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NOTES   
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Key words  
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Subduction 
■

○

Mantle plume 
■

○

Hazards that are generated by the stress of rock beneath the 
surface  

Slab pull 
■

●

Convection cells in the asthenosphere from heat in the earth's 
core pull the plates along  

Seismic hazards  
■

○

Earthquakes which occur in the middle of tectonic plates  

Convection currents  
■

○

Plumes of abnormally hot rock within the earth’s mantle  

Intra-plate earthquakes  
■

○

Where two plates move together, the denser plate descends beneath 
the lighter plate  

The pulling force of subduction  

Earthquake distribution  

○

70% of earthquakes are in the ring of fire  
■

○

In the pacific ocean  

The oceanic fracture zone  
■

Along the mid ocean ridges  
●

○

The continental fracture zone  
■

Along the mountain ranges  
●

Divergent plate boundaries  

○

Convergent plate boundaries at the benioff zone  

○

○

E
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ridgecrest socal 

 

Intraplate  

Volcano distribution  
○

The ring of fire  
■

○

○

E
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the mid atlantic ridge  

Convergent plate boundaries  
■

○

In the pacific ocean  

Divergent plate boundaries   
■

E
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the cascade mountain range  

Hotspots  
■

E
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the hawaiian islands  

Tsunami distribution  
○

90% of tsunamis in the pacific ring of fire  
■

○
●

E
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california  

Dormant or unmarked fault lines  
■

○

E
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the himalayas  

Conservative plate boundaries 
■

○

E
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the philippines  

Collision plate boundaries  
■

●

The alps, the himalayas, etc  

○

■

●

Africa, the red sea, the dead sea, california  

In the pacific ocean  

Anywhere that earthquakes occur in water  

Divergent plate boundaries   
○

Where plates move apart 

■
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Convergent plate boundaries  
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Where plates move together 
■

●

Where plates of equal density move together, neither subducts  
■

E
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Himalayas  

Conservative plate boundaries  
○

Where plates slide against one another  
■

●

E
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Philippines  

Collision plate boundaries  
○

●

E
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Iceland  

E
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California  

Hotspots  
○

Mantle plumes rise through cracks in the crust to form active volcanoes  
■

E
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Hawaiian islands  

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NOTES   
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Key words  
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Paleomagnetism  
■

○

Results from the zone of magma striking the earths magnetic 
polarity when it cools  

Sea floor spreading  
■

A process that occurs at mid ocean ridges; new oceanic crust is 
formed through volcanic activity which gradually moves away from 
the ridge  

○

Basalt  
■

○

An igneous rock with around 50% silica content  

Andesite  
■

An igneous rock with a silica content midway between basalt and 
rhyolite  

○

Rhyolite  
■

●

Wegner  
○

1930s  

○

Mantle convection  
■

●

○

1960s  

○

Seafloor spreading  

○

1975  

○

Slab pull  
The pulling force of subduction 

Mercanton  
○

2000s 

○

Paleomagnetism  
■

●

A process that occurs at mid ocean ridges; new oceanic crust is 
formed through volcanic activity which gradually moves away from 
the ridge  

Forsyth  

■
●

Convection cells in the asthenosphere from heat in the earths core 
pull the plates along 

Hess  

■

●

An igneous rock with a very high silica content  

Results from the zone of magma striking the earths magnetic 
polarity when it cools  

The science behind movement 
○

The wilson cycle  
■

The embryonic stage 
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Rift valleys form 
○

■

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The east african rift system   

The young stage  
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The rift valleys spread to form a narrow, parallel sided 
sea  

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■

The mature stage 
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The widening of the ocean basin  
○

■

The oceanic lithosphere sinks back into the asthenosphere, 
forming an oceanic trench subduction system 
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The ocean begins to shrink and mountain ranges form at the 
periphery 
○

the continents converge along a collision zone 

How is it that the wilson cycle can start over?  
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○

E
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the mediterranean   

The end stage  
●

■

E
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the pacific ocean  

The terminal stage  
●

■

E
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the atlantic ocean   

The subduction stage  
●

■

E
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The read sea  

The collision zone remains a weak point for a rift valley 
to form   

Evidence  
■

Pangea  

■

gondwanaland and laurasia and the tethys  

■

The modern earth  

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NOTES   
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Key words 
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Benioff zone  
■

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P waves  
■

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Rolling surface waves  

Liquefaction  
■

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Secondary waves that vibrate at right angles to the source  

L waves  
■

○

Primary waves caused by compressions  

S waves  
■

○

Zones of increased seismic activity at the point of subduction  

The process by which water-saturated material can temporarily lose 
normal strength and behave like a liquid under the pressure of 
strong shaking  

Volcanoes  
○

The importance of gas content within volcanoes (on magnitude) 
■

■

○

Low  
●

Dissolved gases can escape easily which reduces pressure  

●

Creating effusive volcanoes  

High  
●

Dissolved gases cannot escape easily which increases 
pressure  

●

Creating explosive volcanoes  

The importance of lava type within volcanoes (on magnitude) 
■

Aa 
●

Effusive but hotter and faster  

●

Signified by a sloping shield volcano  
○

■

Pahoehoe  

Hawaii  

●

Explosive but cooler and slower 

●

Signified by a steeply sloping composite volcano  
○

○

The importance of boundary type (on magnitude) 
■

Divergent  
●

■

Explosive  

The importance of rock content within volcanoes (on magnitude) 
■

Basalt  
●

■

Effusive  

Rhyolite  
●

●

Effusive  

Convergent  
●

○

Chile   

Explosive  

Earthquakes  
○

○

○

○

Features of P waves  
■

Vibrations caused by compressions  

■

Move away from the fault at 8kmps 

Features of S waves  
■

Vibrate at right angles to the source  

■

Cannot travel through liquid  

■

Move away from the source at 4kmps  

Features of L waves  
■

Rolling motion  

■

High amplitude  

The importance of boundary type (on magnitude) 
■

Divergent  
●

Low magnitude  
○

■

Convergent  
●

High magnitude at the benioff zone  
○

■

E
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the mid atlantic ridge  

E
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the philippines  

Collision  
●

High magnitude 

○
■

Conservative  
●

High magnitude, shallow earthquakes  
○

○

Christchurch  
●

The city rests on damp sediment  

How geology of the land creates landslides  
■

●

E
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california  

How geology of the land creates liquefaction  
■

○

E
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the himalayas 

Nepal  
●

Situated in the middle of the himalayas  

●

Frequent earthquakes to displace sediment  

●

Frequent monsoons to saturate the displaced sediment  

General seismology  
○

Why seismology isn't exact  
■

○

Signals for events are hard to detect  

Evidence that seismology isn't exact  
■

Iceland is on a divergent boundary which should give an effusive 
volcano but eyjafjallajokull was explosive  

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NOTES   
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Key words 
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Water displacement column 

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Oblique reverse faults  

■

○

A fault with 300m of vertical and lateral offset where one plate 
moves above another  

Pyroclastic flows  
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a dense, destructive mass of very hot ash, lava fragments, and 
gases ejected explosively from a volcano and typically flowing at 
great speed 

○

Jokulhlaups 
■

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List all the primary hazards that volcanoes can produce  
○

Pyroclastic flows 
■

○

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A mass of flowing or solidified lava  

Volcanic gases  
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Gases given off by active volcanoes  

List all the secondary hazards that volcanoes can produce  
○

Lahars  
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A destructive mudflow down the slope of a volcano  

Jokulhlaup  
■

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Rock fragments and ash ejected by a volcanic eruption  

Lava flows  
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a dense, destructive mass of very hot ash, lava fragments, and 
gases ejected explosively from a volcano and typically flowing at 
great speed 

Tephra 
■

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A sub glacial outburst flood catalysed by the heat of a volcanic 
eruption   

A sub glacial outburst flood catalysed by the heat of a volcanic 
eruption   

Mount st helens 1980 
○

Pyroclastic flow 

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Dead  
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Financial loss  
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61 

$3
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5billion  

Social loss  
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0 

Farms and properties destroyed  

Environmental loss  
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Actually positive  

■

Fertile soil  

■

3 million tonnes less co2 emitted as a result of grounded planes 
caused by ash cloud spread  

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How tsunamis form 
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Earthquakes at subduction zones can cause fracturing to create an oblique 
reverse fault  

○

This causes a column of water displacement which will be pulled back down 
by gravity to create a wave train  

The boxing day tsunami  
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Tsunami  

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Involved  
■

Indian plate  

○

■

Burma microplate  

■

Sunda plate  

Dead  
■

○

Financial loss 
■

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$15 billion 

Social loss  
■

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229,000 

Whole towns swept into the sea  

Environmental loss  
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1-2000 coral islands in the maldives were destroyed  

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Key words  
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Mega disaster  
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Socio economic  
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Large scale disasters either in terms of destruction or spatial 
extent  

The interaction of social and economic factors  

Spatial predictability  

■
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Dynamic pressures  
■

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The ability to resist, absorb and recover from the effects of a 
hazard  

Vulnerability  
■

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The likelihood of exposure to a hazardous event that may lead to 
loss of life or livelihood  

Resilience 
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Social structures and processes that can influence how vulnerable 
communities are to hazards  

Risk  
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The ability to predict the location of the hazard  

The susceptibility of a human society to be damaged  

Natural hazard  
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A natural event that has the potential to threaten both life and 
property  

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Natural disaster  
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A hazard that kills 10 or affects 100 

Deggs model  
○

Explanation  
■

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A venn diagram that shows the interaction between hazards, 
disasters and human vulnerability in terms of location  

Diagram  

■
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Haiti 2010 deggs model  
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Hazardous event  

 

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Vulnerability in terms of location  
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0 earthquake  

Vulnerability in terms of location 
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A subduction zone in the ring of fire  

Disaster stats  
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Deaths  
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20,000 

Affected  
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316,000 

Doesn't matter as its over 10 deaths  

Pressure and release model  
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Explanation  
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A model that shows the interaction between hazards, disasters and 
human vulnerability caused by root causes, dynamic pressures and 
unsafe conditions  

Diagram  

 

○
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Haiti 2010 pressure and release model  
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Root causes relevant to haiti  

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Political systems  
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Economic systems  
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Decline in biodiversity  
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Dangerous locations  
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■

Hazard  
●

7
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4 billion  

Dynamic pressures relevant to haiti  
■

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Corrupt with longstanding human rights issues  

Yes  

Japan 2011 pressure and release model  
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Root causes  
■

Political systems  
●

■

Economic systems  
●

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Gdp $5
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0 earthquake  

Not really  

Using the par model as inspiration, explain why haiti had a higher death rate 
despite having a lower magnitude 
○

Because they are more vulnerable as a result of corruption and poverty  

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Key words  
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Vulnerability  
■

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Mercalli  
■

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A scale used to describe the magnitude of an earthquake based on 
seismic movement  

Northridge california 1994 
○

Magnitude  
■

○

○

○

$40 billion  

Social impacts  
■

57 dead  

■

8700 injured  

■

Valley fever  

Explain how northridge california's impacts compare to sichuan and haiti  
■

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6
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5  

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Economic impacts  
■

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Social impacts  
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69,000 dead  

■

4
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9 billion  

Social impacts  
■

1
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0 

Lower economic impacts and midrange social impacts except for a 
higher death toll  

Explain why haiti's impacts compare in this way to northridge california 
and sichuan 
■

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The lower economic impact could be due to the fact that the 
structures in place were inexpensive to build as they were not 
high quality and the high death toll could be due to the poorly 
structured buildings and poor response  

Richter  
○

Earthquake or volcano?  
■

○

Explain the scale  
■

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Earthquake  

Absolute, logarithmic scale of 1-9 

A measurement of  

■
○

Positives  
■

○

Earthquake or volcano?  
■

○

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The amount of slip on the fault, the area affected and an earth 
rigidity factor  

Positives  
■

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Logarithmic scale of 0-9 

A measurement of  
■

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Earthquake  

Explain the scale  
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Can reliably measure large earthquakes  

Negatives  
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Does not always reflect how much damage was caused  

Mercalli  
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Earthquake or volcano?  
■

○

○

Experienced impacts 

Positives  
■

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Relative, linear scale of I-XII 

A measurement of  
■

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Earthquake  

Explain the scale  
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Helpful to record the severity of earthquakes before seismographs 
were put in place  

Negatives  
■

●

It is not accurate for larger earthquakes as the seismometer 
becomes overwhelmed  

Moment magnitude scale  
○

●

Easy to compare as it is an absolute scale not subjective  

Negatives  
■

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The height of the waves  

Relative scales are subjectives so comparisons will not be 
accurate  

Volcanic explosivity index  
○

Earthquake or volcano?  
■

Volcanic explosivity index  

○

Explain the scale  
■

○

A relative, logarithmic scale of 0-8 

A measurement of  
■

Volume of volcanic products and the height of the eruption cloud 
in addition to the experienced impacts  

○

Positives  
■

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Negatives  
■

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Comparisons are not always accurate because the experienced 
impacts are relative 

Which scale is the best  
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An accurate way to measure the explosivity  

Richter  

Why is the richter scale the best scale 
○

It is absolute  

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NOTES   
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Key words  
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Hazard profiles  

■

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Mitigation  
■

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A hazard profile is a description and analysis of a specific type 
of local hazard that measures magnitude, speed of onset, duration, 
areal extent, spatial predictability and frequency 

This refers to policies which are designed to delay, reduce or 
prevent the effects of a hazard  

Hazard profiles for case studies - fill these in yourself based on your 
personal opinion of the event  
○

Japan 2011 
■

■
○

 
Magnitude  

Enormous    

Just 
above 
normal  

Speed of 
onset  

Rapid  

 

Slow  

Duration  

Long  

 

Short  

Areal Extent   Widesprea
d  

 

Limited  

Spatial 
predictabilit
y  

Random  

 

Predictab
le  

Frequency  

Frequent 

 

Very rare 

 

Haiti 2010 
■

 
Magnitude  

Enormous    

Just 
above 
normal  

Speed of 
onset  

Rapid  

 

Slow  

Duration  

Long  

 

Short  

Areal Extent   Widesprea
d  

 

Limited  

Spatial 
predictabilit
y  

Random  

 

Predictab
le  

Frequency  

Frequent 

 

Very rare 

■
●

  

Reviewing level of development as a key factor in developing hazard - 
management techniques and why the impacts are often much harsher? 
○

Christchurch 2010 
■

Level of development 
●

■

Hazard management techniques  
●

■

185 dead  

Haiti 2010 
■

Level of development 
●

■

■

Low  

Hazard management techniques  
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Not a lot because they can never recover between disasters  

Impacts  
●

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GIS 

Impacts  
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High  

316,000 dead 

Evaluation of hazard profiles  
○

○

Positives  
■

1
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Simple  

■

3
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Not an accurate comparison because its subjective  

■

2
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Scale is not specific  

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NOTES   
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Key words  
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Multiple-hazard zones 
■

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Focal depth 
■

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the depth of an earthquake hypocenter 

Spearman’s Rank correlation 
■

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Multiple hazard zones are places where two or more natural hazards 
occur 

The Spearman's Rank Correlation Coefficient is used to determine 
the strength or a correlation between two sets of data 

Haiti 2010 
○

Before the earthquake  
■

Access to education  
●

■

Access to housing  
●

■

$19
...
7% 

382/km​2 

After the earthquake  
■

Economic  
●

$13
...
3 million homeless 

●

Hospitals collapsed  

●

316,000 dead 

7
...
6%  

Millions homeless  

Access to healthcare 
Quite accessible but less accessible for ethnic minorities  

●
■

Gdp  
●

■

Population density  
●

○

Economic 
●

■

Social  
●

69,000 dead  

●

4
...
5 

Number of deaths  
■

●

$150 billion  

Magnitude of earthquake  
■

○

170/km​2 

After the earthquake  
■

○

$547
...
0  

Number of deaths  
■

●

$360 billion  

Magnitude of earthquake 
■

○

334/km​2 

After the earthquake  
■

○

$5
...
9  

○

What does this mean?  
■

There is no correlation between magnitude and number of fatalities 
which means that there must be other contributing factors  

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NOTES   
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(6) Research into the accuracy and reliability of the data to 
interpret complex trends
...
7b Tectonic mega-disasters can have regional or even global 
significance in terms of economic and human impacts
...
) 
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Key words  
○

Rapid onset disasters  
■

○

Slow onset  
■

○

A disaster which gradually emerges over time e
...
global warming 

Hydro-meteorological  
■

●

Disasters that arrive quickly and with no warning  

To do with atmospheric water  

Things to consider  
○

Hydrometeorological hazards have increased due to global warming  

○

Tectonic events themselves have not increased or decreased, just their 
effects  

○

There are fewer earthquake deaths then there were in 1975 but single 
impact megadisasters skew the data  

●

Summary of statistics 1975 - 2015  
○

Number of deaths  
■

○

Number of hazards  
■

○

The number of deaths as a result of tectonic events have dropped 
from 120,000 in 1975 to 20,000 in 2015 due to better response and 
communications 

The number of hazards becoming disasters have dropped from 900 in 
1975 to 360 in 2015 due to better preparation and response to 
mitigate damage  

Number of people affected  
■

The number of people affected by tectonic events have increased 
from 55 million in 1975 to 260 million in 2015 due to growing 
populations and higher population densities at the epicentre 
(earthquake), volcano (volcano) or coast (tsunami)  

○

Economic damage  
■

●

General significance of megadisasters regionally and globally  
○

Social  
■

●

Economic damage has increased since 1975 to $20-40 billion per 
year due to the fact that buildings cost more so there is more to 
lose
...
Of 433,000 dead, 316,000 were killed in 
the Hatian megadisaster
...
  

Fukashima nuclear disaster caused germany to abandon the 
nuclear energy programme 

Eyjafjallajokull 2010  
■

Global effects   
●

100,000 cancelled flights in europe cost companies billions  

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NOTES   
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The philippines  
○

PAR model  

■

Vulnerability  
●

Root causes  
○

●

Dynamic pressures  
○

●

Over 21% live below the poverty line  

Densely populated 336/km​2 

Unsafe conditions  
○

Over 8
...
g
...
8 Theoretical frameworks can be used to 
understand the predication, impact and management 
of tectonic hazards 
 

NOTES   
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(P: role of emergency 
planners) 
●

The hazard management cycle  

 

○
●

Japan hazard management cycle  
○

○

○

Hazard mitigation  
■

85% of tokyo buildings are aseismic  

■

Water discharge tunnels for tsunamis 

Hazard preparedness  
■

Listed as the most prepared country in the world  

■

Emergency earthquake kits  

■

Drills 4x a year 

■

Every smartphone in japan has an earthquake warning system  

Hazard response 
■

Immediate evacuation of 20km of fukushima 

○

■

Children tested for radiation poisoning  

■

Disinfectant used widely to prevent disease based deaths   

Hazard recovery  
■

Quickly rebuilt  

●

Vs 

●

Haiti hazard management cycle  
○

Hazard mitigation  
■

○

Hazard preparedness  
■

○

○

Little to none  

Little to none  

Hazard response 
■

$18,000 international aid 

■

Obama offered aids but airports were too poor to get it in time   

Hazard recovery  
■

Haiti has not yet recovered  

1
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8c Use of Park’s Model to compare the response curve of hazard 
events, comparing areas at different stages of development
...
9 Tectonic hazard impacts can be managed by a 
variety of mitigation and adaptation strategies, which 
vary in their effectiveness
...
9a Strategies to modify the event include land-use zoning, 
hazard-resistant design and engineering defences, as well as diversion 
of lava flows
...
9b Strategies to modify vulnerability and resilience include hi-tech 
monitoring, prediction, education, community preparedness and 
adaptation
...
 

Modification  
■

○

distribution in zones or regions of definite character 

Actions taken to help or eliminate long term risks caused by 
hazards and disasters such as flooding, earthquakes, wildfires, 
etc  

Modify the event aka mitigation   
○

Land use zoning  
■

Explanation  

●

■

Example  
●

■

Used in new zealand near mt taranaki  

Is it effective?  
●

○

The segregation of land use into different areas for each 
type of use: agricultural, industrial, recreational, and 
residential
...
0 underwater earthquake in 
new zealand  

Is it effective?  
■

●

Maps show where needs help and where to avoid  

Example  
■

●

Yes, if people are warned of the dangers, they 
can prepare and chances of survival increase  

Yes, it is very easy to compare and visually 
examine   

Public education  
○

Explanation  
■

○

Example  
■

○

Regular emergency procedures  

Japan runs four earthquake drills per year  

Is it effective?  
■

Yes, the general population are able to 
maintain themselves instead of relying on 
response teams  

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