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Anatomy Midterm Review: Module notes and questions
INTRODUCTION TO THE HUMAN BODY (Chapter 1)
Anatomy is the study of the structure of the human body; physiology is the study of body
function
...
The human body consists of several interrelated levels of structural organization
ranging from the least complex chemical level to the most complex organismal level
...
At the chemical level, atoms are organized into molecules that are essential for
maintaining life i
...
, carbon, hydrogen, nitrogen, oxygen, hydrogen, phosphorous and
calcium
...
e
...
Inorganic
compounds are simple and less complex than organic compounds, i
...
acids, bases and
salts
...
At the cellular level, molecules are organized into cells which are the basic structural
and functional living units of an organism
...
At the tissue level, cells are organized into tissues, which are groups of similar cells
that perform common functions
...

Epithelial tissue
ii
...

Muscle tissue
iv
...
At the organ level, several kinds of tissue are organized into organs, which are
structures that have specific functions
...
At the system level, related organs are organized into systems, which are functionally
related groups of organs that cooperate to perform a common general function
...

Integumentary System
ii
...

Muscular System
iv
...

Lymphatic System
vi
...

Endocrine System
viii
...

Digestive System
x
...

Reproductive System
7
...


Overview of the Human Body
1
...
In the
anatomical position, the body is erect with the feet flat on the floor, and the upper limbs
are at the sides with the palms facing forward
...
Regional Terms: These are names given to specific regions of the body; important
examples include cephalic, cervical, thoracic, brachial, lumbar, abdominal, pelvic, crural,
etc
...
Directional Terms: These are terms used to accurately locate one body structure
relative to another body structure; important examples include superior, inferior, anterior,
posterior, medial, lateral, proximal, distal, etc
...
Planes and Sections: The body can be sectioned into different planes for study;
important examples include frontal (coronal), transverse (horizontal), sagittal (mid- or
parasagittal) and oblique planes
...

5
...

Cranial cavity
ii
...

Thoracic cavity
iv
...

Pleural cavities
vi
...

Serous cavities
6
...


A
...


C
...

Starting with the simplest level, name in sequence the six levels of organization of
the human body
...
Basis of every living organism
...

Describe the position of the elbow relative to the shoulder, the wrist relative to the
elbow and the knee relative to the foot when the body is in the anatomical

D
...


position
...

How are you dividing the body when you divide on each of the following planes?
i
...

transverse: Up and down sections
iii
...


CELLS (Chapter 2)

A
...
An animal cell consists of three major parts:
i
...


Cytoplasm

iii
...
Plasma (Cell) Membrane
1
...
it separates the internal cellular components from the external environment
b
...

2
...

3
...

4
...
phospholipids, which form a bilayer that is the basic framework of the plasma
membrane

b
...
sugar groups (glycolipids) are attached to the lipids and perform functions on
the membrane's outer surface
...
The membrane proteins include:
a
...
peripheral proteins, which are located on the inner and outer surfaces of the
phospholipid bilayer
...
Membrane proteins perform a variety of important functions:
a
...
some proteins are carriers that transport specific substances across the
membrane
c
...
some proteins are enzymes
e
...
some glycoproteins (and glycolipids) are cell identity markers involved in
recognition of other cells
...
Due to its chemistry and structure, the plasma membrane performs several major
functions:
a
...
provides shape to a cell and protection to intracellular components
c
...
has selective permeability that selectively regulates the passage of specific
substances into and out of the cell
...
Specific substances move across the plasma membrane by either passive processes or
active processes
...
In passive processes, substances move across a plasma membrane, due to their own
kinetic energy, down a concentration gradient or pressure gradient
...

simple diffusion is a process in which substances move down a concentration gradient
without any aid provided by membrane components
b
...

osmosis is a process in which water molecules diffuse down their concentration gradient
through membrane channels and between neighboring phospholipids

d
...

10
...
Movement of charged substances, large
substances mainly through protein channels
...

There are several types of active processes for transport of large PARTICLES: i
...
,
endocytosis and exocytosis
...
phagocytosis ("cell eating") ii
...
receptor-mediated endocytosis (involving a
membrane receptor)
B) Exocytosis is a process in which intracellular membrane-enclosed substances
are released into the extracellular fluid by membrane fusion with the plasma membrane
C
...
The cytosol is the intracellular fluid (jelly-like substance) in which organelles and
inclusions are suspended and in which solutes are dissolved; collectively, all of these
intracellular components form the cytoplasm
...
The cytosol is the site of numerous events such as chemical reactions and the
packaging of substances for transport elsewhere
...
Organelles
1
...


2
...
largest organelle, usually spherical or oval shape
b
...
contains one or more nucleoli where the subunits of ribosomes are produced
d
...
non-dividing cells contain chromatin (loosely packed DNA) in clumps about
the nucleus; dividing cells contain tightly packed DNA that copied itself before
dividing to form paired chromatids
f
...
Ribosomes
a
...
some float in the cytosol (free ribosomes) whereas others are attached to the
endoplasmic reticulum
c
...
involves TRANSCRIPTION where DNA is coded into messenger RNA
(mRNA) in the nucleus
...
Endoplasmic reticulum (ER)
a
...
rough (granular) ER membranes are studded with ribosomes that synthesize
proteins destined to be secreted or delivered to the Golgi apparatus, lysosomes or
to the plasma membrane
c
...


5
...
series of flattened, membrane-enclosed sacs stacked upon each other
b
...
modifies, sorts, and packages these proteins (and lipids) into vesicles for
delivery to lysosomes, the plasma membrane or to be secreted
6
...
spherical membrane-enclosed sacs
b
...
Peroxisomes
a
...
contain enzymes that use molecular oxygen (oxidases or catalases) to oxidize
various organic molecules
c
...
Mitochondria
a
...
double membrane, inner cavity called matrix, inner membrane folds celled
crista
c
...
self-replicating organelles that contain their own (mitochondrial) DNA
9
...
network of three types of protein filaments that provide shape to the cell and
play roles in cell movements as well as in movements of organelles within cells:
i
...


microfilaments are thin filaments that perform these functions (as
well as playing a role in muscle cell contraction (actin and myosin)
or phagocytosis (pseudopod formation)

iii
...
Cilia and Flagella
a
...

cilia are typically short and numerous; cilia are found in several types of human cells
where their function is to move materials past the surfaces of these cells (e
...
, move mucus along
the surfaces of cells that form the inner lining of the respiratory tract)
c
...
Centrosome and Centrioles
a
...
each centriole consists of a bundle of parallel microtubules
c
...
centrioles also play a role in the development of flagella and cilia

12
...
Cell inclusions are aggregates or granules of primarily organic molecules
located in the cytosol
...
They are diverse in chemical composition, shape, and longevity
...
Examples include granules of melanin (in skin cells), glycogen or glycosomes
(in liver cells), and lipid droplets (in fat cells)
...


Describe the main components of a typical cell
...


Describe the major components of a typical cell membrane
...
(head of phosphate and tail of lipids with phosphate
pointing out into ECF and in towards ICF) there are proteins embedded in the
bilayer and some resting on top to help in the transport of ions
...


What is active transport and how is it different from passive transport? Active
transport uses energy to move ions against the gradient while passive transport
does not require energy and moves ions with the gradient
...


What are the structure and function of the following cytoplasmic organelles?
i
...


ii
...
Function in protein synthesis
...


iii
...
Folded in
shape
...


iv
...


v
...


lysosomes:

What is a centrosome, describe its function
...
A tissue is a group of cells that usually have a common function and similar in
structure
...
The body is composed of four major families of tissues:
i
...


ii
...


iii
...


iv
...


3
...


EPITHELIUM AND GLANDS

A
...
Divided into two major types:
i
...


glandular epithelium

2
...
usually closely packed cells with little extracellular material between adjacent
cells
b
...
cells have apical surface and basal surface (attached to basement membrane)
d
...
avascular tissue that receives nutrients from adjacent connective tissue via
diffusion
f
...
high capacity for cell division in order to replace cells lost due to wear and tear
and injury
h
...
Classification of Covering and Lining Epithelium
a
...
arrangement into layers:
i
...


Stratified epithelium (several layers of cells)

iii
...


Transitional (cells that undergo changes in shape and therefore is
located in areas subject to stretching (e
...
, urinary bladder)

c
...


Squamous cells are flattened

ii
...

ii
...


Columnar cells are tall and cylindrical or rectangular
Transitional cells are able to undergo changes in shape caused by
distension
Special features: microvilli, cilia, basal lamina

B
...
specialized epithelial cells organized to form glands that secrete substances
into ducts, onto a surface, or into the blood
b
...
g
...

c
...
g
...
g
...

STRUCTURAL CLASSIFICATION:
a
...
e
...
multicellular glands usually secrete their products into a duct; classified
according to structure of the duct: simple (unbranched) or compound
(branched ducts) and according to structure of the secretory units: tubular
(secretory cells form tubes) or alveolar (secretory units form small sacs) or
tubuloalveolar (tubes and sacs)

FUNCTIONAL CLASSIFICIATION:
a
...
Apocrine glands the apical portion of the cell contains the secretory product
and this portion of the cell is pinched off and released; may not be found in
humans
...


Holocrine glands (i
...
sebaceous oil gland) the whole cell degenerates and is
released as the secretory product

Endocrine glands are ductless (e
...
, thyroid gland, adrenal glands) and secrete hormones which
diffuse through the extracellular fluid into the blood
...
Connective tissue is the most abundant and most widely distributed tissue in the body
...
Four main classes; connective tissue proper, cartilage, bone and blood
2
...
binds together, supports and strengthens other tissues b
...
compartmentalizes certain structures (e
...
,
skeletal muscles) d
...
adipose (fat)
tissue stores energy reserves
...
General features of connective tissue:
a
...
not located on free surfaces
c
...
has a rich blood supply (except in cartilage and tendons)
e
...
g
...
Connective tissue cells have the following characteristics:

a
...
g
...
mature cells have names that end with -cyte (e
...
, osteocyte); they usually have a reduced
capacity for cell division and matrix secretion; their major role is maintenance of the matrix
c
...
Connective tissue matrix consists of:
a
...
fibers including:
i
...


elastic fibers which provide strength and elasticity (i
...
, arteries)

iii
...
Classification of connective tissue proper:
A
...
Mature connective tissue:
C
...

ii
...


Areolar connective tissue (ex
...
Dense connective tissue has densely arranged fibers in the matrix
i
...
Dense irregular connective tissue
- contains fibroblasts scattered among randomly oriented
collagen fibers
- located in dermis of skin, periosteum, heart valves, etc
...
Elastic connective tissue
- contains fibroblasts scattered among elastic fibers
- located in walls of elastic arteries, bronchial tubes, etc
...
Bone, Cartilage and Blood, will be discussed later
...


What are the two main types of epithelial tissue?

B
...


What is the difference between exocrine and endocrine glands?

D
...


Name the four main types of tissues found in the body?

F
...


Name two types of loose and dense connective tissue
...
Introduction
The integumentary system includes the skin and its derivatives including hair, nails, and
glands
...
Skin
1
...

2
...

outer, thinner layer called the epidermis
ii
...
Beneath the dermis is a subcutaneous layer or hypodermis which attaches the skin to
the underlying tissues and organs
...
The epidermis has a number of important characteristics:
i
...

it contains four major types of cells:
a
...
melanocytes, which produce the pigment melanin
c
...
Merkel cells, which are believed to function in the sensation of
touch
iii
...
stratum basale (deepest layer), where continuous cell division
occurs which produces all the other layers
b
...
stratum granulosum (cells contain numerous granules of
keratohyaline-precursor of keratin)
d
...
stratum corneum (surface layer), composed of many sublayers of
flat, dead cells that are continuously shed and replaced by cells
from deeper strata
iv
...
The dermis has several important characteristics:
i
...
the outer papillary region consists of areolar connective tissue
containing fine elastic fibers, dermal papillae, and sensory
receptors
b
...
The subcutaneous layer is located below the dermis, contains connective tissue (fat
tissue), nerve and blood supply
7
...

regulation of body temperature
ii
...

sensation
iv
...

immunity
vi
...

synthesis of vitamin D
8
...

C
...
Epidermal derivatives are organs that develop from the embryonic epidermis
...
These organs include hair, skin glands, and nails
...
Hair (pili) have a number of important characteristics:
i
...

hair is composed of dead, keratinized epidermal cells
ii
...
shaft which projects above the surface
b
...
hair follicle which surrounds the root
-the shaft and root of a hair consists of three parts:
1
...
the middle cortex; largest portion contains keratinocytes and pigment granules;
3
...
consists of external root sheath; epidermal cells, all layers of the epidermis
2
...
bulb: base of hair follicle, consists of a matrix of stem cells (stratum basale) surrounding a
small bump or nipple called the papilla of the hair, the matrix cells develop into new hair cells
and form the internal root sheath, small capillaries in the papilla supply nutrients to the hair root
...
hair grows due to cell division occurring in the matrix of the bulb,
located at the base of a hair follicle
iv
...
the color of hair is determined primarily by the presence of melanin

4
...

i
...

they secrete an oily substance called sebum which prevents dehydration of
hair and skin, and inhibits growth of certain bacteria
iii
...
Sudoriferous (sweat) glands produce sweat (perspiration) which helps to cool the body
by evaporating, and also eliminates small amounts of waste
Numerous eccrine (merocrine) sweat glands which have an excretory duct that opens at a
pore at the surface of the epidermis are located over the entire body except nipples and
parts of external genitalia
...
Produce a viscous fatty, protein containing sweat secretion-causes body odor
...
NAILS are composed of hard, keratinized epidermal cells located over the dorsal
surfaces of the ends of fingers and toes
...
Each nail consists of:
a
...
transparent nail body with a whitish lunula at its base (region of
thickened nail matrix)
c
...
Associated with a nail are:
a
...
nail matrix in which cell division occurs resulting in growth of the nail
iii
...


MODULE REVIEW QUESTIONS
A
...

C
...

E
...


What structures make up the integumentary system?
Where is the papillary region?
Name the five layers of the epidermis found in thick skin
...


SKELETAL SYSTEM: BONE AND CARTILAGE TISSUE (Chapter 6)

The skeletal system consists of two types of specialized connective tissues: cartilage and bone:

A
...
Chondrocytes are found in cavities of the matrix called
lacunae
...
There are three kinds of cartilage based on
type and amount of fibers embedded in the matrix
...


ii
...


Hyaline cartilage
- has fine collagen fibers
- is most abundant type of cartilage
- located on ends of long bones, nose, trachea, etc
...

- provides strength and rigidity
Elastic cartilage
- contains network of elastic fibers
- located in epiglottis, external ear, etc
...


Compact (dense) bone composed of osteons (Haversian systems)

ii
...


1
...

2
...


support

ii
...


movement

iv
...


site of blood cell production: hemopoiesis, which occurs in red
marrow

vi
...
Anatomy: Structure of Bone (Bones are classified according to shape; long, short, flat and
irregular bones)
1
...


A typical long bone consists of the following regions:
diaphysis

ii
...


metaphyses, which are regions that include the epiphyseal plate
- latter is replaced by epiphyseal line when bone lengthening stops

iv
...


periosteum

vi
...


endosteum

D
...


Osseous tissue contains abundant matrix surrounding widely separated cells
...


There are four major types of cells present:

i
...


osteoblasts produce the bone tissue matrix

iii
...


osteoclasts function in bone resorption

3
...


mineralization or calcification of bone tissue gives bone hardness
ii
...


There are two major types of bone tissue:

i
...


forms the external layer of all bones

b
...


consists of numerous neighboring osteons (Haversian systems)

ii
...


consists of trabeculae arranged in an irregular latticework

b
...


forms most of the interior of short, flat, and irregular bones as well
as most of the interior of epiphyses of long bones

E
...
Ossification begins around the sixth or seventh week of embryonic life and continues
throughout adulthood
...
Bone formation occurs via one of two processes in which pre-existing connective tissue is
replaced by bone tissue:
i
...
e
...


ENDOCHONDRAL OSSIFICATION occurs within a hyaline cartilage
matrix (most bones form this way)

F
...
Lengthening of a bone occurs at an epiphyseal plate
...
Growth in bone diameter occurs as osteoblasts from the periosteum add
new bone tissue to the outer surface
...
Ossification of most bones is usually completed by age 25

G
...
Remodelling is a continuous process in which worn and injured bone
tissue is replaced by new bone tissue
...
Osteoclasts resorb old bone tissue and osteoblasts form the new bone
tissue
...
Blood and Nerve Supply
1
...

2
...

MODULE REVIEW QUESTIONS

A
...


What is the difference between hyaline, fibrous and elastic cartilage?

C
...


D
...


What are the main parts of a typical long bone
...


What is the difference between osteoblasts, osteoclasts and osteocytes?

SKELETAL SYSTEM: AXIAL SKELETON (Chapter 7)

Divisions of the Skeletal System
The 206 bones in the adult skeleton are grouped in two major divisions:
i
...
skull bones b
...
hyoid bone d
...
sternum f
...


appendicular skeleton consists of 126 bones that form: a
...
upper extremities c
...
lower
extremities

PLEASE NOTE: YOU ARE NOT EXPECTED TO LEARN ALL THE BONES OR THEIR
SURFACE MARKINGS
...
The skull consists of CRANIAL (protect brain) AND FACIAL (attachments for facial
muscles, support and protect sensory organs) BONES
Cranial Bones:
Frontal: forms forehead and roof of orbit and anterior floor of cranial cavity,
contains frontal paranasal sinus
Parietal: sides and roof of cranial cavity
Temporal: lateral wall of cranial cavity, note, zygomatic process, external
auditory meatus, mastoid process and mandibular fossa (TMJ)
Occipital: posterior part of cranial cavity, foramen magnum
Spenoid: middle part at base of skull, sphenoidal paranasal sinus
Ethmoid: forms cranial floor, lateral nasal walls and part of nasal septum,
cribriform plate and olfactory nerves, ethmoidal paranasal sinus

Facial Bones: maxillae, zygomatic, mandible

2
...
Fontanelles are fibrous connective tissue membrane-filled spaces located between the
cranial bones of infants
...
They become ossified during
the first 2 years of childhood
...
The hyoid bone is a U-shaped bone, located in the upper neck, that does not articulate
with any other bone
...
It supports the tongue and is an attachment site for several tongue, neck, and pharynx
muscles
...
The vertebral column (spine) is a strong, flexible rod that: i
...
supports the head iii
...

2
...


7 cervical vertebrae

ii
...


5 lumbar vertebrae

iv
...


one (or two) coccyx formed by fusion of (usually) 4 coccygeal
vertebrae

3
...


they form strong joints, permit various movements of the spine,
and absorb vertical shock

4
...
They increase the strength of the spine, help
maintain balance in the upright position, absorb shock during
walking and protect the spine from fracture
...
The skeletal portion of the thorax (chest) is a cage formed by several bones; the
thoracic cage surrounds and protects organs in the thoracic cavity and upper
abdominal cavity as well as providing support for the bones of the pectoral girdles
and upper extremities
...
The bones (each having specific surface markings) of the thoracic cage are:
i
...


12 pairs of ribs: a
...
pairs 8-12
are false ribs, pairs 11-12 are floating ribs

iii
...


How many bones in the human body?

B
...


What are the general features of a common vertebrae and how
many vertebrae are found in the cervical, thoracic, lumbar, sacral
and coccygeal regions?

D
...


Name the paranasal sinuses
...
The appendicular skeleton contains 126 bones that form:
i
...


two upper extremities

iii
...


two lower extremities

PLEASE NOTE: YOU ARE NOT EXPECTED TO LEARN ALL THE BONES OR THEIR
SURFACE MARKINGS
...
Pectoral (Shoulder) Girdles

1
...

2
...


Clavicle (collarbone) a
...
acromial extremity (contributes to the
acromioclavicular joint)

ii
...
Upper Extremity
1
...


Humerus is located in the arm; articulates with the pectoral girdle in the
glenoid cavity and articulates with both the radius and ulna of the forearm,
medial and lateral epicondyles
...


Ulna is located in the medial aspect of the forearm; olecranon
...


Radius is located in the lateral aspect of the forearm; note interosseous
membrane between radius and ulna

iv
...
5 metacarpal bones
(palm), note base, shaft and head of carpals, metacarpophalangeal joint
forms the knuckle

vi
...
Pelvic (Hip) Girdle
1
...

2
...

3
...
Note ischial tuberosity on

ischium
...

4
...

5
...
pelvic brim b
...
lesser (true) pelvis d
...
pelvic outlet
6
...
Female pelvis if wider and shallower
...

D
...


Femur is located in the thigh; note: head, neck, greater and lesser
trochanters, shaft, medial and lateral condyles

ii
...


Tibia (shinbone) is the larger and medial bone in the leg; weight bearing
leg bone; note: medial and lateral condyles, medial malleolus

iv
...


The tarsus consists of 7 tarsal bones: ankle is called talus bone, heel is
called calcaneus bone

vi
...


14 phalanges are located in the toes;

viii
...

longitudinal arch (with medial and lateral parts) b
...


MODULE REVIEW QUESTIONS

A
...


B
...


C
...


D
...




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