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Title: IB Biology SL Unit 1 notes
Description: Detailed revision notes (covering everything you need to know for the syllabus) for SL IB Biology students for Unit 1 from the new syllabus (first examination in 2016)
Description: Detailed revision notes (covering everything you need to know for the syllabus) for SL IB Biology students for Unit 1 from the new syllabus (first examination in 2016)
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1
...
U1
According to the cell
theory, living
organisms are
composed of cells
...
all organisms are composed of one or more cells (or cell products)
2
...
all cells come from preexisting cells (cells multiply through divisions,
all life is evolved from simpler ancestors)
4
...
Cells contain genetic material storing instructions needed for cell
activities
6
...
1
...
Striated muscle:
challenges the idea that a cell has 1 nucleus
have 1+ nuclei (multinucleated)
called fibres ( 300mm long, e
...
ribosome just 30nm)
Aseptate fungal hyphae:
challenges the idea that a cell is a single unit
continuous cytoplasm, very large, many nuclei
(have a cell wall composed of chitin)
tubular systems of hyphae from network called mycelium
Giant algae (Acetabularia):
challenges that cells have to be small and
simple structured
5100 mm
complex, consists of 3 anatomical parts:
bottom rhizoid, long stalk, top umbrella of
branches that may fuse into a cap
1
...
S1
Use of a light
microscope to
investigate the
structure of cells and
tissues, with drawing
of cells
...
(Practical
1) [ Scale bars are
useful as a way of
indicating actual sizes
in drawings and
micrographs
...
01m, 1m= 100cm
1m= 0
...
000001m, 1mm= 1000 μ
1nm= 0
...
1
...
[Students
are expected to be
M
etabolism the web of all the enzymecatalysed reactions in a cell or
organism, e
...
respiration (metabolic reactions occur on membranes, rate of
metabolism is a function of cell’s mass/volume)
R
eproduction living things produce offspring, either sexually or asexually
(done to restore a viable SA:Vol ratio)
able to name and
briefly explain these
functions of life:
nutrition, metabolism,
growth, response,
excretion, homeostasis
and reproduction
...
1
...
g
...
g
...
[
Chlorella or
Scenedesmus are
suitable photosynthetic
unicells, but Euglena
should be avoided as it
can feed
heterotrophically
...
1
...
Rate of reaction in cell is proportional to value
...
g
...
g
...
1
...
U4
Multicellular organisms
have properties that
emerge from the
interaction of their
cellular components
...
1
...
The evolution of multicellular organisms allowed cell specialization and cell
replacement
...
1
...
All (diploid) cells of an individual organisms share an identical genome each
cell contains the entire set of genetic instructions for that organism
...
1
...
Stem cells
are unspecialised cells that can:
•Can continuously divide and replicate
•Have the capacity to differentiate into specialised cell types
Still present in adults e
...
in bone marrow, allowing repair
Totipotent
Can differentiate into any type of cell
...
Multipotent
Can differentiate into a few closelyrelated types of cell
...
g
...
Therapeutic provide therapies for diseases or other health problems
Induced pluripotent (IPS)
differentiated cells can be reprogrammed to return
to stemlike cells
1
...
A3
Use of stem cells to
treat Stargardt’s
disease and one other
named condition
...
1
...
Comparison of stem cell sources
Embryo
Cord blood
Adult
Ease of
extraction
Can be obtained
from excess
embryos
generated by
IVF programs
...
Though limited
quantities
available
Difficult to obtain
as there are
very few and are
buried deep in
tissues
Ethics of the
extraction
Can only be
obtained by
destruction of an
embryo
Umbilical cord is
removed at birth
and discarded
whether or not
stem cells are
harvested
Adult patient
can give
permission for
cells to be
extracted
Growth potential
Almost unlimited
Tumor risk
Higher risk of
development
Lower risk of development
Differentiation
Can differentiate
into any cell
type
Limited capacity
to differentiate
(without
inducement only
naturally divide
into blood cells)
Reduced potential (compared to
embryonic cells)
Limited capacity
to differentiate
(dependent on
the source
tissue)
Genetic damage
Compatibility
Less chance of genetic damage
than adult cells
Stem cells are
not genetically
identical to the
patient
Due to
accumulation of
mutations
through the life
of the adult
genetic damage
can occur
Fully compatible with the patient as
the stem cells are genetically
identical
Through stem cells development might pave the way for future discoveries and
beneficial technologies, may cure serious diseases and disabilities, less likely
to be rejected, stem cells could be taken from embryos that would have died
anyway, taken from embryo when no development no pain
Embryonic stem cells can develop into cancer, that thing about college
students, “playing God” argument, cloning humans danger
1
...
U1
Prokaryotes have a
simple cell structure
without
compartmentalization
...
g
...
2
...
●
●
●
●
1
...
U3
Electron microscopes
have a much higher
resolution than light
microscopes
...
g
...
g
...
5 (contains digestive enzymes), cytosol pH 7
...
1
100
100,000
Light microscope (limited by
resolution of visible light), usually
limited by x1000
0
...
2
200
Electron microscope (electrons
have a shorter wavelength)
0
...
001
Ultrastructure
all structures of a biological specimen that are at least 0
...
2
...
Check p 21 of Oxford book for organelle functions
Exocrine gland cells function
secrete substances, which they release
through their plasma membrane, have organelles needed to synthesize
proteins
Palisade mesophyll cells ain function is photosynthesis, producing organic
m
compounds from carbon dioxide, producing other simple inorganic
compounds, using light energy, cell has cylindrical shape,
1
...
A2
Prokaryotes divide by
binary fission
...
2
...
[Drawings
of prokaryotic cells
should show the cell
wall, pili and flagella,
and plasma membrane
enclosing cytoplasm
that contains 70S
ribosomes and a
nucleoid with naked
DNA
...
2
...
[Drawings
of eukaryotic cells
should show a plasma
membrane enclosing
cytoplasm that
contains 80S
ribosomes and a
nucleus, mitochondria
and other
membranebound
organelles are present
in the cytoplasm
...
]
1
...
S3
1
...
U1
Interpretation of
electron micrographs
to identify organelles
and deduce the
function of specialized
cells
...
[Amphipathic
phospholipids have
hydrophilic and
hydrophobic
properties
...
3
...
Integral proteins:
permanently embedded
...
They
are important for cell
recognition by immune system
and are hormone receptors
Function of membrane
proteins:
T
ransport through protein
channels (facilitated) and
protein pumps (active)
R
eceptors for peptidebased
hormones like insulin,
glucagon (hormone binding
sites)
A
nchorage for attaching to
cytoskeleton and extracellular
matrix (extracellular molecules
secreted by cells that provides
structural and biochemical
support to the surrounding
cells
...
g
...
g
...
3
...
Cholesterol (type of lipid) function in membranes: makes the phospholipids
pack more tightly and regulates the fluidity and flexibility of the membrane
...
3
...
1
...
S1
Drawing of the fluid
mosaic model
...
Individual
phospholipid
molecules should be
shown using the
symbol of a circle with
two parallel lines
attached
...
Fluidity is needed so that:
● Cell can move
● The required substances can move across the membrane
Cholesterol’s role in membrane fluidity:
1
...
Cholesterol disrupts regular packing of hydrocarbon tails, which can
crystallize and behave like solids
3
...
Due to its shape cholesterol helps membranes curve into concave
shape
glycoproteins
...
3
...
Membranes appeared as 2 dark (proteins are dark in electron micrographs)
parallel lines with a lighter coloured (phospholipids) region in between
...
3
...
Falsifying DD model:
By freeze fracturing (rapid freezing of cell then fracturing it, fracture occurs
along lines of weakaness including centre of membranes) that revealed an
irregular rough surface in phospholipid bilayer, globular structures
(transmembrane proteins)
Our current model SingerNicolson fluid mosaic model (what is shown
above from 1972)
Biochemical techniques showed that: membrane proteins are varied in size
and globular in shape, the membrane proteins have hydrophobic regions,
proteins are unable to form continuous layers in the periphery of the
membrane
Fluorescent antibody tagging technique: red/green markers attached to
antibodies that bind to membrane proteins, some cell proteins were tagged
with red maker and others with green marker, the cells were fused together,
within 40 mins the red and green markers were mixed throughout the
membrane of the fused cell → membrane proteins are free to move they are
not fixed in the peripheral layer
1
...
U1
Particles move across
membranes by simple
diffusion, facilitated
diffusion, osmosis and
active transport
...
Usually through partially
permeable membranes
Rate of diffusion is affected by:
1
...
Surface area (higher SA:Vol ratio better, e
...
folded membranes)
3
...
They recognise a particular molecule and
help it to move across membrane, usually through protein channels
Osmosis process by which molecules of a solvent tend to pass
a
through a semipermeable membrane from a less concentrated solution
into a more concentrated one (where water molecules have formed
intermolecular bonds with molecules restricting their movement)
...
Integral protein pumps (globular proteins)
use
energy from hydrolysis of ATP to move ions or large molecules across the cell
membrane
...
Respiration: ADP+P → ATP used
again later
...
Conc
...
4
...
Osmosis is important in plants cells, coz with little water the cell membrane
separates from the cell wall (plasmolyzed hypertonic cell), normal osmosis
(isotonic, flaccid cell), too little water coming out (hypotonic, turgid)
Same hypertonic (due to high osmolarity), isotonic, hypotonic (due to low
osmolarity) in red blood cells
Isotonic (attained through osmosis) saline solution is useful in:
● Fluids introduction to a patient’s blood system via an intravenous drip,
e
...
for rehydration
● Used to rinse wounds, skin abrasions
● Keep areas of damaged skin moist before applying skin grafts
● Eye drops/wash
● Frozen and used pack donor organs for transportation
1
...
A1
Structure and function
of sodium–potassium
pumps for active
transport and
sodiumpotassium pump as an example of active transport in axons
(carry
nerve impulses):
1
...
2
...
4
...
6
...
At 1 stage of a nerve impulse
there are relatively more positive charges inside→ voltage change → K
channels open→ K ions break bond with water and diffuse out of axon into
protein with which (amino acids) they form temporary intermolecular bond at
narrowest part of the channel (pore)→ K can again become associated with
H20 molecules,( but H20 was too small to fit into the pore, so they broke off
before)→ voltage conditions changes channel closes again
1
...
U3
Vesicles move
materials within cells
...
They either carry the contents of the vesicle or they move coz of proteins in
their membranes
E
...
in secretory cells they carry proteins produced by ribosomes in rER to
Golgi apparatus, which then modifies them and through vesicles take the
byproducts to membrane
They also carry proteins and phospholipids made for the membrane to the
membrane, they fuse with membrane
...
4
...
Endocytosis the taking in of external substances by an inward pouching
of the plasma membrane, forming a vesicle
...
E
...
in placenta proteins from mother’s blood, including antibodies, are
absorbed into the fetus using endocytosis
...
Phagocytosis
endocytosis of solid particle forming a phagosome
(food vacuole)
2
...
Receptormediated endocytosis
receptors identify bring a coated
vesicle (with coat proteins) to the area
Exocytosis the release (secretion when a useful substance is released
not a waste product) of substances form a cell when a vesicle joins with
the cell plasma membrane
...
g
...
here are 2 types:
T
1
...
Regulated secretion
occurs in response to a trigger, e
...
the
release of neurotransmitters
1
...
S1
Estimation of
osmolarity in tissues
by bathing samples in
hypotonic and
hypertonic solutions
...
]
Estimation of osmolarity
simple lab with many possible variations
Osmosis is due to solutes that form bonds with water
...
g
...
Cells contain many osmotically
active solutes
Osmolarity of solution total concentration of osmotically active solutes
(mOSm) unit
...
5
...
Pasteur’s experiment
to test whether sterile nutrient broth could
spontaneously generate microbial life, two experiments, broth added to both
flasks, flasks heated then one exposed to air the other not, the one exposed to
air turned cloudy the other not→ spontaneous generation as for growth of
microbes to occur a source of contamination was needed→ spontaneous
generation of cells and organisms does not now occur on Earth
1
...
U1
Cells can only be
formed by division of
preexisting cells
...
]
There is an unbroken chain of life from the first cells on Earth to all cells in
organisms alive today
→ Cells can only be formed by division of preexisting cells
Evidence: cells are too complex to be made from smth else but division, all
known example are of cell division, genetic code is universal each of the 64
codons (combination of the 3 DNA bases) producing same amino acid in
translation regardless of organism
1
...
U2
The first cells must
have arisen from
nonliving material
...
g
...
It
contained H2, N2, H20, NH4, CH4, H sulfide (“primeval soup”)
1) Production of carbon compounds like amino acids and sugars:
Miller and Urey recreated conditions (low oxygen, high radiation levels, high
temperatures, electrical storms) of prebiotic Earth in a closed system: water
boiled → vapour → vapour +methane +ammonia +H2 → electrical discharge
on the gas mixture to stimulate lightning → cool → simple amino acids,
complex oily hydrocarbons → under conditions of prebiotic Earth organic
molecules could be formed
2)
Assembly of carbon compounds into polymers:
The conditions in Miller’s and Urey’s experiment hydrolysed the carbon
compounds formed preventing polymers forming
...
In
the earlier stages there might have been just RNA, which can selfreplicate,
catalyse itself
1
...
U3
The origin of
eukaryotic cells can be
explained by the
endosymbiotic theory
...
The origin
of eukaryote cilia and
flagella does not need
to be included
...
Organelles originated from symbioses between separate singlecelled
organisms
Endosymbiont a cell which lives inside another cell with mutual benefit
development of nucleus
prokaryote develops and grows→ cell membrane
folds to maintain a good SA:Vol ratio→ pinches off forming internal membrane
→ nucleus
development of mitochondria
aerobic proteobacterium enters a larger
anaerobic prokaryote (possibly as prey or a parasite) > survives digestion,
becomes valuable endosymbiont→ provides prokaryote with ATP→ prokaryote
becomes strong among competitors → when prokaryote divides, daughter cell
contains proteobacterium → mitochondria
Development of chloroplast similar to development of mitochondria
...
6
...
[The
● TISSUE REPAIR: New cells are required to replace dead, damaged
sequence of events in
cells
the four phases of
mitosis should be
● ASEXUAL REPRODUCTION
known
...
From
anaphase onwards,
phase temporary or permamnet
when sister chromatids
have separated to
form individual
structures, they should
be referred to as
chromosomes
...
Chromosomes:
● Both chromosome copies are required for the cell to function
● Humans have 23 pairs of chromosomes, (n=23), (2n=46), frog
(n=13), corn (n=10), dogs (n=39)
● Gametes are
haploid (
cells with a half a set of unpaired
chromosomes, as they will pair up with the other half in fertilisation)
● Somatic cell
has two sets of chromosomes, one from the mother, the
other from the father
Centromeres
hold sister chromatids together during prophase and metaphase
Sister chromatids
duplicated chromosomes attached by a centromere
...
The pair is held together by
centrosome
(
protein mass that links 2 centrioles)
Spindle microtubules (spindle fibres)
Chromatid
each of the two threadlike strands into which a chromosome
divides longitudinally during cell division
...
Prophase:
● Centrosomes move to opposite poles of the cell and spindle fibres
begin to form between them
● DNA supercoils, as chromatin condenses and becomes sister
chromatids, which are visible under a light microscope
● The nuclear membrane is broken down and disappears
Metaphase
● Spindle fibres from the 2 centrosomes attach to the centromere to
each pair of sister chromatids
● Contraction of the microtubule spindle fibres cause the sister
chromatids to line up along the centre of the cell (equator)
Anaphase
● Continued contraction of the microtubule spindle fibres cause the
separation of the sister chromatids
● The chromatids are now referred to as chromosomes
● Chromosomes move to the opposite poles of the cell
Telophase
● Chromosomes arrive at the poles
...
6
...
6
...
Chromosomes
condense by
supercoiling during
mitosis
...
Chromosomes need
to be stored compactly to fit within the
nuclei of cells
...
Strain is placed on a DNA helix by
overwinding or underwinding of the
helix
This causes the DNA molecule to coil
back on itself becoming shorter and
wider
n
...
in eukaryotes proteins called
histones and enzymes aid the
process
This happens during the first stage of
mitosis
1
...
U4
Interphase is a very
active phase of the cell
cycle with many
processes occurring in
the nucleus and
cytoplasm
...
The phase, where the
cell carries out its normal function, i
...
Metabolic actions, otein
R
e
P
r
synthesis (only happens at interphase), increasing number of
O
rganelles, A replication (only happens at interphase), centriole
D
N
replication
G1 (Gap 1)
increased volume of the cytoplasm, organelles produced, proteins
synthesized
S (Synthesis)
DNA replication
G2 (Gap 2)
increased volume of the cytoplasm, organelles produced, proteins
synthesized
1
...
U5
Cyclins are involved in
the control of the cell
cycle
...
1
...
Cyclins bind to enzymes called cyclindependent kinases
3
...
The attachment of phosphate triggers the other proteins to become
active and carry out tasks (specific to one of the phases of the cell
cycle)
...
6
...
Tumours
abnormal group of cells that develop at any stage of life in any part
of the body
...
Mutation
a change in an organism’s genetic code, a mutation/change in the
base sequence of a certain genes can result in cancer
...
Not all mutations result in
cancers, but anything that causes a mutation has the potential to cause a
cancer
...
Mutation in
oncogene → malfunction in control of cell cycle → uncontrolled cell division →
tumour formation
Several mutations must occur in the same cell for it to become a tumour
causing cell
...
6
...
1
...
S1
Smoking → lung, mouth, throat cancer
These cancers are also more common among smokers ead and neck,
H
Bladder, Kidneys, Breast, Pancreas, Colon
Correlation ≠ causation, however laboratory investigations have found:
•more then 20 chemicals found in tobacco have caused cancers in laboratory
animals and/or humans
•More than 40 other chemicals found in tobacco have been identified as
carcinogens
Identification of phases
of mitosis in cells
viewed with a
microscope or in a
micrograph
...
]
1
...
S2
Determination of a
mitotic index from a
micrograph
...
Mitotic index =number of cells in mitosis/ total number of cells
Title: IB Biology SL Unit 1 notes
Description: Detailed revision notes (covering everything you need to know for the syllabus) for SL IB Biology students for Unit 1 from the new syllabus (first examination in 2016)
Description: Detailed revision notes (covering everything you need to know for the syllabus) for SL IB Biology students for Unit 1 from the new syllabus (first examination in 2016)