...
Do you know some of your bad habits? It is important for you to
identify your bad habits, which might in fact interfere with your study programme, so as to consciously try to get
rid of them
...
Once one task is postponed, it looks enlarged and seems more
difficult
...
Keep all your appointments with your peers and your tutors
...

You should also make sure that you keep to your schedule and be disciplined
...
In so doing, you ensure that you have all the
materials that you need before settling down to study
...
Do not day- dream

either
...


After identifying your bad habits, which continually interfere with your study process, you should plan to deal with
them one by one
...
Habits do not go away overnight
...
Be as honest as possible because these will form
the beginning of your effective study methods
...
Why did you decide to register as a student of Kabarak University to study the course you
are undertaking now? (Write all the reasons)
...
What do you want to do with the qualification you will obtain at the end of your study?
5
...
What do you expect your whole study to provide you with?
The answers you provide to the questions in activity 2 above will be leading you to set your actual purpose and
achievable goals for undertaking a degree course at University in the area of study that you have chosen
...
The better you
understand why you are studying, the better the chances that you will continue with your studies and succeed
...
This will motivate you to complete your studies with ease
...
However you must think about the
place you plan to study from
...
Despite all the variations that may
exist, an ideal study place must have the following things: A chair, a table or desk and a lamp with good light
...
For this
reason you must know how to utilize valuable assets, like time in order to rip the desired fruits from the trees of
higher education! Time is a unique resource, which cannot be saved but can only be spent wisely
...


To be efficient you must plan your time every day, every week, every month and every year of your study
...


The most crucial point to remember is that you are a distant student; with various other responsibilities perhaps
work, family and social
...
Your study time is even more limited than that

which the regular students have
...

Prepare a timetable that caters for all your activities and responsibilities
...


There are various modes of planning your time
...
So you need to determine how much time you
have, for effective planning
...

We are going to calculate these hours here as you practically prepare your time budget for your actual study
...


After completing this schedule, you will have prepared for yourself an actual initial time plan for your study
...


3
...
tc
...

What hours do you think that you have other commitments? (These may include, church meetings, sports,
your family and friends, leisure like watching television, listening to music or reading)
...

Now place S in the remaining hours as the hours available for your study
...


Now, add up your study hours per day and fill in the last space of each column in table 1
...


Activity
Table 2: Calculation of Study hours per week per module or course

Total number of study hours
per week
Number of courses or
modules
Number of study hours per
module or course per week

5
...


6
...
e
...
On average
you need to have about seven study hours per week
...
If you still do not have sufficient study time after negotiating, then
you need to look at the hours marked with X but with lot of care because this means that you will have to make lots
of sacrifices
...


Important aspects of time management

1
...

3
...

5
...
However, we
cannot control time but only plan to use it effectively
...

You will have to be self-disciplined and work hard
...

When you work hard and succeed (study and pass examinations), you will be motivated to continue and
complete the course, which you have started
...
However when you fail to do what you plan at the time you have planned, then you must plan
to catch up with what you have missed
...


If you do not have a space of your own to study at home, you will have to negotiate with the family members on
how to share the facilities that are available
...
You negotiate with your self to find suitable time when you can study in that available space
outside your home
...


Besides identifying and planning for the study space, you should also identify and plan the best period to study
...
This is the period when a person is
ready to learn and understand more effectively
...
These periods are believed to
produce major learning effect
...

GROUP/PEER WORK
Face-to-face
After you have established the members of your course who live around you or colleagues who are willing to work
with you, you will now need to plan for the meetings with them
...


When you consult with your peers and colleagues, you have a chance to ask questions and even express your
opinions and also an opportunity to discuss pressing issues or those that you are not sure
...
You will
also feel responsible for your own learning and in that case you will definitely be motivated
...
It will not be productive
...
Allocate time to that activity that you wish to carry out to
ensure effectiveness
...
You need to identify colleagues and friends whom
you could share your work with by correspondence
...
This will be very practical and useful especially as you work on your
assignments
...
This can make your entire study enjoyable
...

READING SKILLS

Introduction
In this section, we shall examine reading as an important communication skill that you as a university
student will be constantly engaged in as you research, conduct routine study as well as during revision for
examinations
...


Objectives of the topic
By the end of this topic, you should be able to:
a) Define reading
b) Outline how you develop a purpose for your reading
c) Explain what the various types of reading entail
d) Expound on the effective reading and comprehension techniques
e) Discuss the skill of note taking
What is Reading?
Reading is the process of interpreting, analyzing and understanding written messages
...
Reading
is, therefore, a dynamic process involving the following properties:
a) Decoding or interpreting written symbols
b) It is a physical and mental activity
c) It requires attention and thought
d) It is an interaction of the language of the text and background knowledge of the reader, such that, the
written message focuses the reader on what background knowledge (in long term memory), the reader
should bring to the interpretation of written message being read
...
Generally
speaking, we engage in reading for the following purposes:
a) We read to entertainment or leisure
b) To acquire information and knowledge
c) As a means of preparing for successful life i
...
as means of acquiring useful life skill
...

At the university level reading is particularly more focused and rigorous and would normally entail the
following purposes:
a) To gain an overall understanding of main ideas presented in some reading
...

c) To gain understanding of material so as to recall it as presented in the text
...

The purpose of our reading will, to a large extent, determine the type of reading of style we adopt as the
discussion below will indicate
...
Types of reading include:
e) Scanning – This style or technique is used when you are looking for a name, definition or any other
specific piece of information in a text like a house in classified ads, addresses or phone in a
directory, an important concept, information for a research essay in a library catalogue, table of

content, index page etc
...

While scanning, a good reader should first:
Ensure that the text he/she is scanning is the correct text and that he/she knows precisely what he is
looking for
...
e
...

Scan with speed without reading extraneous or irrelevant material
...
In using this technique you intend to get a general grasp of ideas
presented by the author
...

ii) Previewing books or texts before detailed reading
...

You can skim:
Introductory paragraphs – to give the general theme
Concluding paragraph
Transitional paragraphs
Subheadings
Italicized, underlined and boldfaced items

As an efficient reading strategy, skimming is a very useful skill both for recreational and study reading
...
It helps determine which texts merit more careful and thorough reading and
which specific parts of those texts are worth spending time on
...
It can enable a reader cover a lot of material in a short time, therefore saving time
...


g) Active/detailed reading – This technique is used in serious study
...
In this type of reading you need to interrogate or think over what you read so as
to both evaluate what you have read and facilitate recall of read material
...
As you use this type of reading the following
tips are important
...

iii) Record main headings as you read, this helps you to see the flow of your reading and notes
...

v) After you have read a section of text and have made a summary of what you have read in your
notes, skim through the text and check how accurate your summary is
...

h) Extensive reading is purposeful, organized, wide reading of long texts such as journals, novels,
magazines, and periodicals etc, especially those that relate to one’s area of study, to enrich one’s
vocabulary, which is basic to all good reading
...
It is applied when
one wants to understand the contents of the reading deeply
...
It is also analytical, critical and interpretive
...


j)

Light reading – this is the type of reading that we apply when reading papers and novels for leisure
...
It is fast and
superficial
...
It is also applicable when one is
reading scientific or mathematics process or formula
...
To attain efficiency, one has to:

1
...
Utilize better psycho-motor reading strategies
3
...
1 Common poor reading habits
a) Vocalization (sounding out)
This is reading aloud (the tendency to register the sound of the words as you read), which wastes time and
creates a sub-process as follows:
According to Pearson (1981), the reading process involves a) visual perception, b) response to visual
stimuli, c) transmission to brain, d) decoding (giving meaning), e) vocalizing, f) response to mental stimuli
(understanding or not)
...
Henry Pearson (1981)
observed that reading aloud takes at least twice as long as reading silently and yet it is not any more
effective
...
That is, the tendency to internally
acknowledge or pronounce the sound of the words in your head
...


d) Narrow recognition span and poor rhythmic eye movement
Recognition span is the number of words a reader can recognize while eyes are fixed at one point
...

A narrow recognition span wastes time and energy and therefore affects one’s rate and comprehension
...
Thus, rhythmically, eyes
should move systematically from the middle of one phrase to another
...
It is a
characteristic of lacking concentration and poor reading
...
An efficient reader should move forward at all times
...

Effective Reading and Comprehension Skills
One important technique that has been developed for effective reading and comprehension is summed up as
SQ3R, which stand for:

S – Survey
Q – Question
R – Read
R – Recall
R – Review

a) Survey – stands for a rapid preview of material in order to get an overview a topic, chapter, or book
...
In doing this:
i) Read the title to help give you an idea of the subject
...

iii) Notice boldface headings to see what the structure of the text is
...

v) Notice reading aids and any questions at the end of chapter because they are meant to help you
understand and remember
...
Questions help your mind to
engage and concentrate
...
In using questions as you read, keep in mind the following:
i) Try to turn bold face headings into questions you think the section should answer
...
The approach you
take in reading may depend on subject
...
How you read may also be determined by your
personal approach
...

ii) Engage actively with your material
...

d) Recall – After each section, stop and think back to your questions
...
If not take a look back at the text
...
As you do this you may
highlight important points of your notes
...
If not, look back and refresh your
memory
...

The importance of SQ3R:
It makes reading a conscious active effort
...

The prediction or question formulation stage is both a sign and an aid to understanding
...

Reading is organized into stages, therefore it takes less time and effort and it is more effective
...

b) Do not start reading a book unless you have decided it is suitable
...

d) You can switch from one way of reading to another, this is suitable particularly so when selecting
books or doing research
...
This includes:
i) Name of Author
ii) Title and sub-title

iii) Date of publication
iv) Publisher and city of publication
Note taking
Notes are a shortened version of information
...

Advantages of Notes
1
...


2
...


3
...
Through making notes, you are also spotting the key issues and
ideas of the materials
...
Note taking also helps you think about the subject
...
This makes you think and connect what you are noting down with
what you already know
...

How to Take Notes
1
...
Do not record all the
materials from your source
...
Show the difference between main points, supporting points and examples
...


3
...


4
...
Use abbreviations wherever possible
...


5
...

7
...

9
...

11
...

13
...

15
...

17
...
Effective library usage is
important because it is an essential part of life in education, particularly at university level, where you are
required to find and acquire materials on your own, either for research or for study
...

b) Discuss the various information sources
c) Discuss the organization of information sources in the library
d) Explain the criteria for evaluating reading materials in the library
...

a) National Libraries are also referred to as reference libraries because they are used for references
...
They are formed through a law and these laws require publishers to deposit
copies of all publications they produce
...


b) Public libraries are types of libraries that are funded by the public through local authorities or
government and the use of these libraries is open to all members of public
...
They provide a wide range of loan
services, where you can borrow reading material
...
They also provide special facilities for the old and disabled and also organize provision of
library services for hospital, jails e
...
c
...
The ideal
public library should provide access to knowledge for all people in the country besides providing books
...
They should also
sponsor lecturers as well as participate in adult education programmes
...
A special library may also be a special branch of a public library serving certain
interest or occupation groups
...
A library may be special in a variety of ways
...
This type of library store resources on particular subject e
...

Central Bank library, Kenya Agriculture research Institute (KARI) library
...
This type of library serves a special category of people i
...
prisoners,
children, pastoral communities e
...
c
...
These libraries have special format of resources for
instance video libraries, Braille, internet library, KBC, KTN, and NTV as broadcast libraries
...
They may contain a variety of materials or specialized materials depending on the
interests of the individuals or group
...
Such libraries include university, college, polytechnics and so on
...

Information sources
Information sources are materials used as resources of information in the library, which are selected to
meet the needs of users of specific libraries
...

A
...


a) Reference sources
b) Periodicals
c) Textbooks
d) Recreational books
1
...
Usually they are not allowed to be taken away from the library
building
...

Reference sources are divided into two, that is, general reference books and quick references
...
General reference books include research reports, including theses and dissertations; official
publications such as government publications including Kenya Gazette, parliamentary reports, statistics
reports, development plans and government budget estimates; bibliographies; indexes and abstracts
...
Quick references are books that will provide you with material or direct and factual information
...
The information provided is usually in shortened form for
quick reference
...
Some quick reference books include:

i)

Dictionaries, which may be general language dictionaries that give meaning, pronunciation, spelling,
usage of meaning, trace history of words, synonyms and antonyms
...

ii) Encyclopedias, which are like dictionaries
...
Others are specialized and cover specific fields of
knowledge
...


4
...
They contain articles or

other writings by several contributors
...
Periodicals include:

i)

Journals, which are publications by a society, institution or professional body containing news,
proceedings, transactions and reports of work contained in a particular field of study e
...

communication, linguistics, philosophy, political science e
...
c
...
They deal with general
topics, and are non-professional and non-technical
...


iii) Newspaper, which contain recent news and may be published daily or weekly
...


6
...

Textbooks discuss subject areas in details and are the main material found in academic libraries
...


7
...
This includes
mainly fictional works
...
Non-printed information sources
These sources of information are those that are not books or periodicals or journals
...
Most of these materials require special handling and are an important
source of varied information
...
As a library user you need to understand how the sources are organized in order to
benefit from information they contain
...


a) Classification
Classification is arrangement of documents in a logical order according to their degree of likeness by either
subject or form
...
There are various classification schemes used in
libraries
...
This classification uses
numbers to create division between subject areas and the topics
...
The sub-division within the subject areas are further denoted by
numerals 1-999 and those are separated from main subject area by a decimal i
...
1
...
7, 23
...


ii) Library of Congress Classification (LCC) was created by library of congress in America
...
The system uses alphabetical letters from A to Z which are used to classify the
main subject areas
...

B – Philosophy and psychology

BL – BX – Religion
H – Sociology
L – Education
P – Languages
All subject areas are covered by alphabetical letters
...
The symbol assigned to every book during classification make up a call number
...
For
instance, in the following call number the details are as follows:
P
106

...

1996 is the year of publication of that book
...


b) Cataloguing
Cataloguing is process in which all materials in the library are listed
...
A catalogue list of information about materials will include the author, subject, title of the material, as
well as year of publication, number of copies
...

Types of catalogues
There are different types of catalogues and different libraries choose to use different types of catalogues
depending on convenience and personnel they have in libraries
...


b) Title catalogue, where a library lists materials arranged alphabetically according to the title of the
materials
...
g
...
They are ignored
...

6
...
3
...
The
cards are placed in drawers where they can be accessed by library user
...


ii) Computer catalogue format uses computers which have catalogue information of various entries of
materials found in a library
...
It can also be accessed very fast, at the click of a button
...
In the case of a book its various parts may guide you into
evaluating this information source
...
At the back cover, it contains a brief
history of author and may indicate his/her credibility and also a brief summary of the contents of the book
...
t
...


iii) Preface/forward, which is the section that reveals the purpose of materials contained in the book as
well as its relevance
...


iv) Table of content, which shows the title of topics, chapters and pages the information is found
...
It also offers advice on
how the book is arranged and should be read e
...
whether it should be read progressively or
whether each section may be read independently
...

vii)Appendix comes towards the end of the book and it may contain notes about things that might not have
been fully explained in the text
...


viii) The Index is a systematically arranged list of items which show information for each item and how it can
be traced by means of page number
...

In addition to the information g i v e nabove, there are other criteria which you can use in selecting the right
book as illustrated below:

i)

Relevance of the book, which is determined by the purpose you have established for your reading
which can be achieved by looking at various sections of books described above
...
This is important because
information keeps changing over time or new developments emerge in a field of study
...


iii) The credibility of author and publisher
...
In so doing you will be reading material that is reliable and
reputable
...


iv) Book’s popularity
...


v) Presentation of material
...
Presentation involves how the material is produced, how it is
organized, the usefulness of illustration used and the level of language used
...

You will be required to write assignments as part of your assessment and also undertake examinations as specified
by the university regulations
...

Assignments
During your study at the university, you will be expected to read through the modules from your specific areas of
discipline and complete the writing tasks that will be accompanying the different modules
...
You will therefore need to follow the
instructions in each of the modules you will be studying and fulfill the requirements therein
...

The Purpose of Examinations
Examinations have been designed to fulfill certain purposes
...
However the purposes of examination in academic undertakings are meant to serve the following
purposes:

(a) To measure to what extent you have gained a certain body of knowledge
...

(c) To find out the degree to which you can apply or relate the basic knowledge and skills you have learned to
new circumstances or situations
...

(e) To measure your general level of ability, endurance and hard work to manage examinations at your level
of education
...

(g) To motivate you to work hard throughout your study at the university
...

We can see that the objectives for having examinations are all very important
...
This is why you need to be aware and practice the
techniques required for preparation for your examinations
...

Content
You should ensure that you are familiar with all the material that will be covered in the examination
...
This will in fact enable you to recognize the types of questions that are likely to be set after assessing the
content
...
In so

doing, you will be able to know how much time is allocated to each paper
...
This helps in preparing by
allocating revision time and becoming psychologically prepared
...
This can help you score the
desired marks when the examination comes
...
The best revision is the one, which is done over a long
time as the course progresses
...
Revision should be a routine, allocate some time in your schedule, for revising what you have
already covered
...

Practice Examination Questions
You may not always get access to past examinations in your area of study
...
We want to advice you that you must ensure that you attempt and complete all the assignments and
activities in your study guides
...

Get Sufficient Rest
You should always build the attitude of determination
...
Get adequate sleep during the examination period
...
Eat well and also seek medical attention if you do not feel well
...

You can ensure that you remain mentally and physically healthy if you also avoid anxiety and stressful situations
during the examination period
...
This can be achieved through physical exercises if you are able
...
6 about peer or group
discussions
...
What do you do with the
examination paper and questions that are before you?
Once well prepared, confident and relaxed, you will be ready for your examination
...
This will help you to understand what is expected of each question
...
Once you know what
each question is asking then your thinking will be focused
...
Always begin with the question that you feel you can answer
fully and sufficiently
...
Some words will be commanding you
to act in a certain way; others will be key thus giving you direction
...
These words include those that could ask you to compare; define; demonstrate;
evaluate; isolate; identify; discuss; list; point out; analyse; relate; So you must pay attention to such words, which
we can also refer to as action words
...

If for example you are asked the following question: ‘Demonstrate the process of human communication’ what will
be the key words in the question?
The keywords would be process, human and communication the command word would be demonstrate
...
All this should be processed very fast within the time available to you during
the examination
...

The Answer booklet
At the university, you will be provided with special examination answer booklet printed specially for university

examinations
...
Familiarize yourself with the university’s answer booklet and what it requires before you write
in it
...

Even when students have studied a course thoroughly, they can fail to do themselves justice in the
examination through:
• inadequate / inefficient revision
• poor exam technique
Remember that revision and examination techniques are skills that can be learned about and practised
...
Those notes focus on coping in the
examination itself
...


Some Common Mistakes in Examinations
It can also be very helpful to think about things that students do wrong in examinations, which adversely affect
their performance
...
about the number of questions to answer from each
section of the paper

•

misallocation of time – at worst resulting in insufficient questions being answered eg
...

Cases have been noted of students coming in with prepared answers or quoting TMAs word for word
without any attempt to adapt them to the specific question set

•

basing answers largely on ‘common sense’ rather than on the course material

•

failure to illustrate and support arguments sufficiently eg
...


• writing illegibly
...
(eg
...
per question)
...
for this
...

Order of questions
It does not usually matter what order you take the questions in – just number them carefully
...


Spend time thinking about and planning each question
Do this before you start writing it up (eg
...

Don’t be panicked by the ‘scribblers’
...
Notice if there are different parts to cover
...
in TMAs
...


•

‘Brainstorm’ – jot down relevant ideas as they come to you, in the answer book
...
particular unit or part of unit
...
Do not censor ideas or
the flow may dry up, you can strike out anything irrelevant afterwards, if the flow gets stuck write something
silly like ‘fish and chips’
...
If you’re aware of
any material that should be included but you just can’t call it to mind, then ‘send a message to your brain’ and
leave it (remember how many names etc
...

NB Where a question is block related, material from that block should be to the fore but you can still cross refer
to other parts of the course or to summer school material where relevant
...


•

Sort out the jotted points into a sensible sequence
...
Cross out anything that doesn’t look relevant; remember that exam answers should have an
introduction, main body and conclusion just like TMAs
...


•

Jot plans in the answer book and mark them off neatly afterwards to indicate rough work, but make sure
examiner can still see them – examiners warm to signs of planning!

•

Some students like to plan all the answers firs, while really fresh
...


Writing up answers – some points
•

There’s no need to write out questions (unless it helps you to focus) as it can waste valuable time, but keep
referring back to the question in your answer to keep you on course and show that you are addressing it
...
Use introductions to indicate clearly how you intend to tackle
the question
...
Do not let your argument
‘peter out’, but draw it together clearly in a conclusion
...
So do
not be afraid to ‘state the obvious’
...


If you suddenly remember an important point, write it in a box with an arrow or asterisk to show where it
should have gone – so you don’t spoil the flow
...

NB By adopting a stage-by-stage approach like this, you are not asking your mind to do too much at once
...
With piles of scripts to mark the examiner will warm to your relevant, well
organised, clearly presented and legible answers!
•

Timing – remember to stick to timing as rigidly as you can:
•

Remember how much time you have per question
...
When you are coming
towards the end of the time allotted to a question, try to round it off and then move on to the next
...


•

If the worst comes to the worst and you do run short of time for the last question, put something down
...
Probably better is to start the answer and finish with an

indication of where it was leading ie
...

A few practical hints – the following will help to avoid unnecessary worry or problems:
•

Get well organised beforehand eg
...


•

Take along anything (within reason) that will comfort you – sweets, a flask of coffee, a good luck charm, a
photo, for instance of your family or your tutor, to calm or inspire you
...


•

If you are early avoid talking to others – it can be depressing
...
Do not
let others disturb you
...


Afterwards avoid post mortems
...

One Last Comment – the strategies outlined in this handout are not intended as hard and fast rules but simply
as initial guidelines that you may find useful
...
It is important to learn through experience
what works for you, but some initial advice can form a starting point

---