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Unit 1 Psychology Revision Guide
(Child Social Development)
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Specification
Early relationships
Attachment, and the role of caregiver-infant interactions in the development of attachment, including reference
to human and animal studies
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Secure and insecure attachment
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Possible short-term and long-term consequences of privation and deprivation
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The work of Bowlby, Schaffer, Ainsworth and van Ijzendoorn
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Age-related changes in friendship
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Research into the causes and consequences of popularity and rejection
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This bond
is usually characterised by a desire for closeness or proximity to a particular person and by distress when the tie
is broken
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The studies found that by 18 months
most children had formed more than one attachment figure (as many as 5)
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This show that babies do not normally demonstrate
monotropy and it is usual for a child to have several attachment figures
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- Diffuse (6 weeks- 6 months): Babies show no particular preference and will be comforted by anyone
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- Multiple attachments (from 12 months): Babies will show attachment towards several figures by 18 months
some infants have as many as 5 attachments
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Klaus & Kennell (1976) a critical period after birth where mothers who hold their babies have a better
relationship compared to those who don’t
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Study: Melzoff & Moore (1977)
Interactional synchrony: Condon and Sander (1974) babies engage in ‘turn-talking’
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Isabella at al (1989) mother-infant who were securely attached had shown more instances of
interactional synchrony in home obvs made in the 1st year
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Motherese: adapted talk for babies
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It helps draw children into conversation
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Harlow (1965): Infant monkey
- Aim: To determine the role of food and comfort on attachment by rearing baby monkeys in isolation
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- Results: The infant monkeys clung to the soft surrogates, ran to them if afraid and used them as a safe base
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- Conclusions: The conduct with the soft model seemed to be important in the formation of attachment
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The function of attachment and Bowlby
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Bowlby (1953) Evolutionary theory: Attachment is biologically pre-programmed into children at birth
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- Evolves and persists because of its adaptiveness
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- Psychical appearance
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- These stimulate caregiving from adults
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- Cupboard love: babies attach for food
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- Communication: Bower (1979): babies attach to those who can best communicate with them
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- Internal working model: early relationships acts as a model for future ones
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 Treated badly: will be wary of others and avoid relationships
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- He emphasised the importance of the mothers love in infancy (Maternal deprivation hypothesis)
- Children need to have continuous presence of one primary career (monotropy) and close attachment for the
first 2 years
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- If attachment is broken they will suffer irreversible long term consequences:
 Delinquency
 Affectionless psychopathy
 Intellectual retardation
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Method: Interviewed 44 teenagers who involved with criminal activity, and living with biological parents, in
order to assess whether they exhibited signs of affectionless psychopathy
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He matched them up with teens who’d be classified as
affectionless psychopaths with those who ad prolonged maternal deprivation
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- Results: of the 44 children identified as affectionless psychopaths 12 had experienced prolonged maternal
deprivation, compared to non-delinquents where only 2 had experienced prolonged maternal deprivation
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Goldfarb (1943): study on 15 pairs of children 10-14 of children who were adopted
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Goldfarb found that the institution group performed
significantly less well on an emotion and cognitive test than the children who were adopted at birth
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- Crying: when attachment figure moves out of sight
- Following: keep close attachment
- Using as a safe base: will adventure off but come back to attachment figure
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- Stranger fear: turns away and resisting attempts to be picked up or comforted
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This showed the child’s separation anxiety
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Insecure avoidant: type A
20% associated with unresponsive Primary care
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Conclusion: There are different types of attachments and these types are differentiated in observed attachment
behaviours
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Evaluation: (Strengths):
- Strange situation is well controlled and standardised and allows for replication
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Shows fairly stable classification over time
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- Attachment type may predict future development (predictive validity)
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Weaknesses:
- Main & Solomon (1990): later proposed a 4th type of attachment, ‘disorganised’ which is characteristic of
high risk families where perhaps children have been abused or neglected
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- Main (1999): said there may be other attachment types and added a type D ‘insecure disorganised’
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We must be cautious about labelling a child as insecurely
attached based on how much anxiety they show on separation from the primary carer and the presence of
the stranger
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- Bronfenbrenner (1979): found that research has found attachment behaviours tend to be stronger in the lab
than the home
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Aim: investigated cross-culture variation in attachment types through a meta-analysis, of research which had
studied strange situation in other cultures
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Data from 32 studies in 8 different countries
was analysed
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Using a metaanalysis (statistical technique) they calculated the average percentage for the different attachment styles
(e
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secure, avoidant, resistant) in each country
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The
lowest percentage of secure attachments was shown in China, and the highest in Great Britain
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Conclusion: The overall consistency in secure attachment types leads to the conclusion that there may be
universal (innate) characteristics that underpin infant and caregiver interactions
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Implications include the linking
of the variation in attachment to child-rearing practices and environmental factors
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This is not surprising given that Grossmann et al (1985) say that German parents seek ‘independent,
non-clingy infants, who do not make demands on parents, but obey their commands
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As a result they do not show anxiety when their mother leaves
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This explains the high percentage of
resistant behaviour
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 Takahashi (1986): found Japanese mother were so distressed in leaving their babies alone this condition
was removed from the experiment
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Israeli children were more distressed by a stranger entering the
room as in Kibbutzim children live in small groups and rarely see strangers
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They perceive “securely attached” type B children as spoiled, which is different to Britain
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Over-simplistic to view Britain or America as one single culture: within each country there are many subcultures which may differ in the nature of attachment types
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g
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- The strange situation was created and tested in the USA, suggesting it may be culturally biased
(ethnocentric), as it will reflect to anxiety on separation
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E
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the belief that attachment is related to anxiety on separation
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So, the strange situation lacks ecological and
population validity, meaning findings and insights may not be genuine
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Deprivation: losing something you once had- the loss of an attachment figure
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Robertson and Robertson 1968: observed short-term reactions to separation from child’s mother
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They cried frequently and tried to stop
their parents leaving
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- Detachment: Child eventually began to take an interest in their surroundings
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Evaluation of Robertson and Robertson:
Strength’s:
- Powerful documentary evidence of the effect of short term separations
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- First-hand information- put into use new film techniques which had not previously been availablepowerful evidence which could be viewed by a large number of people
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- A challenge to the care and medical profession and this in turn has improved conditions in hositals
and other separation situations
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Can have researcher biased as they chose what to film and
therefore what the audience sees
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- Much too simplistic to say that separation per se has negative effect, much more complex as
temperament, relationship etc
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- The studied ten to be of middle age stay at home mothers, perhaps other children adapt more easily
or even benefit from a different environment
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- Later maladjustment may not be due to the separation but to the changed home circumstances
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g
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In later separation the
Robertson’s filmed children who were given a satisfactory ‘mother substitute’ and these children did
not appear to be unduly upset
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Long Term

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Long term effects of deprivation are difficult to study because other variables may influence the child’s
behaviour
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In adulthood there may be fear of abandonment or insecurity in relationships, making it difficult to trust
other people
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Lifestyle maintenance, avoidance of further disruption i
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moving school
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Studies of Deprivation
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Roberton & Roberton (see previous notes) – children showed signs of distress when left as being
hospitalised or in a residential nursery
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Mediating factors in deprivation effects

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According to Rutter (1981) there are many sources of individual differences in vulnerability to the short term
and long term effects of deprivation, including:
- Age – children are especially vulnerable between 7 months-3 years (Maccoby)
- Gender – boys on average respond worse to separation than girls
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- Previous mother-child relationship – the infants reaction to separation may depend upon the type
of attachment, e
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secure, resistant or avoidant (Ainsworth)
- Previous separation experience – infants experienced in short term stays with (for example) relative
are more resistant to the effects of deprivation (Stacey)
- Attachments to others: - Since Schaffer and Emerson revealed that multiple attachments are
possible (in opposition to Bowlby) infants who are not deprived of all attachment figures manage the
effects better
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- Type of separation – some research has indicated that long term separation due to death or illness,
if accompanied by harmonious support has less of a long term effect than separation due to divorce
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- It is likely that there would be negative consequences
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- Much evidence showing cause and effect has tended to come from animal studies
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Feral Children
- Feral children (who are not brought up by humans)
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Komala ‘wolf child’ in India
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Harlow:
- Harlow’s monkeys, who had been kept in social isolation since birth, showed inappropriate and
delinquent social behaviour when they were placed back in the company of other monkeys
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If they did have offspring, the monkeys were extremely poor, neglecting mothers
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 However, monkeys to human generalisation is a concern
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She suffered physical and mental deprivation
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She was physically underdeveloped
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When found at 13, it was too late to acquire language
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However, she may have been brain-damaged already and this may have caused her behaviour –
rather than the privation – which possibly only added to it
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Koluchova’s (1991) study of the Czech twins:
- 2 boys suffered maltreatment from the ages of 18mth – 7yrs
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At 7 they
had no speech, suffering from malnutrition and lacking in social ability
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They both recovered well emotionally and cognitively
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In adulthood they both settled in jobs
and went on to have their own families
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Evaluation of Case Studies of Maladapted Children:
- Useful to compare with the physical and psychological development of children not maladapted
- Useful comparison between cases
- In depth and longitudinal
- But only a small number of cases – not enough to generalise from
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- Supporting evidence:
 Spitz (1946) Noted infants raised in institutions were underweight and reached
developmental milestones later than children raised at home
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 Quinton et al
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E
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their
children were frequently in care (Also support for Harlow)
Romanian Orphanages Studies:
- In an effort to double the Romanian population in one generation, communist dictator Nicolae
Ceausescu enacted a law requiring women to have four children by the age of 45
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Many families could not afford to raise their own children and orphaning newborns became an accepted part of Romanian culture
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Malnourishment was common and social interaction discouraged
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The Romanian children
showed a remarkable amount of physical and cognitive catch up when assessed at 4, 6 and 11 yrs
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However a minority showed significant problems – disinhibited attachment and
inattention/over activity
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Other Romanian Orphan studies:
- Kreppner et al
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These differences were not related to cognitive or verbal
ability, so negative outcomes are due to early privation
- Beckett et al (2006): Compared 131 Romanian adoptees with 50 UK adopted children
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Many of those who were 6 months old on arrival in the UK
continued to show psychological deficits associated with institutional deprivation
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- Although Romanian orphans were in proximity to other children, their malnutrition may have
prevented them from benefiting from the social input of others
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In one case, researchers found that children raised in severely isolated conditions, where they were rarely
touched or spoken to, had alterations in their brains and deficits in brain function
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Hodges & Tizard adoption study – Reversal:
- Longitudinal study into whether experiencing early institutionalisation until at least 2 years of age
will lead to long term problems in adolescence for adopted and restored children
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They found that institutionalised children adopted between
the ages of 2-7 could form close attachments to their adoptive parents
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- All the institutionalise children had problems with relationships outside of their family
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The institutionalised
children also had problems with siblings
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There is
often a high turnover of staff in institutions, an issue even in ‘high quality’ institutions
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- The duration of privation – the longer time delay (in institution) before making an attachment
(being adopted) the greater the chance of failure to form an attachment and thus the child may
develop affectionless psychopathy
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Whether the child
is adopted before or after 6 months is crucial for their wellbeing
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There are individual differences in ability to cope
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The development of friendship in childhood and adolescence
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Smith et al (2003) a close relationship between two people, as indicated by their association together or
their psychological attachment and trust
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Newcombe and Bagwell (1995): firstly friends played together more frequently, secondary type of play was
different, friends better at resolving conflict, friends better at helping with difficult tasks
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- 6 had been long term friends (3 years)
- 12 had been short term friends (6 months)
- 6 had never been friends
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Also there were differences in high level cooperative play and communication (which
served to extend play) here friends did more than non-friends, also long term friends did more than
short term friends
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The younger children described
friendship group as those who did things together
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Levinger and Levinger 1986:

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Horizontal changes:
- Acquaintance: frequent casual contact
- Build-up: children get to know each other
- Continuation and Consolidation: maintaining established friendships
- Deterioration: friendships decline over time, if not maintained
- Ending: formal and announced or contact
avoided
Age: Selman and Jaquette (1977):
- Studied 225 individuals aged between 4 and
32 years were interviewed about friendships
- Developed five overlapping stages of
friendship
- Conclusion: Found that friendships change
with age
- Evaluation:
- The study relies on interview data where
observations of friendship behaviour may be
more appropriate/valid
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Friendship- Related to age:
- Damon (1977) investigated age-related differences in understanding of friendships Findings
suggest – relationships are different at each age
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These were
rated by researchers
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- Role of other factors: sex- evidences shows boys and girls have very different perceptions of
friendships
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- Children may understand complex friendship but not able to express this
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- Serafica 1982: found that responses to question about hypothetical friends and real friends yielded
descriptions which were quite different; not all studies are testing the same thing- some ask about a
friend, a best friend and other ask about friendships which is a complex and abstract nation for
young children
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Discuss Sex differences in children’s friendship
Boys and Girls seem to make friends and maintain friendships in different ways
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By 3-4 yrs children play mostly in same-sex groups (Erwin, 1998)
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g
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By 5 yrs boys show greater same-sex preference than girls
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Waldrop and Halverstone (1975):
- Suggested boys tend to have extensive relationships & to view groups as a network of friendship
pairs that engage in joint activities
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Halle (1999):
- Asked 122 children aged between 4-8 years with whom an imaginary child could choose to be in
relation to a range of situations
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- Children’s choices in abstract reasoning tasks appear to be similar to choices in real situations
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Children were asked to
categorise their peers as ‘liked most’ or ‘liked least’
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- Popular children – The ‘most liked’ by peers
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Peers do not have strong feelings for or against them
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- Average children – Moderately liked
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- Rejected children – Have few friends and make friends with other unpopular children
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Poor social understanding, often misreading others
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High levels of social anxiety and
concerned about being attacked by others
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Cases of popularity and rejection:
- Physical Attractiveness – children prefer to be friends with those who are attractive
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There was an even stronger
correlation for the girls
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Children will choose
friends who live near or who are seen regularly
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Kandel (1978) carried out a longitudinal study of adolescent school friendships from start to end of a
school year, which suggested similarity was important
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The maintained and newly formed friendship pairs
were more similar in attitude, behaviour & interests than dissolved friendship pairs
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- Social Skills – children with poor social skills may be rejected by peers as they have difficulty
interacting with others
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They
were coached on: how to join in, turn taking, sharing, and communication, giving attention to
others & helping
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- Xie et al (2006): Aimed to find out what young people think makes someone popular
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Berk (2003) describes acceptance by peers as extremely important for a child’s psychological adjustment
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Cowan et al
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Duck (1991) – link rejection to later mental health difficulties – alcoholism, depression, schizophrenia,
delinquency & psychotic behaviour
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There are direct causal connections in this sequence
- Incidental Model - Aggressiveness results in peer rejection, but peer rejection has no real role to
play in causing the later negative outcomes
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