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Developmental Psychology 2 - Prenatal Development
Domains of Prenatal Development:
• Physical
...

• Emotional and social
...
Nurture:

• Nature – biological, genetic heritable factors that are present from the moment of conception
...

Philosophical Roots

• John Locke (1632-1704):
- Nurture
...

Locke
• Many courses of development
...

• Continuous development
...

• However
...

• Natural theory of human development
...

Rousseau
Stage development:
• Infancy
• Childhood
• Late childhood
• Adolescence

•
•
•
•

Maturation
...

Unified
...


Genetic Foundation
• We are all made up of millions of cells, each cell at it’s nucleus has structures called
chromosomes
...

• Humans have 23 pairs of chromosomes, one from the father, one from the mother
...

• Fraternal – dizygotic twins
...
22-26 weeks
Conception

• Germinal stage: sperm and egg unite in fallopian
tube to form the zygote
Zygote: 23 chromosome from sperm
•
+ 23 chromosome from ovum
= 46 chromosomes
Zygotic stage (week 1-2)
• Zygote multiplies as it travels along fallopian tube
...

Implantation occurs after 7-9 days
...

Finds food and shelter in the uterus
...

- Mesoderm: muscles, skeleton and circulatory system, organs
...

• Week 5-8:
- Eyes, ears, nose & neck form
...

- General development of system
...

- Foetus moves
...


• Second trimester (week 13-24):
- Growth: mother feels movement
...

- Irritated by light & sound
...

- Significant brain development-convolutions and grooves appear as it grows
...


- Greater responsiveness to external stimulation (heart rate changes to voices)
...

• Other negative contributing factors
...

Sensitive Periods in Prenatal Development

Teratogens
• Prescription and non prescription drugs
- Thalidomide (Moore & Persaud, 2008)
- DES (diethylstilbestrol) (Hammes & Laitman, 2003)
- Accutane (Honein, Paulozzi & Erickson, 2001)

Teratogen Substances
• Drugs:
- Prescription
- Nonprescription
- Illegal
Tobacco
...

• Radiation
...

Teratogens

• Prescription and non prescription drugs:
- Aspirin (Barr et al
...

- Caffiene (Weng, Odouli & Li, 2008)
...

• Illegal drugs:
- Cocaine (Feng, 2005)
...
, 2005)
...
, 2010)
...

• Tobacco:
- Low birth weight, prematurity, impaired heart rate and breathing, infant death, asthma in
later childhood (Jaakkola & Gissler, 2004)
...


- Passive smoking can also lead to similar developmental issues
...


- Discriminating features of FAS: Short palpebral fissures, flat midface, short nose,
indistinct philtrum, thin upper lip
...


• Radiation:
- Under-developed brains and physical deformities (Hoffman, 2001; Schull, 2003)
• Environmental pollution:
- Mercury in water
...
, 2005)
...

- Eye, ear, heart, intestinal, urinary defects (Eberhart-Phillips et al
...

- Mental illness (Brown, 2006)
...
,
2007)
...

Maternal Factors

• Age: over 50s
• Exercise
- Moderate - increased birth weight (Leiferman & Evenson, 2003)
- Vigorous - low birth weight (Clapp et al
...

- Heredity: genetics play important role in resilience
...

- Age / sensitive period
...

Canalization
•
- Heredity restricts development of characteristics to one or two outcomes (Waddington,
1957)
...


• 3 main stages of prenatal development:
- Zygote
...

- Foetus
...


Developmental Psychology 3 - Cognitive Development; Jean Piaget
...

• Sensorimotor stage (week 2)
• Preoperational stage (week 2)
• Concrete operations stage (week 3)
• Formal operations stage (week 3)
Problems with the theory (weekS 2 & 3)
•
Learning outcomes:
• Demonstrate an understanding of Piaget’s theory
...

What is Cognition?

• Virtually everything we do involves thinking or cognitive functioning
• Recalling a phone number
• Remembering a list
• Following directions
• Reading your watch (how much time until…?)
How do children become able to do all these things?
•
• Why are some better at some tasks?
• Why are some quicker to develop?
Epistemology & Background:
• Definition: The study of the origins of knowledge and how we know what we know
...
in 1917 at the age of 21
...

A Constructivist Approach:

• Jean Piaget’s theory remains the standard against which all other theories are judged
...

• Children are seen as:
• Active
...

• Intrinsically motivated to learn
...

Schemes make up our frame of reference
...

- Organization: The tendency to integrate particular observations into coherent
knowledge
...

- Accommodation: The process by which people adapt current knowledge
structures in response to new experiences
...

Disequilibrium:

• When we can’t fully assimilate a new object or can’t fully accommodate to it, we feel off balance
and do not adapt well to reality
...


Discontinuities:
• The discontinuous aspects of Piaget’s theory are distinct, hierarchical stages
• Central properties of Piaget’s stage theory:
- Qualitative change
...

- Brief transitions
...

• Hypothesized that children progress through four stages of cognitive development, each building
on the previous one
...

- “out of sight, out of mind”
• Hidden toy experiment:
- 4 months: no attempt to search for hidden object
...

- 9 months: search for and retrieve hidden object
...

• 12 months: 10 second delay needed to produce error
...
(2007)
...


Smith & Thelan (2003):
• Dynamic systems approach to account for the A-not B-error
...

• No single cause
...

Adele Diamond (1994):

• A-not-B error results from problems with executive function
...

Baillargeon & DeVos (1991):

• Violation of expectancy paradigm
...

An impossible or inconsistent event should evoke longer looking time than a possible or
•
consistent event
...

• Before test events: the screen was replaced by one with a window cut out of its top half
...

Suggesting that the infants must have some mental representation of an occluded object
...
g
...

- Infants and young children are more cognitively competent than Piaget recognised:
- Object permanence in 3-month-olds (e
...
Baillargeon & DeVos, 1991)
- Number conservation in 4 year-olds (McGarrigle & Donaldson, 1974; 3 yearolds; Gelman, 1972))
- Three mountain problem (Newcombe & Huttenlocher, 1992)
- Piaget’s theory understates the contribution of the social world to cognitive development
(see lectures on Vygotsky)
- Piaget’s theory is vague about the cognitive processes that give rise to children’s thinking
and about the mechanisms that produce cognitive growth
...
g
...
Vygotsky
Piaget’s theory: The stages

Concrete Operational Stage
• 7 to 11 years
...
g
...

• Classify things:
- Organisation of schema
...
flowers yellow daisies, yellow roses, red roses, red daisies
...

• Decentration – the ability develops to focus on more than one aspect of a problem
...


Stage 3: Key Terms
• Hierarchical classification – organising objects into classes and sub classes
...

• Transitive inference – the ability to seriate mentally
...


Class Inclusion Problem

• Children begin to pass Piaget’s class inclusion problem
...

• For example, children can sort flowers into a major class and a subclass
...

• Abstract thinking, complex reasoning and hypothesis testing:
- No longer tied to physically present objects and understand abstract problems
...

Stage 4
• Distorted images of the relationship between self and other appear, resulting from changes in
perspective
...

•
• Less effective than adults at decision making, taking greater risks, not considering alternatives
and fall back on intuition
...

Propositional thought – ability to evaluate the logic of propositions, without a real world
•
reference point (feathers breaking glass)
...

• The chip in my hand is green and it is not green
...

Personal fable – An inaccurate sense of importance and uniqueness (Elkind, 1994)
...

• Adolescents are more influenced by immediate reward, take more risks and are less likely to
avoid potential harm (Cauffman et al
...

• Risky behaviour without negative consequences leads to higher ratings of benefits and lower
ratings of risk (Halpern-Felsher et al, 2004)
...

Implications for education

• Discovery learning:
- Constructivist : activities promote exploration and discovery
...

Critique of Piaget
• Strengths: Highly influential:
- Coherent theory: describes AND explains development (emphasis on mechanisms of
change)
...

• Children seek knowledge
...

Critique of Piaget
• Weaknesses:
- The stage model depicts children’s thinking as being more consistent than it is
...

• Object permanence in 3 month olds
...

• Non-egocentric speech before age of 4
...

- No role for social and cultural influences
...

Summary
• Piaget: constructivist
...

Highly influential:
•
- Lasting ideas, stimulated research, impact on education
...

• Understand and provide examples of the zone of proximal development
...

Vygotsky
• Vygotsky agreed with Piaget - children are active in their own development
...

Vygotsky

• Socio-cultural theory - emphasises the way in which the culture forms a key part of the
development of a child
...

• These things are passed down through dialogue and interaction with older members of the
sociocultural group
...


•
•
•
•

Zone of proximal development – tasks which are achievable with assistance
...

Scaffolding – support from a teacher at the appropriate level for the learner
...


Vygotsky’s Developmental Theory:
Lev Vygotsky; 1896 - 1934
• Born a Russian Jew
...

• Won the lottery for Moscow University
...

Mind and Society (1978)
...

Vygotsky’s Cognitive-Mediation Theory
• Why is it called this?
• What was inter-mental becomes intra-mental?
Psychological tools:
• Symbolic
...

• Symbols reorganise our thinking
...

• Inner speech
...

Egocentric Speech:

• Piaget: a child in egocentric speech exhibited a lack of perspective taking
...

Pretend Play:

• Piaget: Immature process and predominately assimilation that distorted reality
...

Vygotsky: The area where a child performs at the best level of his abilities
...

Zone of Proximal Development
• NO single point of development
...

• The upper level of the zone is called the potential level of development
...


Why did

Vygotsky
propose a

zone?
Environmental factors (e
...

•
• Building birdhouses example
...

Progression through his/her zone of proximal development
1) Actual level and potential level increases
...

3) Individual differences
...

• Help is internalised
...

Add scaffolding on the edge of development
...

Scaffolding is dynamic
...


•
•
•
•
•

The relation between learning and development

• Piaget: Development comes from within and comes before learning
...

Vygotsky: Learning happens as a person masters new skills, aided by other people at he
•
advanced edge of his zone of development
...
The focus is on cooperative scaffolding in learning
...

Logistically difficult to see how a teacher could possibly assess any one child’s levels of
•
development
...

Forming concepts: Encode features of objects and events and remember which features go
•
together (Saffran, Aslin, & Newport, 1996)
...


Speed of Processing:
• Speed of Processing increases across development (Miller & Vernon, 1997; Zelazo, Kearsley, &
Stack, 1995; Kail, 1997)
...

•

Cross-cultural:
• Similarity in development across cultures (Fry & Hale, 1996; Kail & Park, 1992)
...

- Biological maturation and Experience (Case, 1992; Eaton & Ritcho, 1995)
...

Strategies:
• Rehearsal: Children begin to use this strategy between 5-8-years
...

• Control and utilization deficiences (Bjorklund & Coyle, 1995)
...

• When they did organise show little gain in performance (Shclagmuller & Schneider, 2002; Miller
& Seier, 1994)
...

• Miller & colleagues (DeMarie-Dreblow & Miller, 1988; Woody-Ramsey & Miller, 1988)
...

• Control deficiency: produce strategies but not consistently
...

• Utilization deficiency: Use of consistent strategies but their performance does not improve
...

Content Knowledge:
Improves recall (Schneider & Pressley, 1997)
...

Scripts: general descriptions of what occurs and when it occurs in a particular situation
...

Early episodic memory ---semantic memory store (Yu & Nelson, 1993)
...

• Brain development: Biology imposes a ceiling on cognitive development (system wide)
...

• Formation of central conceptual structures
...
g
...
g
...

• Schemes become automatic
...

Robert Siegler’s (1996)Model of strategy choice (overlapping waves theory):
• Chen & Siegler (2000): 2 year-olds solving simple problems (how to use a tool to obtain an outof-reach toy)
...

• Conservation: 5-year-olds will use the strategy suggested by Piaget on one trial but other
strategies on other trials (Siegler, 1995)
...

• Adjustment to growing competence (Perry, Church, & Goldin-Meadow, 1988)
...

• Infants could not make sense of the multifaceted stimulation without genetic “set-up” (Carey &
Markman, 1999; Pinker, 1997; Spelke & Newport, 1998)
Four key systems (Spelke, 2004)`;
•
- Representing inanimate objects
...

- Number
...

• Two widely studied concepts in infancy:
- Physical knowledge
...

Studying domains of thought:
Violation of expectation paradigm:
- Expected event and unexpected event
...

- Looking time is longer for the unexpected event = violated their expectations, showing
they knew what should have happened
...

- Continuity: objects move on continuous unobstructed paths
...

Object permanence:
•
- knowing that an object that has disappeared still exists (Baillargeon & DeVos, 1991)
...

Path of movement:
•
- 4 month-olds: understand movement is continuous
...
5 month-olds: object support
...

- Path of movement
...

- Relations between objects
...

• 5 month old infants:
- 1+1= 1 or 2
...

- Additional as well as subtraction
...

• 5mth olds discriminate quantities of up to three (Wynn, 1992)
...

Core knowledge theorists argue support comes from other cultures
•
• Amazon:
- Piraha: no language for counting beyond “two”
...

Munduruku tribe of the Amazon understands geometry (Spelke, 2006):
•
• Can discriminate quantities as accurately as educated adults in France (Pica et al
...
, 2000)
...

•
• No role for social interaction
...

• Research showing infants have physical knowledge about objects and number, but do these
studies really show the knowledge is innate?
...

Good account of how learning gets off the ground, but perhaps we only need basic processing
•
skills to be able to learn?

Infant’s Understanding the physical world

Learning Outcomes:
Evaluate evidence of infants’ understanding of object properties and mental representation
...

Critically evaluate the empirical support for different theories of development
...


•
•
•
•

Kingfisher (Boden, 1989):
• The kingfisher must strike the fish at an angle to compensate for distortion caused by looking
down at its prey through the water
...

•
Theories of physical understanding:

• According to core-knowledge theory, infants have innate knowledge in a few important domains,
such as the physical world and objects (e
...
Carey & Spelke, 1994)
...
g
...

- Infants possess generalized learning mechanisms that strengthen their mental
representations of the physical world (e
...
Munakata et al
...

- Infants’ perceptual–motor processes are responsible for what is thought of as infant
cognition
...
g
...

Objects:
• Infants’ object perception:
- Perceptual constancy
...

Infants’ understanding of object properties:
•
- Contact
...

- Rigidity
...

Object perception:
• Perceptual constancy: We perceive a constant shape and size when an object approaches us,
and moves away from us
...

Object segregation:
• Object segregation: the ability to perceive boundaries between objects
...

How do you tell where one object starts and ends?
- Infants are sensitive to gaps between objects (Spelke & Newport, 1998)
- But what if there are no gaps?
...


-

Object Segregation: The importance of motion (Kellman & Spelke, 1983):

Common movement:
• So why did infants perceive one unitary rod?
• The two segments moved together in the same direction and at the same speed
...

• 2-month-olds perceive a single rod if the semi-occluding block is narrow (Slater, Johnson, Brown
& Badenoch, 1996)
...

Object segregation:
• As infants get older they are able to use their knowledge about the world for object segregation
(e
...
Needham, 1997; Needham & Baillargeon, 1997)
...

Piaget: Object permanence:
*See Piaget lecture notes
• Thinking about the unseen:
• Observe how infants react to events that occur out of view
...
They cannot jump from
place to place without occupying the intervening space,
Solidity: Physical objects are solid
...

•
• Contact: Objects cannot influence other objects without touching them; they must make contact
...

• Inertia: Objects do not change their motion abruptly unless they are acted on by another force
...

Thinking About Things:
• Piaget’s “object permanence”: Infants younger than 8 months do not search for objects they
cannot see
...

Violation of expectancy: Young infants express surprise at events or objects that violate their
•
expectancy
...

Violation-of-expectancy procedure:
• Basic assumption: if infants observe an event that violates something they know about how the
world works, they will be surprised
...

In a classic series of tests of object permanence, Renée Baillargeon and her colleagues first
•
habituated young infants to the sight of a screen rotating through 180 degrees
...

• In the possible event, the screen rotated up, occluding the box, and stopped when it reached the
top of the box
...

• Infants looked longer at the impossible event, showing they mentally represented the presence
of the invisible box
...
impossible events

• Infants as young as 4 ½ months of age (some 3 ½ month-olds) looked longer at the impossible
event than at the possible event
...

Baillargeon & DeVos (1991):
• 3 ½ month-olds and 5 ½ month olds saw either a tall rabbit or a short toy rabbit travel behind a
screen and then reappear on the other side
...

•
Support Events:

• Baillargeon and colleagues have conducted numerous studies on infant’s knowledge about
support events (e
...
Baillargeon, Needham, & DeVos, 1992; Needham & Baillargeon,
1993; Baillargeon, 1995
...

• Their studies focussed on simple problems involving a box and a platform
...

• At this stage ANY contact between the box and the platform is deemed sufficient to prevent the
box from falling
...
Infants become aware that the type of contact between the two objects must be taken into
account when judging whether of not the box will fall
...

By 4 ½ to 5 ½ months of age…
• Infants distinguish between the two types of contact
...

Second Development:
• Infants appreciate that the AMOUNT of contact between the box and the platform is a
determining factor of whether the box will fall
...

Third Development:
• Infants recognise that the overall SHAPE of the box affects its support
...

• They don’t take into account a box’s overall shape or weight distribution when making support
judgements
...

into objects (Kellman & Spelke, 1983)
...

modalities (Streri & Spelke, 1988)
...
g
...
1985, Baillargeon, 1986,
Baillargeon & DeVos,1991)
...

• Frontal lobe immaturity (Diamond, 1985)
...


• Early representations are implicit (Hood,2003)
...


•
•
•
•

Compare to Piaget
...

VOE
...


Summary: Physical Knowledge
• Infants’ knowledge about the physical world goes beyond that which is learned from objects
...

•
• (see also containment and covering events)
Gravity:
• As well as about object properties,
do infants know about rules governing object motion?
•
• 4-month-olds are sensitive to violations of rigidity, but not of gravity, cf
...
,1992)
7-9 month-olds are surprised by violations of support relations for symmetrical, but not
•
asymmetrical objects (Baillargeon & Hanko-Summers, 1990)
Studying the behaviour of Objects:
• 4-month-olds know about Object substance (Spelke et al
...
, 1994)
• However, 2-year-olds fail (Hood et al
...
, 2000)
...

- Cohesion
...

- Permanence
...

•

Developmental Psychology 7 - Development of Number Cognition
Learning outcomes:
Understand the necessary requirements for a mathematical system
...

Discuss infants ability to perform basic operations on number
...


•
•
•
•

Mathematical Systems
...

• Operate on these representations:
- Mathematical functions:
• Addition
...

• Multiplication
...

Counting principles (Gelman & Gallistel, 1978):

• Rochel Gelman has suggested that counting is guided by 5 principles:
1
...

2
...

3
...

4: Abstraction: counting principles apply to any set of objects
...
The
‘doesn’t matter’ principle
...
Children were videotaped and the tapes were
analyzed to determine how children count
...

i) One-one principle: children were scored correct if they assigned each item a distinct number
word
...
As set size
increases, younger children start to have problems
...


ii) Stable order principle: Kids of all ages succeed
...

iii) Cardinality principle: Some evidence of the use of this principle, although with smaller set sizes
only
...
Younger children just seem to count
...
Children watched a puppet count a set of objects
and were asked whether the puppet did it correctly or not
...
The puppet was either
correct, made an error (skipping an item or double counting) or made a ‘pseudoerror’ (either began in the middle of set, but then returned to the beginning and
counted without respecting a layout)
• Results showed that 3-and 4-year-olds detected skipping and double counting
...

ii) Stable order principle: Puppet violated this principle on some trials by either reversing the
conventional order (1, 2,4, 3), using a random order (2, 4, 1, 5 ,3), or skipping one
of the usual tags (1, 2, 4, 5)
...
100% error detection rate by 4, and 5-year-olds
...
No effect of set size
...
Children were
asked to correct the puppet
...
Results showed very
good performance, 3-year-olds (85%) correct on error, 96% on correct, 4-year-olds
90% on error, 93% on correct
...

Conclusion:
Young children seem to have some implicit knowledge of the counting principles that is unaffected
by set size before they are able to explicitly use this knowledge in their own counting
...

Note here is the distinction between the conceptual competence demands of a task, i
...
whether
the child has the necessary concepts, and the performance demands of a task, i
...
whether
the child can show her conceptual competence in specific task structures
...

Operate on these representations:
•
- Using mathematical functions
...

• Phase 1: Babies shown a certain number of dots, over a series of trials
...

• Some babies saw either two or three dots/others saw either four or six dots
...
e babies that had been habituated to
two dots were shown displays of three dots)
...


•

See Antell & Keating (1983) for similar pattern with 1 week old infants
...
(see also Starkey et al
...


Are these experiments about number?
• Clearfield & Mix (1999) designed a similar
experiment to Starkey & Cooper,
except that they varied the size of the
objects that each child saw in the two
phases
...

- In the other group the total number of
squares changed but the contour
length remained the same as the
habituation phase
...

When the number of items stayed the same, and the total amount of contour changed across
•
the two phases the babies showed signs of increased interest in the second phase
...

Comment from Kelly Mix (Mix, Huttenlocher & Levine, 2002)
“The conservative interpretation is that infants prefer to use contour length over number
...

(contour length = the sum of the perceptual contours of the items in the display)
However see studies by Xu & Spelke (2000)
...
g
...
g
...

- Independent of perceptual properties of specific array (e
...
Wynn)
- This is highly debated
- Alternatives:
- Number needs to be teased apart from its continuous dimensions (e
...
surface
area; Xu & Spelke, 2000)
...

Operating on number: Wynn (1992):

• Wynn showed infants to be capable of performing simple addition and subtraction
...

- Results: found no differences in looking times between correct trials and incorrect
trials
...

- Conclusion: Need for extreme caution
...
Alan Slater)
...

• How numerical knowledge is represented in highly debated
...

• Non-verbal representation of numerical magnitudes
• Very young infants discriminate small numbers of tones (vanMarle & Wynn, 2003), moving
objects and collections of objects (van Loosbroek & Smitsman, 1990; Wynn et al
...
2002)
...
g
...


• Accumulator model (Meck &
Church, 1983)
...

• Monkeys representations show the
same signature limits s
infants:
Set size of 3-4
...


Lecture 8 - Social Cognition



Learning Outcomes:
Define Social cognition
...

Discuss the development of TOM
...

Describe the relationship between TOM tasks and appearance-reality distinction
...

• Although we never fully understand ourselves or others, there is a common level of
understanding or people that we all share
...

Beliefs, Desires, and Actions:
• E
...

Some Properties of Naïve Psychological Constructs:
• Invisible: no one can see a belief
...

• Second, the invisible constructs are all linked to each other in cause-effect relations
...

Infant’s Naïve Psychology:
• By age 1, infants prefer looking at people’s faces rather than other objects
...

• Between 12- 18 months of age, toddlers show some understanding of two ideas: intentions and
understanding of the self
...

• To understand the relation between desires and actions or beliefs and actions, infants must
realize that people’s actions are usually intended to accomplish a goal (Baldwin & Moses, 1994)
...

• 18-month-olds observed an adult trying to, but failing, to pull apart a small dumb bell toy
...

Language:
• When an experimenter is looking at a different object to a 19- or 20-month-old and the
experimenter says “look, a ‘toma’”, most babies infer that the experimenter INTENDED to label
whatever object the experimenter was looking at
...


• Basic Understanding of the Self:
• By age 2, most children realise that when looking in a mirror they are looking at an image of the
self (Lewis & Brooks-Gunn, 1979)
...

The Growth of a ‘Theory of Mind’:
• Between age 2 and 5, children build on their initial naïve psychology to form a theory of mind
...

• As this theory of mind develops, children’s knowledge about these psychological constructs
becomes organised, and describes the interrelations among the constructs (Wellman &
Gellman, 1998)
...

False Belief Tasks:

• Test children’s understanding that other people will act in accord with their own beliefs even
when the child knows those beliefs are incorrect
...
 
• 3 year olds almost always fail the false belief tasks
...

Wimmer & Perner (1983)
• False Belief Task:

The Smarties Task (Wimmer & Perner, 1983):
• Children are shown a tube of Smarties, and are asked: “what is inside the box”?
• The child replies: “Smarties”
...

• When asked what another child would say is in the closed tube, the 5-year-old child would say
“Smarties
...
(Wimmer & Perner, 1983)
...

Deception:
• Many 3-year-olds are able to pass false belief tasks if the task is presented in such as way that
facilitates understanding
...
g
...

• The experimenter told the child that they were going to play a trick on another child
...

• The child predicted that the other child would say that the tube contained Smarties
...

Sally-Anne Task(Baron-Cohen, Leslie, & Frith, 1985):
• A doll (Sally) hides a marble and then goes for a walk
...

• Children are asked where Sally will look for the marble
...

• 4-year-olds pass
...

- Then his mum comes into the kitchen and says, “Bobby, put away your chocolate biscuit
...
”
- Bobby puts his chocolate biscuit inside the refrigerator and…
- …asks his mum what he should do next
...

- Later on, Bobby comes back into the kitchen and wants to eat his chocolate biscuit
...
False belief tasks measure children’s
conceptual understanding of beliefs (Perner, 1991; Astington & Gopnik, 1991;Wellman et al
...
The false belief tasks measure
deficiencies in one or more executive processes (e
...
Leslie, German & Polizzi, 2005; Yazdi,
German, Defeyter & Siegal, 2006; Bloom & German, 2000)
...
”
Results:

• 3
...

• In other words they must have inhibited their own knowledge and taken the perspective (belief)
of the girl
...




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