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COMMUNICATION
September 8, 2015
Definitions
 “Communication is the process by which individuals use symbols, signs, and behaviors to
exchange information” (p
...
4)
B
...
Content Message: What the message actually communicates
2
...

-How to interpret the literal
-Nature of the relationship
3
...

Communication Competence
A
...
The objective of communication is social influence (intent)
2
...

3
...

B
...
Expressing Affiliation: Affective level of communication; from love to hate
2
...

3
...

*Different levels of control are appropriate for different relationships
...
Communication Competence
1
...

2
...

3
...

Characteristics of Communication
A
...
Sign: Mutual and/or intrinsic relationship
2
...
Shared Code: Language
-Language reflects experience and shapes experience
...

C
...
Communication takes place within a cultural environment or context
...
Culture: shared beliefs, values, practices
3
...
Language and culture are symbiotic; shared meanings will bind culture or subculture and
create separate identity
D
...
Channels or Medium:
1
...

2
...
phone call vs
...
person to person
F
...

*Communication is interdependent
...

September 10, 2015
II
...

Communication Processing
A
...
Selective Attention: Choose some stimuli and ignore others
...
Selective exposure: we seek out that which confirms us
...
Organizing: General Organization (seeking out recognizable patterns)
1
...
Figure and Ground
3
...
Similarity and Contrast Effect
C
...
People Schema
2
...
Event Schema
4
...
Cognitive Complexity
1
...
Integrative Capacity
E
...
We encounter event and make sense using schema
...
Pro-schema confirms our world
...
Counter-schema calls elements into question
4
...

Attribution
A
...

1
...

2
...

B
...
Attributions are biased by our schema
...
Prior judgments are hard to dislodge
...
Fundamental Attribution Error
September 15, 2015
III
...
Processing Occurs within a cultural context
B
...
Stereotyping: Individual shares attributes of group
D
...

Self-Schema
A
...
Self-Concept
1
...
Self-Concept: relatively constant description of who we believe we are
-We seek consistency
...
Dimensions of Self-Concept
1
...
Physical Qualities
3
...
Development of Self-Concept
1
...
Group Association: Adopt aspects of those around us
3
...
Self-Labels: self-reflection
5
...
Self-Esteem
1
...
Self-Esteem influences communication competence
3
...
Self-Efficacy (Assessing our own ability in a given situation)

-Predicts success
-Overconfidence
-Self-fulfilling prophesy
Language (the system of symbols (words) that we use to think about and communicate experiences
and feelings)
I
...
Symbol is Word
B
...
Thought is conception of object
D
...

The Dimensions of Languages
A
...
Denotation: formal concrete meaning for symbol
2
...
We share the denotation while we provide individual meaning through connotation
...
Abstraction Ladder: Hayakawa
1
...
From abstract to concrete
3
...
Evasion: avoiding specific details
5
...
Slang: words that are used by a collective group of people and the meaning is
confined to that collective group of people
7
...
Negation (There are no negatives in nature
...
Definitions both include and exclude
2
...
Words imply their opposites
III
...
Speech Repertoires
1
...
Low language: informal, easy going, idiosyncratic
B
...
Select from repertoire the appropriate language
2
...
Language builds on context
1
...

2
...
Language Determines Context
1
...
Power

3
...

Nonverbal communication
A
...
Behavior that accompanies words to provide additional meaning
II
...
Nonverbal messages are analogical rather than digital
-They form a range that is hard to categorize
...
Nonverbal messages are often iconic
-They resemble that which they signify
...
Many nonverbal messages are universal
-They have a foundation in biology
...
There is simultaneous transmission of multiple nonverbal messages
...
Nonverbal messages are often created spontaneously and evoke an automatic response
III
...
Forming Impressions:
1
...
Sociocultural impressions
-Money, education, profession, affiliations
B
...
Attraction and Affiliation
-Mimicry
-Closeness
-likeability
September 22, 2015
2
...
Arousal—Relaxation
-Arousal: Degree of stimulation
*positive: excitement
*negative: anxiety
-Relaxation:
*positive: contentment
*negative: depression/sadness
C
...
Initiating conversations
2
...
Leave taking
D
...


-Promoting Affiliation
-Credibility
-Touch and attractiveness
*persuasive
E
...
Emotions
1
...
Intensity of the emotion
Integrating Verbal and Nonverbal Messages
A
...
Complementing: the nonverbal will add to the verbal message
C
...
Substituting: the nonverbal will replace the verbal
E
...

Culture
-a learned system of thought and behavior that belongs to and typifies a relatively large
group of people
A
...
Belief systems: ideas about the individual and the world (ex: society may be more
important than world)
2
...
Social institutions
-schools, governments, religious organizations
-support and pass along culture
-could be formal as well as informal
4
...
Language
-creates in group and out group
-embodies beliefs of group
-represents common experience
-embodies history
B
...
Enculturation: passing down culture
2
...
Ethnocentrism: belief that own culture is superior
4
...
Cultural Contexts
A
...
Low context culture
-meaning is in words

-detailed information
-segmented information
-control of information
-knowledge is a commodity
Listening
(Listening (active process) vs
...

Types of listening
A
...
Informational or comprehensive listening: listening to gain information
C
...
Empathetic listening: identifying feelings of others
II
...
People oriented or empathetic listener: focus is upon other identifying emotions and
relationship
B
...
Content oriented listener: critical evaluation of information
D
...

Listening Barriers
A
...
other focus
-effort
-stage hogging: listen to respond
B
...
Physical Noise
2
...
Multi-tasking
-Overvalue self-ability to process multiple messages
-long term impact upon our attention spans
(ex: taking notes, but not processing what is being said if you take notes on laptop vs on
paper)
D
...
Can be topic of person—draws away attention
2
...
Pseudo-listening (where you pretend to listen)
4
...
Over-Excitement (can affect our ability to listen—either positively or negatively)

V
...


VII
...
Distraction to another area
2
...
Selective listening (ex: go to study abroad fair and being talked to about going to
Morocco, and you want to go, so you call home and ask to go and parents say wait
and see if they can afford it; later you call and they ask how classes are laid out and
you say I don’t know, but you said I could go—even though they never said that)
4
...
Source Problems
1
...
Attack/ambush (pet peeve that roommate violates and wait until a certain point to
“attack” them)
3
...
Assimilation to prior messages
G
...
Listening apprehension (nervous about a particular situation—fearful of a situation
where excitement is produced and we have a difficulty talking)
2
...
Information overload
Comprehensive Listening
A
...
Identify the supporting material (what goes with that main idea)
C
...
Relate components to your own experience (have a better ability to remember them if
you relate it to own experience)
E
...
Engage in questioning and paraphrasing (not questioning as in asking questions but
questioning as in trying to paraphrase something and then ask a question after that as
to whether I am following something correctly or not)
Critical or deliberative listening
A
...
Evaluate the support material for the claim
C
...
Perspective taking (place yourself in the other person’s shoes)
1
...
Feeling Empathy
B
...
Respond by valuing the other person (we may not agree with them)
D
...
Denying the feelings

2
...

4
...


Evaluating and imposing a solution (may be only a temporary solution)
Being too philosophical
Defending the other person
Expressing pity (“oh, poor you, your life really sucks”; empathizing doesn’t mean
feeling their trauma)

October 6, 2015
I
...
Interpersonal context
-Two people
-Relationship
-Mutual influence
-Intimacy
B
...
Some things to consider
1
...
Relationships must change to survive
(ex: for marriages to survive after a baby, things have to change a little bit)
3
...
Beginning behaviors need to persist
(ex: in a roommate situation, you meet your roommate and when that goes
well, the first week of class you might say you stayed up all night learning about
each other and the next 3 weeks you don’t say much)
III
...
People enter relationships to fulfill social needs
1
...
Control: to influence other people and be influenced by them
3
...
Social Needs vary between people
1
...

2
...

(ex: some people have a tendency to get jealous; some people will desperately look
for someone to hang out with on a Friday night; some people like alone time; some
people like to be in control; some people don’t like to make decisions)
3
...
Relationships and need fulfillment
1
...
Relationships can be affected as needs change over time
3
...
People will seek different things from different relationships across their lives
(collective need fulfillment)
IV
...
People are motivated to seek the greatest reward at the lowest cost
B
...
Timing of Rewards and costs
1
...
Forecasted rewards and costs (predicted outcome value)
3
...
Expected rewards and costs
(Ideal vs Real: what is the ideal I see and what is the real? How do I evaluate those
elements?)
E
...
Magnitude of rewards
2
...
Dialectical Tensions
A
...
Dialectical: means that they are opposites
2
...
They explain variations in relationships and disclosure
...
The tensions
1
...
Autonomy (the really important dialectical tension; says that when you
enter into a relationship, you want to be in a union with that person, but you don’t want to
lose your unique self)
2
...
Closeness (measures where I’m at to disclosing to the other person; how you
manage what you can and cannot share)
3
...
Predictability (novelty is you don’t know what to expect; predictability is you
know what to expect and you’re comfortable with it)
4
...
Stability (measure the intensity of the relationship; stability maintains a comfort
level)
V
...
Assumptions
1
...
(not a linear relationship)
2
...
Development is variable (some people will go from meeting a person to being best
friends in a short period of time, but it might take a longer time for some people to
get closer)
4
...
Relational Schema
1
...
Relationship type in general (parent, sibling, best friend, co-worker/classmate,
roommate)
3
...
Turning points
1
...
Causal turning point: direct change (ex: engagement)
3
...
Myths about Conflict
A
...
Conflict can always be avoided
C
...
Conflict can always be resolved
II
...
Incompatible Goals (these goals produce conflict; ex: as a collective group of students,
we hate doing group projects)
B
...
Differing rates of relational growth
D
...
Relational Stability
II
...
Expressive: quality of the relationship
B
...
Gendered Style Differences
1
...
Masculine: Business Cost-Benefit Analysis
-Bias toward instrumental conflict
IV
...
Avoidance: withdraws from conflict; tries to side-step confrontation; finds conflict
uncomfortable
1
...
Low concern for other
3
...
Accommodation: easily gives in to the demands of others; typically wants to be liked by
others
1
...
High concern for other
3
...
Sacrifices Self
5
...
Actually increases strain on relationship
C
...
High concern for all
2
...
A Win-lose approach to conflict
4
...
Compromise: seeks the middle ground; will give up something to get something
1
...
Some concern for other
3
...
Appeals to fairness, negotiate trade-offs
E
...
High concern for self
2
...
A win-win approach to conflict
4
...
Generate a List of Potential Topics
1
...
Brainstorming: set a time limit and do word association
3
...


C
...
Assignment and/or request
2
...
Time limits
4
...
Support Material
A
...
Arguments A
...
E
...
They form the belief component of attitudes
3
...

B
...
Adopt credibility
2
...
Factual data
1
...
Statistical Fact (numerical representation of what we believe to be true)
3
...
Tests: Recency (how up-to-date is the fact that you’re presenting), Relevance and/or
appropriateness, credibility
D
...
Expert testimony (where we look at a person that’s qualified and quote from their
interpretation of factual data)
-Qualifications of expert
-Data forming the basis
...
Lay Testimony
-Perspective
-Reliability
-Recency
E
...
Direct Experience
2
...
Representative Anecdote: Short story
...
Tests: Relevance, fidelity, coherence
F
...
Web sources
-Suffix:
...
org,
...
Library Databases
3
...
Organizing the presentation
A
...
Full sentence preparation outline
2
...
Standard Symbols
C
...
Rule of Coordination: Items at each level of the outline have a common relationship
2
...
Rule of division: There must be at least two sub points
4
...

D
...
Identify the main points of the presentation
2
...
Understand the relationships
-Parallel relationships
-Chain relationships
E
...
Time Patterns: chronological
2
...
Topical Patterns: related but no necessary order
4
...
Cause Effect
F
...
Transitions: show connection between sections
2
...
Internal summaries: review and remembering connections
II
...

A
...
Motivate the audience to listen (attention getter)
2
...
Preview the topic
4
...
Common Introduction Strategies
1
...
Tell a personal story referencing experience
3
...
Present a startling fact or story
5
...
Questions
-Real vs
...
Conclusions:
“That’s it” is not a good conclusion
...
Presents a final summary
...
Presents a natural break point
...
Connect to the introduction
...
Provide a motivating thought
...
Modes of Delivery
A
...
Benefits:
-precise wording
-emotional task
-experience and technology
2
...
Speaking from Memory
1
...
Drawbacks
-lose place
-talk too quickly
-stare up and down
-Sing-song delivery
C
...
Benefits
-natural conversational style
-flexibility
-eye contact
-natural vocal quality
2
...
Informative Speaking
A
...
Identify the audience’s informational needs
1
...
Identify the knowledge needed
3
...
Language Strategies
1
...
Analogies
3
...
Definition
5
...
Present a Rationale
1
...
Explain what is happening
3
...
Explain the result
III
...
Objectives of Aides
1
...
Promote interest and motivate the audience
3
...
The Object Itself
1
...
make sure it’s large enough to see
3
...
avoid distraction
5
...
Maps, Charts, Photographs, Video
1
...

2
...
Do not rely too heavily on the images
...
Pay attention to aesthetics
...
Make sure that it is essential to the presentation
...
Presentation Software
1
...

2
...

3
...

4
...

5
...

E
...
Confine aid to usage period
2
...
Watch your positioning

4
...

5
...

III
...
Eye contact
1
...

2
...

3
...

4
...

5
...

B
...
Use cards rather than paper
...
Limit the # of cards
...
Speaking outline
4
...
Vocal Qualities: Seek a conversational style’
1
...
Rate
3
...
Allow energy to flow
...
Body Movement
1
...
Avoid crossing legs
3
...
Do not chew gum
5
...
Integrate movement into speech
7
...
Leave objects at desk

Persuasion
I
...
Components:
1
...
”
-Valence: Direction
-Intensity
2
...
Behavior
-“the manner in which we act or function”
-Theory of Reasoned Action:
*Attitude
*Normative Influence (can find attitudes that you normally hold and try
to get others to act on those attitudes)
B
...
Persuasion begins with identification or common ground
...
Equifinality: Multiple ways to achieve objectives
3
...
The persuasive speech (6-7 min)
A
...
The speech is related to your first speech
C
...
Argue for public policy
2
...
?
D
...
There is problem that has state interest
2
...

3
...

III
...
Ethos: Source Credibility
1
...
Trustworthiness
3
...
Dynamism (includes the effectiveness and the attractiveness of the person doing the
persuasion)
B
...
Emotions have a rapid cognitive evaluation of environmental changes
2
...

3
...

4
...

C
...
Data, Reasoning, Conclusions
D
...
All 3 must be present to be effective
2
...
Effective persuaders will discover the best means to approach the audience present
4
...
Pathos and ethos are ephemeral
...
The Rhetorical Problem
A
...

B
...
Topic Related Obstacles (how are we going to talk about a particular topic?)
D
...
Elaboration Likelihood Model (ELM)
A
...
Elaboration: engaging in issue relevant thinking
2
...
Most persuasion occurs in the middle mixing the two cues (some high, some low)
B
...

1
...
Scrutinize the message
3
...
Make up their own arguments about the topic
C
...
Low Elaboration
2
...
People will apply a simple decision rule (heuristics)
D
...
Credibility Heuristic: you believe sources you find credible
...
Liking Heuristic: you believe people you like
3
...
Rewards/Punishments: path of least resistance
5
...
Factors influencing elaboration
1
...
Ability: Can a person elaborate?
-Message comprehension—clear presentation
-Distraction: competing stimuli
-Written vs
...
Group Communication
A
...
Cohesion: a shared identity that binds people to each other
2
...
Interdependent relationships
-the behavior of each member affects the behavior of every other member
B
...
Primary groups (family and friends)
2
...
Problem-solving groups (a group of doctors)
4
...
Focus groups (used in sociology, political science, marketing, etc
...
Self-directed work teams
C
...
Task Related Norms
2
...
Communication Norms
D
...
Task Roles: Activities needed to succeed with the task
2
...
Anti-group Roles: Activities that serve individual and hamper group objectives; work against
the counter
4
...
Group Size and Communication
A
...
Interaction is more formal
2
...
Communication is less intimate
4
...
The relationships are more complex
B
...
Cliques (coalitions) emerge
-Small subgroups of individuals who have bonded together within a group
2
...
Group Size and Contribution to Groups

1
...
Participation: opportunities decline
3
...
Communication Networks
1
...
Isolation—element of the network with fewest messages
3
...
Group Decision Making- Dewey’s Reflective Thinking
A
...
Analyzing the Problem: What is Cause?
C
...
Evaluate and choose solutions
-apply criteria
-identify potential negative consequences
E
...
Understanding Leadership
A
...
Five Sources of Power
1
...
Coercive power (power to punish)
3
...
Expert power (comes from a person’s knowledge)
5
...
Shared Leadership
1
...
Members are more motivated to perform
3
...
Leadership Styles
1
...
Participative (feel like an equal member of the group)
3
...
Achievement-oriented
II
...
Develop a clear goal
1
...


2
...
Discuss individual goals
B
...
Identify resources needed
2
...
Create timeline
4
...
Establish Communication
1
...
Schedule discussion times
D
...
Set a meeting agenda in advance
2
...
Allow for focused discussion



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