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HISTORY OF COMPUTERS
AND THE INTERNET
OUTLINE

MODULE

1B

Steps Toward Modern Computing 31
First Steps: Calculators 31
The Technological Edge: Electronics 31
Putting It All Together: The ENIAC 36
The Stored-Program Concept 36
The Computer’s Family Tree 37
The First Generation (1950s) 37
The Second Generation (Early 1960s) 38
The Third Generation (Mid-1960s to Mid-1970s) 39
The Fourth Generation (1975 to the Present) 41
A Fifth Generation? 44
The Internet Revolution 45
Lessons Learned 48

WHAT YOU’LL LEARN
...
Define the term “electronics” and describe some early electronic devices
that helped launch the computer industry
...
Discuss the role that the stored-program concept played in launching the
commercial computer industry
...
List the four generations of computer technology
...
Identify the key innovations that characterize each generation
...
Explain how networking technology and the Internet has changed our
world
...
Discuss the lessons that can be learned from studying the computer’s
history
...
) Here
is Gibson and Sterling’s answer: with the aid of powerful computers, Britain
becomes the world’s first technological superpower
...
S
...
By the mid-1800s,
the world is trying to cope with the multiple afflictions of the twentieth century: credit cards, armored tanks, and fast-food restaurants
...
Ideally, we
would like to learn from the past
...
In its successes and failures, the computer industry has learned many important lessons, and industry executives take these to heart
...
You’ll begin by looking at the computing equivalent of ancient history,
including the first mechanical calculators and their huge, electromechanical
offshoots that were created at the beginning of World War II
...
You’ll then examine the subsequent history of electronic digital computers, divided into four “generations” of distinctive—and improving—technology
...


STEPS TOW ARD MODERN COMPUTING
Today’s electronic computers are recent inventions, stemming from work that
began during World War II
...
In fact, it may be as old as
humanity itself
...
1)
...
1)
...
A
calculator is a machine that can perform arithmetic functions with numbers, including addition, subtraction, multiplication, and division
...
They require a type of technology that
was unimaginable in the nineteenth century
...
1 shows, nineteenth-century inventor Charles Babbage came up with the first design for a

31

Figure

1B
...


(

abacus (4000 years ago to 1975)
Used by merchants throughout the
ancient world
...
The abacus remained in use until a worldwide deluge of cheap pocket calculators put the abacus out of work, after
being used for thousands of years
...
It is
controlled by means of punched
cards
...


(

Leibniz’s
calculator (1674)
German philosopher Gottfried Leibniz
invents the first mechanical calculator
capable of multiplication
...
1 (Cont
...
S
...
The successor to Hollerith’s
company is International Business
Machines (IBM)
...
Despite repeated attempts,
Babbage was never able to get the
device to work
...


(
Zuse’s Z1 (1938) German inventor
Konrad Zuse creates a programmable
electronic calculator
...


36

Chapter 1

Introducing Computers and the Internet

recognizably-modern computer
...

The technology that enables today’s computer industry is called electronics
...
The earliest electronic device, the vacuum tube, is a glass tube, emptied of air, in the flow of electrons that can be controlled in various ways
...
In fact, vacuum tubes powered all electronic
devices (including stereo gear as well as computers) until the advent of solidstate devices
...


Putting It All Together: The ENIAC
With the advent of vacuum tubes, the technology finally existed to create the
first truly modern computer—and the demands of warfare created both the
funding and the motivation
...
The military asked Dr
...
Mauchly worked with a graduate student, J
...
Although commissioned by the military for
use in the war, the ENIAC was not completed until 1946, after the war had
ended (see Figure 1B
...

Although it was used mainly to solve challenging math problems, ENIAC
was a true programmable digital computer rather than an electronic calculator
...
” The ENIAC took only 30 seconds to compute trajectories
that would have required 40 hours of hand calculations
...
2

Using 17,480 vacuum tubes,
ENIAC was a true programmable digital computer that was
one thousand times faster than
any existing calculator
...
It was frustrating to use
because it wouldn’t run for more than a few minutes without blowing a tube, which caused the system to stop working
...
The solution was the storedprogram concept, an idea that occurred to just about
everyone working with electronic computers after World
War II
...

One key advantage of this technique is that the computer
can easily go back to a previous instruction and repeat it
...
But the most important
advantage is convenience
...
Without the stored-program concept, computers
would have remained tied to specific jobs, such as cranking out ballistics
tables
...


Module 1B

History of Computers and the Internet

The Generations of Computer Development

Table

Generation

Years

Circuitry

1950s

Vacuum tubes

Difficult to program; used
only machine language

Second

Early 1960s

Transistors

Easier to program (highlevel languages); could
work with business tabulating machines; cheaper

Third

Mid-1960s
to 1970s

Integrated circuits

Timesharing, minicomputer
(SSI, MSI, LSI)

Fourth

Mid-1970s
to Present

VLSI and the
Microprocessor

1B
...
Of
course, your computer is thousands of times faster and thousands of times
less expensive than its room-filling, electricity-guzzling predecessors
...
How was this amazing transformation achieved?
Today’s computers weren’t achieved in a gradual, evolutionary process,
but rather by a series of technological leaps, each of which was made possible by major new developments in both hardware and software
...
Each generation is characterized by a certain level of technological development
...
Table 1B
...
In subsequent sections, you’ll learn about each in more detail
...
No one had
tried to create an electronic digital computer for business
...
When the University of Pennsylvania learned of their
plans to transform ENIAC into a commercial product,
University officials stated that the university owned the duo’s patent
...
They underestimated the amount of effort involved, however, and
would not have delivered the computer if they hadn’t been bailed out by
Remington Rand, a maker of electric shavers
...
S
...
3)
...
3

Eckert and Mauchly delivered
the first UNIVAC to the U
...

Census Bureau in 1951
...
S
...


38

Chapter 1

Figure

Introducing Computers and the Internet

1B
...

Vacuum tubes failed frequently,
so first-generation computers
did not work most of the time
...
5

IBM’s first commercial computer, the 701, wasn’t popular
because it didn’t work with
IBM’s own punched-card
equipment
...


UNIVAC gained fame when it correctly predicted the
winner of the 1952 U
...
presidential election, Dwight
Eisenhower
...

From today’s perspective, first-generation computers
are almost laughably primitive
...
Power-hungry vacuum tubes provided the
memory (see Figure 1B
...
The problem with vacuum tubes
was that they failed frequently, so first-generation computers were down (not working) much of the time
...

Because it used fewer vacuum tubes than ENIAC, it was
far more reliable
...
Because the stored-program feature enabled
users to run different programs, UNIVAC is considered to be the first
successful general-purpose computer
...

Although the stored-program concept made firstgeneration computers easier to use, they had to be programmed in machine language, which is composed of the
numbers 0 and 1 because electronic computers use the
binary numbering system, which contains only 0 and 1
...

Moreover, each type of computer has a unique machine
language, which is designed to communicate directly with
the processor’s instruction set, the list of operations it is
designed to carry out
...

Realizing that Rand’s new computers posed a threat to
its core business, IBM reacted quickly
...
5)
...
Thanks to IBM’s aggressive sales staff, IBM sold over a
thousand 650s in the first year of the computer’s availability
...
To keep the ENIAC running, for example,
students with grocery carts full of tubes were on hand to change the dozens
that would fail during an average session
...
A transistor is a small electronic device that, like vacuum tubes, can be used to control the flow of electricity in an electronic circuit, but at a tiny fraction of the weight, power consumption, and heat output of vacuum tubes
...
6)
...
Although they still used punched
cards for input, they had printers, tape storage, and disk storage
...
A high-level programming
language enables the programmer to write program instructions using English-sounding commands and Arabic numbers
...
This makes it possible to use the same program on computers produced by different manufacturers
...
COBOL is preferred by businesses, and FORTRAN is used by
scientists and engineers
...
(A mainframe computer is a large, expensive computer designed to meet all
of an organization’s computing needs
...
A sibling, the 1620, was developed for scientific computing
and became the computer of choice for university research labs
...
Banks needed this system to handle the growing deluge of checks
...

In 1963, an important development was the American Standard Code for
Information Interchange (ASCII), a character set that
enables computers to exchange information and the first computer industry standard
...

In 1964, IBM announced a new line of computers called
System/360 that changed the way people thought about
computers
...
The computer’s instruction set was big
enough to encompass both uses
...
The transition to the third generation isn’t quite so clear-cut
because many key innovations were involved
...
Early second-generation computers
were frustrating to use because they could run only one job at a time
...
7)
...
6

The transistor heralded the second generation of computers
...
7

Early second-generation computers were frustrating to use
because they could run only
one job at a time
...


40

Chapter 1

Figure

Introducing Computers and the Internet

1B
...


Figure

1B
...


called batch processing, was time-consuming and inefficient
...
They access the
computer remotely by means of terminals, control devices
equipped with a video display and keyboard
...

In the third generation, the key technological event was
the development of computers based on the integrated circuit (IC), which incorporated many transistors and electronic circuits on a single wafer or chip of silicon (see Figure
1B
...
Invented by Jack St
...
The earliest ICs,
using a technology now called small-scale integration (SSI), could pack up
to 10 to 20 transistors on a chip
...
In the early 1970s, large-scale integration (LSI) was achieved,
in which a single chip could hold up to 5,000 transistors
...
By the second generation, scientists knew that more
powerful computers could be created by building more complex circuits
...
With integrated circuits, new and innovative designs
became possible for the first time
...
Mainframe computer manufacturers such as
IBM, however, did not perceive that this market existed
...
The first of these was
Digital Electronic Corporation (DEC), which launched the
minicomputer industry
...
)
DEC’s pioneering minicomputers used integrated circuits to cut down
costs
...
9)
...
This minicomputer’s price tag was about
one-fourth the cost of a traditional mainframe
...

By 1969, so many different programming languages were in use that IBM
decided to unbundle its systems and sell software and hardware separately
...
Now buyers could obtain software from sources other than the hardware manufacturer, if they wished
...


Module 1B

History of Computers and the Internet

The minicomputer industry strongly promoted standards, chiefly as a means of distinguishing their business
practices from mainframe manufacturers
...
In a proprietary architecture, the
company uses a secret technique to define how the various
computer components connect
...
In contrast, most minicomputer companies stressed open architecture
...
Examples of such standards are the RS-232c and Centronics standards for connecting devices such as printers
...
With
very-large-scale integration (VLSI) technology, they could place the equivalent of more than 5,000 transistors on a single chip—enough for a processing unit
...

In the early 1970s, an Intel Corporation engineer, Dr
...

Previously, these circuits had to be redesigned every time a new model of the
watch appeared
...
The result was the Intel 4004, the world’s first
microprocessor (see Figure 1B
...
A microprocessor chip holds the entire
control unit and arithmetic-logic unit of a computer
...
The
4004 was soon followed by the 8080, and the first microcomputers—computers that used microprocessors for their
central processing unit (CPU)—soon appeared
...
)
Repeating the pattern in which established companies
did not see a market for smaller and less expensive computers, the large computer companies considered the
microcomputer nothing but a toy
...
The first of these was MITS,
an Arizona-based company that marketed a microcomputer kit
...

In the mid-1970s, computer hobbyists assembled
microcomputers from kits or from secondhand parts purchased from electronics suppliers
...
” They wanted a
microcomputer so simple that you could take it out of the box, plug it in,
and use it, just as you would use a toaster oven
...
They founded Apple Computer, Inc
...
Its first product, the Apple I, was a processor board intended for hobbyists, but the
experience the company gained in building the Apple I led to the Apple II
computer system (see Figure 1B
...


Figure

41

1B
...


Destinations
Learn more about the people who created the personal computer industry at
“Triumph of the Nerds,” a
Public Broadcasting System
(PBS) Web site created as a
companion for the PBS
documentary with the
same title (http://www
...
org/nerds)
...
11

The Apple I was intended for
hobbyists, but the experience
Apple gained in building it led
to the highly-successful Apple II
...
12

The first IBM PC was released
in 1981
...


Techtalk
look and feel
The on-screen visual
(“look”) and user experience (“feel”) aspects of a
computer program
...
In 1988,
Apple Computer sued
Microsoft Corporation,
alleging that Microsoft
Windows infringed on
the “look and feel” of the
Macintosh interface
...


The Apple II was a huge success
...
Apple Computer, Inc
...
The introduction of the first electronic spreadsheet software, VisiCalc, in 1979 helped convince
the world that these little microcomputers were more than
toys
...

In 1980, IBM decided that the microcomputer market
was too promising to ignore and contracted with Microsoft
Corporation to write an operating system for a new microcomputer based on the Intel 8080
...
) The IBM Personal
Computer (PC), with a microprocessor chip made by Intel Corporation and
a Microsoft operating system called MS-DOS, was released in 1981 (see
Figure 1B
...
Based on the lessons learned in the minicomputer market,
IBM adopted an open architecture model for the PC (only a small portion of
the computer’s built-in startup code was copyrighted)
...
The result was a flourishing market, to which many hardware and
software companies made major commitments
...
The decline was partly
due to stiff competition from clone makers, but it was also due to IBM
management’s insistence on viewing the PC as something of a toy, used
chiefly as a means of introducing buyers to IBM’s larger computer systems
...

The Apple II and IBM PC created the personal computer industry, but
they also introduced a division that continues to this day
...
Apple chose
Motorola processors for its line of computers, while IBM chose Intel
...

Why were the Apple II and IBM PC so successful? Part of the reason
was attributable to the lessons taught by the minicomputer industry
...
Both
the Apple II and IBM PC were open architecture systems that enabled users
to buy printers, monitors, and other accessories made by third-party companies
...
As
more software and accessories become available, the number of users
grows—and so do the profits
...
To operate them, users
had to cope with the computer’s command-line user interface
...
)

Module 1B

History of Computers and the Internet

In a command-line interface, you must type commands to
perform such actions as formatting a disk or starting a program
...
That’s
why the graphical user interface (GUI) was such an
important innovation
...
In a graphical
user interface, users interact with programs that run in their
own sizeable windows
...
Within the
program’s workspace, users see their document just as it
would appear when printed on a graphics-capable printer
...

It’s difficult to underestimate the contribution that
PARC scientists made to computing
...
But
Xerox Corporation never succeeded in capitalizing on PARC
technology, repeating a theme that you’ve seen throughout
this module: big companies sometimes have difficulty perceiving important new markets
...
Grasping instantly what the PARC technology
could mean, the brilliant young entrepreneur returned to Apple and bet the
company’s future on a new, PARC-influenced computer called the Macintosh
...
13)
...
Windows is designed to run
on IBM-compatible computers, which are far more
numerous and generally less expensive than
Macintoshes
...
14)
...
Throughout the fourth generation, programmers have continued to use highlevel programming languages
...
High-level programming languages are inefficient, time-consuming, and prone
to error
...
You will learn about
several improvements to computer programming languages, such as
object-oriented (OO) programming, a method of dividing programs into
reusable components, in Module 8C
...
13

Apple Computer’s Macintosh
was the first commercial personal computer to offer a PARCinfluenced graphical user
interface
...
14

Microsoft Windows 2000
includes the latest version of
the world’s most popular user
interface
...
Among the many women who have made significant contributions to the computer’s development, Admiral Grace Murray Hopper (1906–1992) stands like a giant
...

Admiral Grace Hopper, the first woman to receive a doctorate in mathematics from Yale University,
joined the U
...
Naval Reserve in 1943 and was assigned to Howard Aiken’s Mark I computer project at
Harvard University
...

While working with the UNIVAC team in 1952, Hopper invented the first language translator (also called
compiler), which for the first time freed programmers from the drudgery of writing computer programs in
1s and 0s
...

COBOL is still the world’s most widely-used programming language
...
Her favorite audience was young people, especially in
the age group of 17–21
...
Hopper ought to know: experts at first refused to examine her compiler, claiming no such thing was
possible
...
“Our young people are the future,” she said
...
”
Hopper’s observations inspired generations of computer science students, and seem particularly wise
today
...
” Subsequent years would see
the demise of major supercomputer firms as networked computers surpassed the big machines’ performance
...
And once the key information
is obtained, Hopper insisted, the job isn’t finished
...
We’ve tended to forget that no computer will ever ask a new question
...
S
...
S
...
Constitution
...
Hopper died in 1992 and was buried in
Arlington National Cemetery with full military honors
...


A FIFTH GENERATION?
If there is a fifth generation, it has been slow in coming
...
For years, experts have forecast that the trademark of the next
generation will be artificial intelligence (AI), in which computers exhibit
some of the characteristics of human intelligence
...

Technologically, we’re still in the fourth generation, in which engineers
are pushing to see how many transistors they can pack on a chip
...
Although fourth-generation tech-

Module 1B

History of Computers and the Internet

nology will inevitably run into physical barriers, engineers do not expect to
encounter these for many years (perhaps decades)
...
Many new homes now include local area networks (LANs) to link the
family’s several computers and provide all of them with Internet access
...
S
...
You’ll learn more about the growth and
development of the Internet in Module 7A
...
Since the late 1960s, the U
...
Advanced Research
Projects Agency (ARPA) had supported a project to develop a wide area network (WAN), a computer network capable of spanning continents
...
The outcome of this project, the Internet, would later rock the world
...
ARPANET was designed to enable scientists to access
distant supercomputers
...
They developed real-time chatting, electronic mail, and newsgroups
...

In 1973, ARPANET fully implemented the Internet protocols (also
called TCP/IP), the standards that enable the Internet to work
...
Called Ethernet, these standards are now the
most widely-used in the world
...
The same is true of computer networking
...
Perceiving a need to play catch-up
with Soviet science, the U
...
Congress established the Advanced Research
Projects Agency (ARPA)
...
(You’ll learn more about the Internet and its
underlying technology in Module 7A; this section recounts the Internet’s historical development
...
S
...
Computer networks were increasingly seen as the command and
control system of the future, but the then-existing computer networks were
based on a highly-centralized design
...
A 1962 Rand Corporation study
identified a new and unproven networking technology, called packet-switching, as the best bet for creating a decentralized network, one that could keep
functioning even if portions of it were knocked out by an enemy hit
...
Each packet contains a unit of data as
well as information about its origin, its destination, and the procedure to be
followed to reassemble the message
...
If some do not arrive, the
receiving computer requests a re-transmission until it has received all of the
packets
...
In engineering, a testbed is a small-scale version of a product that
is developed in order to test its capabilities
...

The network grew slowly at first, from an estimated 20 users in 1968 to
millions of users today
...
Still, the Internet surprised its creators right
away
...
Instead,
ARPANET users figured out how to use the network for communication
...
(A mailing list is an e-mail application in
which every member of the list receives a copy of every message sent to the
list
...

The original ARPANET used a set of packet-switching standards that were
closely tied to the network’s physical medium
...
In 1983, every host on the ARPANET was
required to convert to the TCP/IP standards
...
(Since many Internet hosts are
multi-user machines, the number of people actually using the Internet at a
given time is many times larger than the number of hosts
...
For this reason, Vincent Cert and Bob Kahn, the developers of the TCP/IP standards, began
to refer to TCP/IP networks as internets, networks capable of linking networks
...
S
...
In 1984, this network was renamed
NSFNET
...
Because NSFNET was publicly supported, commercial use of the network was forbidden, but it linked growing
numbers of colleges and universities
...

In the early 1990s, the term Internet was increasingly used to describe
the growing network that relied on the NSFNET backbone—and increasingly, regional extensions of the network were being constructed by for-profit
firms
...
Commercial providers stepped in to take up the
slack, and the restrictions on the Internet’s commercial use were finally withdrawn completely
...
From its origins as a Cold War concept for keeping the
military in operation in the event of a nuclear war, the Internet has emerged
as an unparalleled public medium for communication and commerce—and

Module 1B

S P O T L I G H T
᭤On the eve of the 1952 U
...
presidential election,

the polls suggested a tight race between Republican
hopeful Dwight D
...
On the night of the election, the CBS television network featured a new guest
commentator: a UNIVAC computer, which was asked
to predict the outcome of the election based on the
patterns seen in early returns from the East Coast
...
Eisenhower would win 43 states and 438 electoral votes, but Stevenson would win only 5 states and
a meager 93 votes
...
Because most of the polls had called for a
close race, the UNIVAC programmers feared they had
made a programming error
...
With the fudge factors added,
UNIVAC called the election a toss-up, and that’s what
CBS viewers heard at 10 PM that evening
...
Eisenhower
indeed won the election by almost exactly the landslide
that UNIVAC had originally predicted: the final tally was
442 electoral votes for Eisenhower, and 89 for
Stevenson
...
Murrow later reflected, “is people
...
In a 1981 provincial election in Quebec,
Canada, a computer-based election eve forecast
gave the nod to the all-but-written-off Union
Nationale (UN), a small splinter party that no one
thought had the slightest chance of winning the

History of Computers and the Internet

47

COMPUTERS AND ELECTIONS:
PICKING THE WINNER
election
...
One of them concluded that the experts
were wrong to write off the Union Nationale; “the
people have spoken,” he declared
...
A software glitch had scrambled the results, leading to a wildly inaccurate prediction
...

As long as the software functions correctly, computers can indeed forecast election results with great
accuracy—too great, according to some critics
...
S
...
However, they did so before the polls
closed on the West Coast, leading some Democrats
from the western states to charge that the prediction
harmed their chances in state and local elections;
with Carter headed for defeat, they argued,
Democrats stayed home instead of voting
...

Did computers affect the outcome of the 1980
election? Experts are still divided
...
Still, the major networks decided to
hold off on releasing the computer projections until
the last West Coast polling stations close, and that’s
their policy to this day
...
For example, growing numbers of people use the
Internet to telecommute to work
...
The
Internet is proving indispensable in every conceivable professional field
...
The growing role of electronic commerce, or e-commerce, is even changing the way we shop
...

The Internet has grown and changed in ways that its designers could not
anticipate
...
S
...
After the
war’s conclusion, military officials learned the reason: Iraq’s military was
using a TCP/IP-based network—and the network passed its wartime test with
flying colors
...


I

Metcalfe’s Law A network’s social and economic value increases
steeply as more people connect to it
...
At the same time that
computers are rapidly becoming more powerful and less expensive, the rise
of global networking is making them more valuable
...


Module 1B

History of Computers and the Internet

49

T A K E A W AY P O I N T S
I

I

I

I

I

The technology that enables today’s computer
industry is called electronics
...
The vacuum
tube was the earliest electronic device
...

The stored-program concept fostered the computer industry’s growth because it enabled customers to change the computer’s function easily by running a different program
...

Second-generation computers introduced transistors and high-level programming languages,
such as COBOL and FORTRAN
...
Key innovations
included timesharing, wide area networks, and
local area networks
...
Key innovations include personal computers, the graphical user interface, and the
growth of massive computer networks
...
It has already penetrated close to
50 percent of U
...
households
...
The combination of
these two forces is driving major changes in
every facet of our lives
...

1
...


3
...


2
...


4
...

5
...

6
...

7
...


8
...

9
...

10
...
S
...


M AT C H I N G

Match each key term from the left column to the most accurate definition in the right column
...
calculator

a
...
vacuum tube

_____

3
...
a small, second-generation electronic device that can control the
flow of electricity in an electronic circuit

_____

4
...
a device that contains the entire control unit and arithmetic logic
unit of a computer

_____

5
...
a machine that can perform arithmetic functions

_____

6
...
the standards that enable the Internet to work

_____

7
...
microprocessor

f
...
Internet protocols

_____ 10
...
the earliest electronic device that powered all electronic devices
until the advent of solid-state devices
h
...
enables many people to use a computer simultaneously
j
...

1
...
UNIVAC
b
...
ENIAC
d
...
What characterizes first-generation
computers?
a
...
magnetic tape and transistors
c
...
high-level programming languages

2
...
terminals
b
...
the stored-program concept
d
...
What kind of computer can be used for scientific or business purposes?
a
...
general-purpose computer
c
...
abacus

Module 1B

5
...
They are easier to understand than machine
languages
...
They are not machine-specific
...
They use English-sounding commands
...
They are composed entirely of the numbers
0 and 1
...
What invention enabled developers to create
microcomputers?
a
...
transistor
c
...
magnetic disk
7
...
the first IBM-compatible computer
b
...
the first Apple computer
d
...
Which of the following is not true of computers
as we progress from one generation to the next?
a
...
computer cost decreases
c
...
memory and storage capacities decrease
9
...
electronic exchange
b
...
electronic commerce
d
...
Which law states that a network’s social and
economic value increases steeply as more people connect to it?
a
...
Metcalfe’s Law
c
...
Mauchly’s Law

FILL-IN

In the blank provided, write the correct answer for each of the following
...
Also called a(n) _______________ , a solid-state
device acts like a vacuum tube, but it is a
“sandwich” of differing materials that combine
to restrict or control the flow of electrical current in the desired way
...
With the _______________ , the computer program, as well as data, is stored in the computer’s memory
...
UNIVAC is considered to be the first successful
_______________
...
_______________ is composed entirely of the
numbers 0 and 1
...
Second-generation computers used
_______________ instead of vacuum tubes and
were faster, smaller, and more reliable
...
COBOL and FORTRAN are examples of
_______________ programming languages
...
The _______________ is a character set
enabling computers to exchange information
...
In a(n) _______________ architecture, a company uses a secret technique to define how the
various computer components connect
...
With _______________ technology, engineers
could place the equivalent of more than 5,000
transistors on a single chip
...
A(n) _______________ network works by
dividing messages up into small units called
_______________
...

1
...
What
kinds of problems did it have?

6
...
Explain the stored-program concept
...
Explain the differences between an open
architecture and a proprietary, or closed,
architecture
...
What major hardware technology characterized
each of the four generations of computers?

8
...
What are the differences between a commandline interface and a user interface? Which one
is easier to use and why?

9
...
How does a machine language differ from a
high-level programming language?

10
...

There’s a company you’ve probably never
heard of in Plano, Texas that helps e-commerce
companies keep in step with the online buying
and selling marketplace
...

The company’s job is to orchestrate all the pieces
that comprise an e-commerce site so that buying or selling is simple and seamless
...
The company can
design Web sites, prepare online catalogs,
process payments, check for fraud, calculate
taxes, ship merchandise, and more for any size
e-commerce site
...
The only difference is that
online, all steps in buying are automated
...

In fact, Mark’s company has a saying that pretty
much says it all: “From the Click of the Mouse, to
the Knock at the House
...
Now
there’s a reason to dance!
What do you think? Describe a recent
online purchase you’ve made
...
prenhall
...


E-COMMERCE IN ACTION

Have you ever purchased music, books, or
clothes over the Web? Congratulations!
You’ve participated in e-commerce! “E”
what?? E-commerce
...
Doing
business online, rather than in a “bricks-andmortar” store, is what e-commerce is all about
...

Lots of companies are getting into the
dance, with hopes that their online stores will
generate profits
...

But moving it to the next level where customers
can actually make purchases is a much trickier
dance step
...
It also needs a way for customers to ask questions—where’s the order,
how do I return something, and so on

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