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Title: Organization theory
Description: it indicates and explain how organization started and how it is applied in modern businesses
Description: it indicates and explain how organization started and how it is applied in modern businesses
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LECTURE 1 INTRODUCTION TO ORGANIZATION THEORY
1
...
Organization theory refers to both the descriptive and
prescriptive aspects of the discipline
...
It is a body of knowledge about organizations
which has been developed through the scientific method
...
2
...
g
...
” Although
common sense may
at times be correct or true, it may sometimes
present different versions of the
truth
...
The second source of knowledge is appeal to authority
...
c) Deductive reasoning
...
1
This form of creating knowledge entails the carrying out of research
and making conclusions without following a systematic (scientific)
method for example, one may want to find the proportion of cars in
Nairobi which are Toyotas
...
g
...
He/She therefore concludes that 10% of cars in
Kenya/Nairobi are Toyotas
...
In this method of building knowledge, the researcher follows a
systematic (scientific) method which can be tested and followed by
other researchers in order to confirm the findings
...
g
...
2
...
It is an
integrated set of statements that summarise and explain research findings
...
In other words a theory
tries to explain some practice observed in nature
...
In other words
2
we are trying to learn the whole organization or departments: the way it is
structured: the ways the various variables relate to each other and the way
groups behave in an organization set up
...
It is a way that
scholars try to see and think about organizations based upon patterns and
regularities in organization design
...
It focuses on
organizations as entities in themselves ie the whole organization
1
...
0 Organizational Theory, Organizational Behaviour, Management
Theory and Organization Psychology
(a) What is Organizational Behaviour?
Organizational behavior refers to the behavior of people in organizations
...
In addition it discusses human psychological processes that
can affect behavior in organizations For example it tells us how a system of
rewards affects a person‟s behavior and performance in organizations
...
It seeks to find out how
individuals behave the way they do and how one can change their behaviour
3
and guide them to behave in a certain way
...
B) is about individuals (their attitudes, perceptions, motives)
...
B is
defined as a field that seeks enhanced knowledge of behaviour in
organizational settings, through the scientific study of individuals and
individual processes
...
(b) What is Organizational Theory?
Organizational theory focuses on the design and structure if organizations
...
The discipline of
organization theory derives its concepts from sociology, and anthropology
...
On the other hand organizational behavior looks
at the micro elements of the organization, the individual worker
(d) What is Management Theory?
Management theory on the other hand is the study of a particular group
(managers) in the organization
...
4
(e) What is organizational psychology?
Organizational psychology is a science of behaviour and mental processes
...
Thus in psychology, we study
both the mental experiences such as hunger and thirst or anger and their
outward manifestations such as drinking or aggression
...
4 The Meaning of an organization
An organisation is a consciously coordinated social entity with a
relatively verifiable boundary that functions on a relatively continuous basis
to achieve a common goal/ or goals
...
These facts are that organizations are:
Consciously coordinated This implies that management deliberately
allocate tasks and responsibilities
...
The interaction pattern that people follow in an
organisation does not just emerge rather it is meditated
An organisation has a relatively identifiable boundary
...
Members
enter into explicit and implicit contracts with the organisation
...
Organisations exist to achieve certain goals
...
4
...
5
(c)
Are consciously coordinated and structured
...
I
...
are established to last
...
(f)
It is a system: ie it is composed of subsystem
1
...
2 Benefits of organisations?
In this section we wish to find the answer the question” why do we
study organizations?”
Organisations pervade all aspects of contemporary human life –
()
society as a whole, the economy and even our personal lives
...
As a
manager you may want to know how organisations operate and how to
structure them so that they become effective
...
(c)
i
...
They include the need for
food, water and shelter
...
ii
...
These are needs that satisfy man‟s desire for love, affection, social
acceptance, recognition and self-fulfilment
...
The food he eats, the car he drives,
e
...
c
...
Other economic utilities include roads, education
and medical services
...
v) Social utilities: - these are benefits attained through association
with other people e
...
sense of belonging, talking with other people
and social contacts, provides man with some of his most gratifying
experiences
...
vii) Aesthetic
utilities: - these help a man achieve his desires in art
and music
...
for example one individual would take years if not
decades to make an aeroplane but through the use of an organisation,
the same can be made within a year or less
...
g
...
(x) Form utilities: - a manufacturer who sells a pick-up vehicle to a
farmer exemplifies this
...
These utilities overlap
...
In other words, more or less of some utilities can be traded
for more or less of other utilities
...
In similar version, a political
utility can be used as a way of making an economic utility
...
This permits rapid and higher level of technological
advancement as succeeding generations start from a higher level
...
Consumer surplus is the difference between the total utility the
consumer receives from a quantity of a good and the total price he
pays for that quantity
...
The law of
diminishing marginal utility postulates that the first unit of a good has
more utility than the second unit of a good For example suppose the
utility of the first glass of milk to a hungry customer is kshs 30 while
the utility of the second glass is kshs 28 and so on as depicted in the
table below
...
8
Table1: Calculation of the consumer surplus
Unit
Utilities
Price
numbers
(utils)
kshs)
kshs)
1
30
15
15
2
28
15
13
3
26
15
11
4
24
15
9
5
22
15
7
6
20
15
5
7
18
15
3
8
15
15
0
Total
55
(d)
paid( Consumer
surplus(
Other benefits of organisations
In addition to the benefits cited in d organizations do provide the following
other benefits
They bring together resources to achieve desired goals and
outcomes
...
They facilitate innovation and creativity
...
Are able to adapt to and influence a changing environment
...
They accommodate on-going challenges and diversifying ethics
and the motivation and coordination of employees
...
4 Relationships in organisations
In almost all organizations the following relationships are likely to
exist:
a) Accidental relationships
This is an association in which no participant deliberately associates with
another, yet from such an association benefits often accrue to at least one
participant
...
In a business scenario, this can occur when an executive
of a clothing store gets an idea for a new type of garment from two charting
ladies in the street
...
For example a flea gets its nourishment from its host- a
dog, a cat or a human being
...
At another level, a relationship where work is extracted for less than
appropriate pay is parasitic
...
10
c) One way relationship
In this relationship, one party benefits without harming or helping the other
...
Here
the relationship is deliberate at least on the part of the benefited one
...
However, for this
relationship to be one- way, the organisation being researched must not
expect any form of benefit- including a copy of research project
...
This relationship is both deliberate and mutual for both parties
...
Most relationships in nature are
mutualistic or mutually beneficial
...
Both expect to make profit
...
e)
...
This type of relationship calls for much more than mutualistic
...
The participants in a transcendental relationship aspire for
benefits to accrue not only to him and his partner but also to other
individuals, organisations and society not directly associated with the
relationship
...
Achieving
transcendental
relationships in organisations offers a great challenge in the human society
...
In nature, transcendental relationships
can be seen in animals when it leaves its meat (after being satisfied) to
others
...
1
...
1 Complexity of organizations
Organizations are complex structures
...
Human beings bring their
diversity, their temperament, and their attitudes in to the organization
making quite a complex whole
...
Human beings are biological rather than machine systems
...
The human organisation has many
characteristics of simpler systems but it also incorporates new forms of
complexity
...
o Cultural dimensions such as music and art appear
...
o The structure of elements and roles continuously changes
...
Organisation managers must be sensitive to social system complexity if they
are to understand and cope with organisational systems
...
These dimensions are
interconnected so that changing one element affects the whole system
...
7
...
o Parallel to the formal organisation
...
7
...
o To provide a sense of belonging
...
o To provide a sympathetic ear
...
o To provide opportunity for influence and creativity
...
o Provides the members with an additional channel of communication
...
o Compensates for managerial limitations
...
7
...
o Goals
...
o Norms
...
Formal groups have norms and so does informal groups
...
13
o Role
...
In the
formal organisation, it includes but goes beyond the official content of
the job description
...
o Leadership
...
The formal group leaders emerge from the group; there is
no formal title attached to the individual
...
A formal organisation has a structure- an organisational
chart, hierarchical and horizontal differentiation
and formal
coordinating mechanisms
...
However, there are no formal structures or
coordinating mechanisms
...
o Cohesiveness
...
This is important in both the formal and
informal organisation
...
t
...
In the formal group,
cohesiveness is usually stronger
...
The size of the formal work group is determined by the need of the
organisation
...
The size of the informal group is usually smaller
...
In the formal group, the concept of synergism achieves
greater importance
...
7
...
g
...
g
...
00 to 5
...
Lengthens the effective span of control by exchanging knowledge and
experience within the group, workers are able to learn what is
expected of them without needing supervision
...
Provides additional channels of communication to some extent, which
is faster and accurate
...
Encourages better management
...
1
...
4 Dysfunctions of Informal Organisations
May work
to meet the purposes of the formal organisations
especially when the formal group goals are counter to the
organisation‟s goals
...
The solidarity
developed in the informal groups strengthens their cohesiveness and
thus reduces manager‟s ability to change the groups of workers
...
Informal
workgroup behaviour such as gossiping, consultations, long coffee
breaks, e
...
c are time consuming and can lead to delay bin task
completion
...
To the extent that change can affect informal
groups they will resist change
...
o Source of rumours
...
1
...
5 Managing informal organisations
...
o Togetherness
...
7
...
Standards of behaviour
...
Pressure to conform
...
16
Informal leadership
...
Status systems
...
Status is
a differentiation of social position from associates
...
Status depends upon the following factors:
a) External factors- these are factors that the individual brings to the
organisation
...
b) Internal factors- These are determined by the job one has e
...
job
title, pay, and work schedule
...
1 The Pre-classical Period
The evolution of organization can be traced from the following periods:
The Pyramids of Egypt
The pyramids of Egypt could not have been completed without
sophisticated organization practices and structures of the modern period
...
The Catholic Church
The Catholic Church has also practiced many elements of classical
theories for over almost 2 thousand year
...
18
2
...
3
...
He described a number of management
principles that go towards capturing the entire flavor of the
administrative theory of management
...
This should lead to
higher productivity
...
Each
person should have an appropriate authority to go with the given
responsibility
...
Discipline There must be respect and obedience to the rules and
objectives of the organization
...
Unity of direction An organization is effective when members work
together towards the same objective
...
Rather, the general interest must be maintained as
paramount
...
Centralization
A good balance should be found between
centralization and decentralization
...
Equity Kindliness and justice, largely based on predetermined
conventions, should prevail in the organization
...
Initiative A manager who can be initiative, and can get others junior
to him to do it, is far superior to the one who does not have this
ability
...
Technical ability Technical ability predominates lower down the
ladder and management ability higher up
...
20
Fayol recommend rational selection of and training of workers
together with professional training for managers
...
3
...
The most famous of those
sociologists was Max Weber (1864 – 1920) who was a German Sociologist
...
Max
Weber identified the following as the main characteristics of bureaucracy:
Labor is divided so that the authority and responsibility of each member
is clearly defined
...
All organization‟s members are to be selected on the basis of technical
qualifications through formal examinations or by virtue of training or
education
...
Administrative officials work for salaries and are career people
...
Those rules are impersonal and uniformly applied
to all people and cases
...
Employees were loyal to an individual rather than to
21
the organization or its mission
...
Employees in effect
owned the organization and used resources for their own rather than to
serve customers and organizations
...
He called this form of an organization bureaucracy
...
2
...
3 Scientific Management Theory
First developed by Fredrick W
...
Or
A
set
of
mechanisms
or
techniques
for
improving
organizational problems
...
Scientific management deals with the relationship of a worker and
his or her work
...
Scientific management advocates for an empirical detailed study of each job
to determine how it could be done most efficiently
...
methods
of
analysis
to
In other words, the scientific
management approach holds that scientific solutions to
problems of management of organizations are superior to those
of other approaches
...
Each worker is assumed to be a classical economic maninterested in maximizing his monetary income
...
The basis principles of scientific management as expounded by Fredrick W
...
Scientifically select and then train, teach and develop the worker
...
There is almost equal division of the work and responsibility between
management and the workers
...
Application of the piece rate principle: This is the principle by
which workers are paid by piece rates on the basis of standards set by
23
motion and time studies rather than on other basis
...
Tailor‟s piece rate system was called
the differential piece rate system
...
At higher levels of
output the worker was paid a hire rate
...
2
...
4 Comparison of the classical theories
(i)
The theories were mainly developed during the early
part of the 20th century
...
(iii)
Their main goal was to find out what needs to be made
to organization structures and relationships to improve
efficiency in the organizations
...
(iv)
Administrative theories focused on overall relatively
macro aspects of organizations
...
Bureaucracy also looked at
the macro aspects of the organization
...
3
...
The principles of administration as postulated by Henri Fayol fail to
be universal truths
...
The principles lack scientific derivation and verification
...
The administrative theory is power centered
...
25
4
...
5
...
It is satisfied with theoretical rather than actual
...
(ii)
It also introduces essential principles that even today lead to
organization efficiency
...
They described what should be rather than what
is
...
(2)
Some of the aspects envisaged by Weber, however, have sometimes
taken on a negative meaning
...
g
...
The Scientific Management Theory
The basic problem with the scientific management theory is that it assumed
man to be purely an economic man interested only in the satisfaction of his
basic needs
...
These assumptions were not realistic and man was
motivated by more than his basic needs as later proved by the neo classists
2
...
6What prescription did each theory have for how to best structure
organizations?
The Scientific Management Theory
Scientific way to do work
Scientific selection of personnel
Financial incentives
Separation of management and workers
The theory of Bureaucracy
Contribution to organization theory
well defined hierarchy of authority
A dear division of work
A system of rules covering rights and duties and duties of each
position
A system of procedures dealing with work situation
Recommended impersonality of inter personal relationship
Selective/promotion be based on technical competence
...
3
...
3
...
e
...
The tasks facing workers then were relatively routine and
repetitive
Efficiency rather than creativity was the rule
28
Consequently, the theorists were justified in making the type of
recommendations that they made about how to perform those tasks
...
3
...
Technology was generally static over long periods
Political environment was also stable
Equality and democratic ideas were developing
This type of environment motivated organization theorists to come up with
the type of proposals they came up with on how to structure organizations
and to motivate workers
...
4
...
4
...
Four
studies were carried out namely:
a)
The illumination studies
These studies were expected to determine the relationship
between the level of illumination and worker‟s productivity
...
The studies failed to prove
any relationship between worker‟s productivity and level of
illumination
b)
The Relay Assembly Test Room Studies
These studies were carried out to determine the relationship
between worker‟s productivity and improved benefits and working
conditions
...
Rather,
there were other factors that affected
worker‟s output such as
his/her attitudes and supervisor behavior
...
The workers suggested that:
Psychological factors help determine whether a worker is
satisfied or dissatisfied in any particular work situation
The person‟s need for self-actualization determines his/her
satisfaction in the work
...
d) The Bank Wiring Room studies
This study was expected to study the effect of group influence
on workers productivity
...
The informal group determined the group‟s productivity, and functioned as a
protective mechanism (served both for internal and external purposes)
...
The socio part
is the human aspects that need to be taken care of in order to increase
workers‟ productivity and the technical system is the physical aspects
that also need to be improved
...
(iii)
Other factors include worker‟s personality and supervisor‟s behavior
...
(iv)
A worker‟s social group has a prevailing effect on his or her altitude
and productivity
...
Methodology
The study methodology lacks the basis for generalizations
...
Contribution
The Hawthorne Studies have however made the following
contribution to Organization theory
31
As a basis for organization theory Research, the Experiments were
important
...
Their finding on the importance of informal groups is also a key to
organization theory
...
2
...
2 Mary Parker Follet
She was a philosopher and political scientist
...
She proposed the following principles:
Emphasized the importance of subordinating individual freedom
to that of the group
Stressed the importance of democracy in decision making – by
involving all in order to find a solution
...
Observed that Power
cannot be delegated but authority can
...
Authority is the right to give orders
...
Power over is
dominance or control, based on force
...
She emphasized that power is a basic to
management – especially when used with
...
She
emphasized that conflict cannot be avoided, and therefore must
32
be used to manage organizations
...
In both dominance
and comprise, the basic causes of conflict is not settled
...
Integration of desires
...
Both
parties get what they want
...
Integration lets the parties creatively discover alternatives
that satisfy both parties in conflict
...
Follet also brought a new way of looking a leadership
...
The leader focuses the energies
of people towards that purpose
...
Leaders also train and develop their
followers
...
4
...
-
He emphasized that an essential element in organizations is the
willingness of persons to contribute their individual effort to the
organization
...
-
Consequently the individual regardless of his history or his
obligations, must be induced to cooperate or there cannot be
cooperation
...
Barnard‟s theory of compliance
Barnard‟s theory of compliance consisted of four basic elements
...
e
...
(iii)
An individual is only willing to comply if he is sufficiently
induced
...
Barnard noted that material incentives by themselves are not enough
...
e
...
3
...
2
...
4 The basic elements of the Neo-Classical theories were:
(i)
Individual needs
...
g
...
(ii)
Work Groups – recognizes the existence and the importance of
informal groups in organizations
...
35
2
...
0 The Information Processing Theory
i) The Information Processing theory views organizations as open systems
which face two basic situations
a) Environmental threats and uncertainties
b) Task uncertainty- this is the difference between the amount of
information already possessed by the organization and the amount of
information required to perform the task
i
...
ii) The organization must have the mechanism and be structured in such a
way that it can diagnose the information it has, and the information
required
...
iv) The third assumption of the theory deals with the sub systems or the
various departments of an organization
...
v)The information processing theory views the organization as having
the tasks of the organization vary in their degrees of their
uncertainty
as work related uncertainty increases, so does the need for
increased amount of information and thus the need for increased
information processing capacity
an organization will be more effective when there is a match
between the information processing requirements facing the
organization and the information processing capacity of the
organization
if an organization ( or sub units) face different conditions over time
more effective units will adapt their structures to meet the changed
information requirements
2
...
0 The Contingency Theories
The contingency theories relate to how the organization structure adjusts to
fit with both the internal environment such as work technology and the
external environment such as economic or political legal
...
What works in one
setting may not work in another setting
...
There is no one best way
...
The most efficient organization structure may be
37
contingent upon the size, technology, strategy and since organizations are
open systems, its environment
...
7
...
An excess
population of organizations leads to congestion and subsequently to the
survival of only those organizations successful in creating a niche in the
market place
...
Environmental forces select out the
most appropriate structural forms for survival from among populations of
organizations on the basis of fit between structural attributes and
environmental characteristics
...
It is not the
fitness of any single organization that is of interest
...
Environmental factors solely determine the survival of
any organization
...
The following
has been cited as the major weaknesses of the theory:
(i) The claim that the organizations‟ existence and survival is determined
by the environments‟ carrying capacity means that the theory cannot be used
to predict about the future
...
It can only be
measured on ex post or retrospective basis
...
Thus as an organization theory it is therefore inappropriate
...
In other words
it is insufficient to state that only those organizations that environment
determines as fit survive
...
A more
meaningful and causal pattern must be presented for a theory to be
acceptable
...
To claim that a biological organisms, man, can create a
biological organism, an organization, endows man with supernatural powers
...
To assume or argue that managers should be passive,
helpless elements completely dependent on environmental forces is to
denigrate the importance role managers can play in determining the success
or failure of an organization
40
LECTURE 3: ORGANIZATONAL GOALS
3
...
Organizational goals can also be defined as a state of affairs or situations
which does not exist at present but is intended to be brought into existence in
the future by activities of the organization, (Warren 1967 p
...
These elements are:
Future desired end results to which
Present efforts are directed
Both the terms “goals” and “objectives” are considered to have the same
meaning in this context
...
Sometimes the goals may be too low, harmful or otherwise misplaced
...
41
Most organisations are multifunctional and they generally seek to
accomplish several different goals at the same time
...
For
instance, a high rate of return may be well achieved at the expense of
long-term organisational growth
...
Assessment of effectiveness on the basis of goal attainment depends
upon the extent to which goals are measurable
...
g
...
Service organisations such as social welfare agencies and
voluntary associations are examples of organisations with nonmeasurable goals
...
Despite such problems however, the goal attainment remain an important
measure of organisational effectiveness
...
2 Official and Operative Goals
a) Official goals refer to:
The formally stated outcomes that the organisation states it is trying to
achieve
...
Goals emphasised in public pronouncements by the top officials of the
organisations
...
Goals that serve the purpose of legitimising the organisation to the
various parties such as customers, taxpayers, suppliers and employees
...
b) Operative goals on the other hand represent the real aims of the
organisation
...
- They tell what the organisation is actually trying to do regardless of what
the official goals say are the aims
...
43
An example of an official goal is the one often stated regarding prisons
...
However in actual practice the operative goal is to provide
custodial care and to punish the offender
...
They give the
organization a favorable image and thus provide a source of legitimacy and
hence justify its activities
...
ii)
Perceptions about how best to accomplish official goals differ
between the different organizational participants
...
iv)
The operative goals of an organization are the outcome of complex
exchanges between individuals and groups pursuing a diversity of
aims
...
vi)
Some organizations also purposely avoid articulating specific goals
so as not to attract potential competition or become a focus of
opposition groups
...
3 Functions of organizational goals
Viewed in broad perspective organizational goals perform several important
functions which vary according to time and circumstances among other
things
...
Guidelines for action By describing future desired results, goals serve as
guidelines for action, directing and channeling efforts and activities of
organizational participants
...
b)
...
An organization that
commits itself to certain goals reduces the amount of discretion it has, to
pursue other outcomes
...
c)
...
Prominent examples of organizations and their stated official goals
that provide legitimacy include:
Hospitals – provision of medical services aimed at cure, and
prevention of diseases
...
This largely explains the fundraising success of such
organizations as the Girl Guides, Boy Scouts, The Salvation Army, and the
Red Cross
...
Standards of performance: To the extent that goals are clearly stated and
understood they offer direct standards for evaluating an organization‟s
performance
...
e)
...
In fact
organizational goals give incentives to members
...
f)
...
for instance, the more the goals of a functionally structured
organization call for diversification, the greater will be the need to evaluate
alternative structural arrangement
such as product or customer
departmentalization
...
4 Types of goals
Perrow (1970) categorizes the types of goals sought by organizations in
terms of “whose point of view is being recognized”
...
Societal goals: The point of view recognized here is that of society in
general
...
ii)
Out put goals; The point of view being recognized here is that of the
public for whom goods are produced or services provided
...
iii) System goals, The point of view being recognized is that of the
organization
iv) Product goals, The point of view being recognized is that of the product
itself or service
v) Derived goals, The point of view being recognized is that of the top
management
...
5 Measuring Goal Efficiency and Effectiveness
3
...
1 Organisational efficiency is generally defined as the ratio of an
organisation‟s output (products or services) to its inputs (labour, capital,
raw materials
...
e
...
47
In normative terms, an organisation is judged efficient if when compared
to similar organisations its outputs (benefit received) are relatively high
in comparison to its inputs (cost)
...
This is so because it attained the
same level of outputs with fewer inputs
3
...
2 Organisational effectiveness- This is a measure of how well an
organisation has achieved its goal
...
3
...
3 Models of Measuring organizational efficiency and effectiveness
There are four models or approaches used to measure an organization‟s
efficiency and effectiveness
...
t
...
An organisation‟s long- run success and sustainability depends upon its
ability to establish and maintain a favourable input- output ratio
...
Accordingly, the systems resource
48
model proposes that an organisation is most effective when it maximises its
bargaining position and optimises its resource procurement
...
The approach emphasises that the
organisation is dependent upon its environment and its effectiveness is
measured in terms of how it is able to sustain its environment
...
A systems resource model defines organisational effectiveness as the extent
to which an organisation as a social system given certain resources and
means, fulfils its objectives without incapacitating its means and resources
and without placing undue strain upon its members
...
- Organisational flexibility conceptualised as the ability to adapt
to internal and external change
...
Thus, without some optimisation criterion, the model is difficult to
operationalize i
...
with this approach, we are left with unanswered questions
49
“how does one know when a system has reached a point of optimal input
exploitation
...
Without reference to specific output goals,
the definition of resource becomes ambiguous
c) The model also fails to elaborate on the internal allocation of resources
...
E
...
, if certain raw materials are viewed as an essential resource, the
nature and extent of raw materials necessary must be determined
...
It is unrealistic to assume that organisations can be determined to
the necessary nature and extent of essential resources without doing so on
the basis of established goals
...
That is, the model ignores whether or not resources are being
used effectively
...
An effective organization has a smooth well-oiled
internal process
...
Departmental activities
mesh with one another to ensure high productivity
...
A stakeholder is any group within or outside an
organization that has a stake in the -organization‟s performance
...
Each stakeholder will
have a different criterion of effectiveness because it has a different interest
in the organization
...
The
following table shows each stakeholder and its criterion;
Table 2: Stakeholder and its criterion
Stakeholder
Effectiveness criteria
1 Owners
Financial return
2 Employees
Work satisfaction, pay
3 Customers
Quality goods and services
4 Creditors
5 Community
Creditworthiness
Contribution to community affairs
6 Suppliers
7 Government
Satisfactory transactions
Obedience to laws tax payment
Shortcomings of using the stakeholder approach
i) This approach is complicated as it seeks to satisfy many
stakeholders at once
ii) It also ignores the major stakeholders
iii) It is also a subjective
52
iv) Business organizations would also find it difficult to
simultaneously fulfil the demands of all groups
Usefulness of the stakeholder approach
i) It takes a broad view of effectiveness and examines factors in the
environment as well as within the organization
ii) It includes the social aspects which is ignored by the other approaches
...
The main
advantages of this method are the following;
i) Organizations are established to achieve goals
ii) All organizations have goals
The main disadvantages are
i) Multiplicity of goals
ii) Subjectivity of goal measurement criteria
53
LECTURE 4: ORGANIZATION AS A SYSTEM
4
...
This definition conveys three very important ideas:
The first concept is that of interdependence
...
e
...
This effect on each part or set of parts in a
system may be direct or indirect
The second concept is that of holism
...
Changes in parts of the system
and in the functioning of the elements of the system should be considered
from the standpoint of the systems overall performance
...
This refers to the fact that the
interactive effects of the parts of the system working together create an
effect greater than the effect of the parts acting separately
...
The system is capable of growth
...
It is a goal searching system
...
It consists of both abstract and concrete subsystems
...
54
The general subsystems of an organisation system are:
Production subsystems
Boundary spanning subsystem
Maintenance subsystem
...
Adaptation subsystem
These subsystems are explained in detail in paragraph 4
...
3 What are subsystems?
Subsystems are a group of functioning elements within a larger system
...
The determination of
subsystems depends on the desired level of abstraction at a given time for a
desired type of analysis
...
If we
want to analyse the College Of Humanities as a system, we can break it into
faculties and consider them as subsystems and so on
...
In the case of
organisations, we are interested in looking at an organisation as a system
composed of subsystems (departments)
...
3
...
Each sub-system is a system on its own because it has a boundary
and absorbs inputs from other sub-systems and transforms them into outputs
for use by the remainder of the organisation
...
Production sub-system: this subsystem is responsible for producing
the product and service output of the organisation
...
In a manufacturing firm, the
production sub-system is the production department
...
In a brewing company it‟s the department
that actually produces beer
...
Boundary spanning: the boundary spanning subsystems handle
transactions at organisational boundaries
...
The boundary
spanning subsystems acquire the needed supplies and materials
...
On the input
site they provide inputs to the organization Boundary spanning
subsystems work directly with the external environment
...
iii
...
The maintenance
subsystem includes cleaning and painting of buildings and
maintenance of machines
...
Such departments include
personnel, salaries, and cafeteria e
...
c
...
The adaptation subsystem: it‟s the subsystem responsible for the
organisational change
...
It is also
responsible for providing information and helping the organisation to
change and adapt
...
57
v
...
It provides
direction, establishes strategy, goals and policies for the whole
organisation
...
It is also responsible for developing organisation structure and
directing tasks within each subsystem
...
4
...
2 Advantages of the systems approach
...
Its holism approach enables one to consider the organisation as a
whole
...
ii
...
iii
...
The diagrammatic presentation makes
the understanding of the relationship easier not only to understand but
also to build up models to help in empirical research and hypothesis
generation and testing
...
The approach also allows for quantifications of relationships between
elements in the system
...
It enables managers to view their jobs as parts of a system, not as
static isolated elements
58
4
...
3 Disadvantages of the systems approach
There is a tendency for some students and practitioners who apply the
system approach to advocate for a more centralised administrative structure
in organisation
...
The
systems
approach
tends
to
oversimplify
organizational
relationships
...
4
...
4
...
o Although a closed system would not exist since it would die due to
entropy, the classical theorists looked at organizations as closed
systems because they focused on internal systems
...
They assumed that the environment was stable and predictable
and did not affect the organization
...
o Assumes the environment is static and has no effect on the
organisation
...
It has all the energy it needs
...
An approach that considers an organisation as a closed system takes
the environment for granted and assumes that the organisation can be
made more efficient through internal design
...
According to this approach the main issue for management is internal
efficiency
...
The classical theorists treated organisations as closed systems
...
b) Disadvantages:
o No organisation is a closed system
...
4
...
To survive, it must continuously change and adapt to the
environmental changes
...
It must also control and coordinate its internal activities in the face of
environmental disturbances and uncertainty
...
It both consumes resources from and exports resources to the
environment
...
It must deal
continuously with its environment
...
It must sell its output in the environment, coordinate its internal
activities, and deal with environmental changes and uncertainties
...
Human beings are open systems
...
Depends on its environment
Obtains inputs from environment
Sells outputs to environment
Cannot seal itself off from the environment
To survive it must continuously change and adapt to the environment
61
It must correctly interpret and act on the changes happening in its
environment
At the same time it must control, structure and coordinate its internal
environment to take account of changes in the external environment
...
o It ignores the importance of the internal environment to the
organisation‟s efficiency and effectiveness
...
5 Input – output analysis of a system
An input- output analysis depicts the system as taking or receiving
resources from the environment, processing them into outputs and
giving them to the environment
...
t
...
from the environment
...
62
The transformation process: the process that works on the inputs and
changes them usually by adding value
...
t
...
of inputs and outputs
...
The environment: the element, which constitutes these sources of
inputs or the users of the outputs
...
6 Other Kinds of Systems
There are many kinds of systems with their own subsystems
...
Is alive- it has life
...
It can think, plan and remember
...
Is aware of its surroundings
...
Is also aware of itself
...
Have attitudes, moods, feelings and norms
...
The organization as a system
...
The complexities of social system arises from:
Complexities of the human system
...
Cultural dimensions of human beings, which are even harder
to identify
...
Thus the social system (the organisation) requires extra training to be
understood, manage and change
...
1) Atom, map or bridge
...
64
2) Clocks and watches
...
3) Thermostat
...
4) Cell
...
5) Plant
...
(Several cells)
...
Dynamic and living
...
Living, dynamic and has awareness of its surrounding
...
A social system is composed of complex systems namely human
beings who transfer their complexities to the social organisation
...
Four levels of analysis usually characterise organisation
...
65
o The next higher level of analysis is the group or department
...
o The next level of analysis is the organisation itself
...
o The next level is the community of organisations, which are
grouped together
...
Organisation theory focuses on the organisation level of analysis
...
Organisation behaviour on the
other hand focuses on the individuals within the organisation as the relevant
unit of analysis
...
LECTURE 5: ORGANIZATION STRUCTURE
5
...
It includes
Allocation of tasks and responsibilities between the different
members of the organization
66
Differentiating these tasks and activities into groups and
departments
Differentiating the tasks and responsibilities into hierarchies and
locations
Establishing coordination mechanisms to integrate the different
groups, and hierarchies into a unitary whole
...
The way the tasks and responsibilities are allocated to the various
members of the organisation
...
The way the organisation is differentiated into different locations
...
e
...
3 Dimensions of organization structure
There are several ways in which the organization structure is measured or
differentiated
...
This refers to the number of employee directly
controlled by a single supervisor
...
Well-framed and able
employees can be supervised more efficiently in larger groups (wider
spans) while untrained staff
require narrow or smaller span of control
...
Too wide span of control is
associated with lack of control and the
likelihood of costly mistakes being made
by subordinates
...
This may lead to decline in
organisation
growth as a result availability to be adaptive to environmental change and
dynamics
...
Tall structure is a long chain of command and flat
structure is a short chain of command
...
iii) Centralisation/decentralisation
...
In a centralised
hierarchy, the decisions are made at higher level
...
v) Specialisation- the degree to which organisational tasks are subdivided
...
) If specialisation is
extensive, each employee performs only a narrow range of activities
...
In a highly standardised organisation, work
content is described in detail, so similar work is performed the same way
across departments or locations
...
Span of control refers to the no
...
Hierarchy of authority is the no
...
viii) Centralisation – refers to the hierarchal levels that have authority to
make decisions when decision-making authority is kept at the top, the
organisation is decentralised
...
ix) Structural Complexity– refers to the number of activities or subsystems
within the organisation (horizontal complexity) the number of levels in the
69
hierarchy (vertical complexity) and the number of localities that is
geographical (spatial complexity )
x) Professionalism- is the level of formal education and training of
employees
...
Professionalism is
measured in terms of the average number of years of education of
employees
...
Personnel configuration is measured by ratios such as
administrative ratios, the ratio of direct/ indirect labour employees
...
5
...
Contextual dimensions are important because they influence the structure
...
Since organisations
are social systems, the number of employees measures size
...
70
ii) Organisational technology- the nature of the task to the production
subsystem and includes the actions, the knowledge and the technologies
used to change inputs to outputs
...
E
...
ollege classroom or an oil refinery
...
The key elements include: the industry, government,
customers, suppliers and the financial sectors
...
Both contextual and
structural dimensions represent variables that can be measured and analysed
for any organisation
...
iv) Organizational culture This refers to the beliefs values and customs
shared by members of an organization or group
...
2Definition of Organization’s External Environment
Organizational environment refers to all the elements existing outside the
boundary of the organization that have the potential to affect all or part of
the organization
...
It consists of sectors such as
Raw material - these are individuals and other firms which
supply the organization with raw materials
Human resources - these are organizations which supply the
organization with human resources
Financial Resources - these are conditions, competitiveness,
institutions and instruments which supply the organization with
financial resources
Customer or Market - this sector includes the customers who
purchase the organization‟s goods and services
Economic - this includes the state of the economy, inflation,
depression, or unemployment rates, economic policies etc
...
3 Dimensions of Organizational environment
The external environment of an organization can be differentiated,
measured or categorized in many ways
...
3
...
6
...
2 Emory and Trist -
Emory and Trist categorized external
environments into the following categories:
Placid Randomized
...
It is
placid in the sense that elements change slowly
...
Placid Clustered
...
Elements are
linked together so that any slight change in one causes
simultaneous change in other elements
...
In this environment changes are no
longer random
...
This environment is
74
made up of large organizations
...
In a disturbed reactive environment,
management‟s task is to carefully plan decisions and
strategic moves to allow for counter moves
...
This is an environment characterized by
both complexity and rapid changes
...
The turbulent field usually has overwhelming negative
consequences for the organization
...
6
...
3 Lawrence and Lorsch Studies
Lawrence and Lorsch of Harvard University examined three
departments (Manufacturing, Research & Development and
Sales) in ten companies in the United States of America
...
Their findings were that;
The plastic‟s industry with high environmental complexity
tended to have higher departmental differentiation than
either the food industry, (facing moderate complexity), and
the
container
industry,
(facing
low
environmental
complexity)
...
75
The plastics industry also had a higher degree of integration
than either the foods industry or the container industry
...
1
...
1 Environmental Uncertainty and Organizational
Structures
INDUSTRY
Plastics Food
Container
Environmental uncertainty
High
Moderate Low
Departmental differentiation
High
Moderate Low
Percentage in integrating roles 22%
17%
0%
(integration)
Source: Daft, R
...
3
...
e
...
They were
also highly centralized
...
Rules and regulations often were not
written down, or if written down were ignored
...
Decision making was decentralized
...
6
...
It also depends on its
external environment for marketing its goods and services
...
When these dependencies are small and
isolated as in, the case of placid, randomized environments,
significant coping is not required
...
Organizations have two coping techniques: The first one is internal change
...
The second technique is to reach out and change the
external environment
...
These
internal and external strategies are described below
77
6
...
1 Internal Strategies
Structural complexity
...
This is based on the law of
requisite variety that says that complexity in one system
is required to control complexity in another system
...
Buffers absorb uncertainty from the
environment
...
Buffers are specific departments established to
deal with specific domains and absorb the uncertainty
originating from each domain
...
Boundary Spanning roles
...
The boundary role
establishes
a
relationship
with
individuals
and
organizations in the external environment
...
Differentiation
...
When the external
environment
is
complex
and
rapidly
changing
organizational departments become highly specialized to
handle the uncertainty in their external domain
...
Integration is the quality of collaboration
between departments
...
These integrators include
liaison officers, management committees, task forces, or
integrators
...
When the environment is
stable, the organization can concentrate on current
operational problems and day-to-day efficiency
...
But when environments are hostile,
rapidly changing and complex, specific departments for
planning and forecasting are essential since planning
required is extensive
...
4
...
Organizations can also reach out and change the external
environment
...
This may include: Mergers
...
The organization enters into contractual
arrangements with suppliers or purchasers
...
Organizations form companies with key
stakeholders in the external environment to reduce
uncertainty
Co-optation
...
g
...
The individuals appointed to
the board of the organization are also members of other
key stakeholders in the external environment
...
Hiring, for example retired
generals from the air force to connect an organization
manufacturing air force equipment to the air force
Advertising
...
This is aimed the at public merely to
cast the organization in a favorable light
Controlling Environmental Domains of the External
Environment
...
An organization may decide to
produce other products
...
This involves influencing
government officers or politicians to make or
repeal laws and regulations in the organizations
favor
...
The organization may form
forces with other organizations in the industry that
have similar interests, by pooling resources
together to take care of their interests, These
organizations can afford to pay people full-time to
carry out activities such as lobbying legislators,
influencing regulations, developing new relations,
campaigns and blocking competition
81
LECTURE 7: ORGANIZATIONAL TECHNOLOGY
7
...
It
includes the knowledge tools, the equipment and the processes used in
producing goods and services in an organization
...
3 Importance of Technology
Technology is important because:i) It determines the efficiency of the organization
ii) It is the principal determinant of increase in production of limited and
exhaustive resource
iii) It affects the attitudes, feelings and of the temperament worker, and
therefore affects his or her productivity
iv) It affects organization‟s structure
7
...
It can be categorized in terms of technical
complexity, interdependence of operations, knowledge analyzability
...
5 Types of Technology Typologies
Technology can be classified or differentiated in many ways
...
Technical complexity refers to the
differentiation in the use human labor versus the use of machinery and
82
equipment in the transformation process
...
In the case of
interdependence of operations, the greater the interdependence the higher the
technical complexity
...
These dimensions of technology typologies are explained here below
...
5
...
Her studies covered
100 manufacturing firms in South Essex, England
...
The study was designed to
test whether management principles as applied on organization structure,
span of control, chain of command etc led to successful organisations
...
Her data included a wide range of structural
characteristics of these organisations such as span of control, levels of
management, management and clerical ratios, work skill level, dimensions
of management, (i
...
83
Data analysis
The initial study of data found that firms varied widely in such things as
span of control, number of hierarchical levels, administrative ratio and
amount of verbal communications
...
However a further look and analysis of the data and information showed a
relationship between organisation structure and technology
...
Technical complexity represented the
mechanization and predictability of the manufacturing process
...
Group 1: Small Batch and Unit Production
These firms tended to be job shop operations that manufacture and assemble
small orders to meet specific needs of customers
...
This technology relies heavily on the human operator
...
Examples included many
types of made to order manufactured products, such as specialized
construction equipment or custom made electronic equipment
...
Output often goes into inventory from which orders are
filled because customers do not have special needs
...
The integrated
cotton mill is also a mass production technology
...
There is no starting and
stopping
...
The organization has high control over the process
and outcomes are highly predictable
...
Her findings were as follows
Ratio of management staff to total personnel show an increase from unit
production, to mass production and to continuous process production
...
Direct labour to indirect labour ratio decreases with technical complexity
...
e unit production and process production
...
It is high in
unit and process production and low in mass production
...
85
With respect to technology and performance, Woodward studies found
that successful firms tended to be those that had complementary
structures and technologies i
...
Firms that
deviated in either direction from their ideal structure were less successful
...
The mass production firms had clear
lines of authority, high formalization, a low proportion of skilled workers
achieved through a high division of labour, wide span of control at the
supervisory level and centralized decision making
...
He found, consistent with Woodward‟s
findings that, a relationship between technical specific technologies had
more specialized sub-units, more authority levels and higher ratio of
managers to total personnel than did those with diffuse technologies
...
Each type of structure
depends on many things
...
5
...
Unlike Woodward‟s, Thompson‟s work was not based on field research
...
In Thompson‟s
view, organizations are open systems and technology reflects the
environment outside the organization as well as internal task activities
...
These categories are:
Mediating technology: Mediating technology involves the mediation or
linking of clients form the external environment
...
A stockbroker for example mediates
between sellers and buyers
...
Employment
agencies bring together clients who are jobless with clients who have job
openings
...
Long Linked Technology: the concept of long-linked technology refers to
the combination in one organisation of successive stages of production,
each stage of production uses as its inputs the production of the preceding
stage and produces inputs for the following stage
...
Large-scale organisations that use assembly-line
87
production to produce goods or services through a sequence of activities
as in the automobile industry, are examples of long linked technologies
...
A variety of activities can be
brought to bear on the client and have substantial impact on the client
...
Hospitals are an
excellent example because they represent a collection of specialized skills
to bring about therapeutic change in patients
...
Figure 1 illustrates the
three types of technology by Thompson
...
Mediating
Clients
Customers
Clients
Long-linked
Intensive
Client
s
Evaluation of Thompson‟s work
Thompson‟s study fails to explain the departmental technologies – for
example what classification would one use for G
...
Thompson also does not deal explicitly with the issue of complexity or
variability of technology in a given case (Robbins – 2000)
...
g assembling different automobile models with colour and
other options) while others are less complex
...
5
...
Since manufacturing
firms represent less than half of all organizations, technology needs to be
operationalised in a more general way if the concept is to have meaning
across all organizations
...
He defined technology as “the action that an individual performs upon an
object, with or without the aid of tools or mechanical devices, in order to
make some change in that object”
...
These exceptions will be few in number if the job is high
in routines
...
At the other end of the spectrum if a job has a great deal of
90
variety, a large number of exceptions can be expected
...
So, task variability appraises work by evaluating it along a variety
routiness continuum
...
The search can at one extreme, be
described as well defined
...
If you are basically a high B-student
and you suddenly fail an exam given in a course, you logically analyze
the problem and find a solution
...
If you are an architect assigned to design a building
to conform to standards and constraints that you never heard about or
encountered before, you will not have any formal search technique to
use
...
Through guesswork and trial and error, you
might find an acceptable choice
...
Annex 3
attached represents a ten-item questionnaire that measures these two
dimensions
...
The four cells in
this matrix represent four types of technology, routine, engineering, craft and
easy to analyze problems
...
A
bank‟s teller‟s job is also an example of activities subsumed under routine
technology
...
The construction of
office buildings would fall in this cell, as would be the activities
performed by tax accountants
...
This would include shoe making, furniture
restoring, or the work of performing artists
...
Examples of non-routine technologies
would be strategic planning an basic research activities
...
Problems
that can be handled only by intuition, guesswork or unanalyzed
experience requires the technology of cell 3 or 4
...
If problem are familiar, then cell 1 or 3 are appropriate
...
By that he meant that it would be unusual to find
instances where tasks had a very few exceptions and search was clearly
unanalyzable or where tasks had a great many exceptions and search was
well defined and easily analyzable
...
This is shown in the
figure 2 as a diagonal line
...
Perrow’s Technology Classification
Task variability
Few Exceptions
Many Exceptions
C
Craft
Ill defined
4
non3
Routine 1
routine
2
Well
defined
Routine engineering
Technology and Structure
Perrow argued that control and co-ordination methods should vary with
technology type
...
Conversely, non-routine technology
93
requires greater structural flexibility
...
The amount of discretion that can be exercised for completing tasks
The power of groups to control the units goals and basic strategies
...
The extent to which these groups engage in co-ordination of their work
using either feedback work or the planning of others
...
These technologies should be
aligned with structures that are high in both formalization and
centralization
...
Basically they
would be decentralized have high interaction among all members, and be
characterized as having minimum degree of formalization
...
Engineering technology because it has many exceptions but analyzable
search process, should have decisions centralized but should maintain
flexibility through low formalization
...
Another covering 16 health and welfare agencies confirmed that
organizations do have diverse technologies
...
Another study covered state employment service agencies
...
The results of this
95
study also proved consistent with Perrows predictions; work that was
high in routinesses was associated with high formalization
...
e where technologies can be differentiated on the basis
of routineness and where more routine technologies are associated with
higher degrees of formalization and centralization – there is evidence to
support Perrows theories
...
Subsequently assembled
directly
Production of large batches assembly line type
Mass production
Group 3: Process Production Technology
96
Process production combined with the preparation of product for sale by
large batch or mass production methods
Process production of chemicals in batches
Continuous flow production of liquids, gases, and solid shapes
...
TECHNOLOGY
Unit
mass
process
production
production
Structural characteristics
Number of managerial levels
3
4
6
Supervision span of control
23
48
15
Direct labour/indirect labour ratio
9
...
1
1
...
2 What is organizational change?
According to Daft (1983), organizational change is the “adoption of a new
idea or behaviour by an organization”
...
Change occurs mainly because organisations as open systems, must
frequently cope with shifts in key environmental domains
...
By adapting to new
conditions, they can continue to grow and prosper
...
Changes may also be
generated by the internal environment (from within the organisation)
...
Organizations face a dilemma with respect to change
...
Organisations desire stable output, predicable costs, and financial stability
...
In other words,
98
do organisations actually determine their own fate with regard to change?
Can organisations actually adapt to environmental change or does
environmental change occur in such a manner that many organizations
cannot adopt, and therefore they die
...
This idea builds on Darwin‟s theory of natural selection, which
holds that only those species that can adjust to environmental change
survive; they are selected for survival by the environment
...
This theory argues that there is little, if any, adaptation (i
...
planned change by the organization)
...
According to Hodge and Anthony (1988) although organizational ecology‟s
main contribution is its dynamic environmental conceptualisation, this does
not “displace all other explanatory variables”
...
This paper takes the position that
organisational change can be planned and managed to a certain extent by the
management
...
Organizational
change is therefore;
- alteration of the status quo
- varying or modifying the current state of the organization aspect
- reactive change- change in response to external circumstances
- proactive change: change primarily caused by desire by management
to change
...
-
Change in one part of an organization affects people and processes in
another
- Change can be triggered by a number of external and internal factors
...
3 Sources of Organizational Change
Organizational change can be caused by either external or external forces or
both
...
Internal Triggers
include: need to change strategy as a result of external forces, need to
introduce a new culture in the organization, need to improve productive
efficiency, need to improve the quality of product or services, or the need to
improve standards
...
It can impact on task, technology, structure or people
...
Changes in technology can also affect people‟s
attitudes, emotions, skills, abilities, expectations and interest
...
The arrows in the diagram below indicate that change
usually has an interactive, dynamic effect on the other parts of the
organisation
...
1: The Impact of Change on Aspects of the Organization
...
These changes are designed to make the transformation process more
efficient or to produce greater volume
...
Product (task) changes pertain to the product or service outputs of the
organisation
...
Structure changes pertain to the changes in the organization structure, goals,
policies, reward systems, labour relations, linkage devices etc
...
People changes refer to the changes in the attitudes, skills, expectations and
behavior of employees
...
A
new product may require changes in the production technology
...
Although changes affect each other, most changes can be classified as either
technology, structure, people or task depending upon the primary target
...
4 Need for organizational change
Organizations face a continuously changing environment for example
competitors introduce new products, new production technologies one
developed, political environments change, economic environment changes
e
...
The organization‟s internal environment also changes eg employees retire or
resign, or inter group conflicts arise
These changes and others give managers daily challenges
...
They meet these challenges by
implementing one or more of the organizational change and development
techniques namely the three phase the four phase or the six phase processes
...
102
8
...
These are:
1
...
The four phases process by Mintzberg
3
...
5
...
On the one hand there are forces that force it to maintain
stability and others which provide it with a reason to change (the force –
field theory)
Forces resisting change – maintaining stability
Equilibrium
Forces for change
...
Step 1: Unfreezing existing behavior by persuading and convincing those
with restraining force
Step 2: - changing behavior by adopting new attitudes
- implementing the changes
- use of a change agent
Step 3: Refreezing - reinforcing continuously convincing the organizational
members that change is not only necessary and desirable, but inevitable
...
8
...
2 Mintzberg’s four phase change process
Mintzberg identifies a four phase process of change as follows;
Stage 1: Identification of the need for change
During the first phase of the change process management identifies
the need for change
Stage 2: Identification of the alternatives
In the second phase management identifies the various alternatives of
implementing the change
104
Stage 3: Evaluation of the various alternatives
In this phase the various alternatives are evaluated using a given
criteria and the
most
efficient
alternative
is
selected
for
implementation
Stage 4: Implementation
During this phase change is implemented
8
...
3 Greiner’s six phase change process
Greiner identified six phases common to successful change efforts each
involving a stimulus to the power structure and a reaction from the power
structure of an organization
...
Phase 1: Pressure and Arousal: The process begins as a result of pressure
on top management
...
In successful changes, the result is the same – arousal to take
action
...
It is quite likely that top managers
will be tempted to see problems as temporary or to blame them on other
things
...
It is important that this individual be known for his
improvements and that he or she enters an organisation at the top or as a
consultant who reports directly to the highest level of management
...
Phase 4: Invention and Commitment: During this phase, attention
switches to the invention of new solutions capable of generating sustained
commitment to new courses of action
...
Solutions are
based on shared power, emphasizing participation in the invention of group
solutions to the problems identified in phase 3
...
Phase 5: Experimentation and Search: In this phase solutions identified in
phase 4 are tested for credibility on a small scale before they are introduced
on a companywide basis
...
Further,
rather than implementing major changes at the top, numerous small changes
are introduced at all organizational levels on an experimental basis
...
106
As change is found to be successful, and as participants support grows, it is
introduced on a much larger scale, ultimately being absorbed into all parts of
an organization
...
Greiner suggests that apart from the change itself, the most significant
outcome of this phase is greater acceptance at all organizational levels of the
use of shared power as an approach for introducing change
...
6 Additional Aspects of Successful Change
Another way of looking at the change process and the elements necessary
for change to occur is by referring to the views of Daft (1983), Daft
concedes that in order for a new idea or behavior to be adopted, a series of
activities has to be completed
...
These elements are:
i)
Need: A need for change occurs when managers are dissatisfied with
current performance
...
The idea may be a model,
concept or
plan that can be implemented by the organization
...
iii)
Proposal: A proposal occurs when someone within the organization
requests the adoption of a new behavior, idea, or technique
...
iv)
Decision to Adopt: A decision occurs when the organization makes a
choice to adopt the proposed change
...
Change requires resources
...
In order for a change to be successfully proposed and
implemented, resources must be allocated to it
...
7 Principles of Successful Organizational Change
Margulies and Wallace drawing on an in-depth analysis of techniques and
applications of organizational change offer several guiding propositions on
successful organizational change
...
Proposition 2: Changes will flow most smoothly when those who will be
affected are all brought into the process at the earliest possible stage
...
That is,
before becoming successfully incorporated as an ongoing part of
organizational life, a change effort will typically require reinforcement over
some period of time
...
No matter how good a job
one does of initially selecting a change strategy and facts, somethingunexpected will eventually occur during implementation
...
8
...
8
...
Resistance to change is a frequent and
natural occurrence
...
(a) Parochial self-interest: Virtually all organizational members can be
expected to behave in ways that will maximize those goals that they
personally consider most important
...
In such circumstances, the
parties involved will for the most part focus on their own self
interest, and only incidentally on the overall good of the
organization
...
(b) Lack of understanding and trust: People also tend to resist when
they do not understand the intended purpose, mechanics, or
consequences of a planned change
...
109
(d) Low tolerance for change:
Opposition may stem from a low
tolerance for change
...
Unknown consequences of change may present a
psychological threat to many individuals challenging their sense of
adequacy as well as threatening their self-esteem
...
8
...
These methods are briefly discussed below
...
This approach involves securing relevant facts,
eliminating misunderstanding due to incorrect or incomplete
information and resolving difficult viewpoints through discussion
...
This method is based on the notion that the most effective
way to reduce opposition and to engender commitment to a proposed
change is to work collaboratively with the members of the targeted
system
...
Particularly appropriate when resistance develops as
110
a result of fear and anxiety, this method may be traced to the interest
stirrings of human relation‟s movement
...
Manipulation is
not simply a matter of persuasion but more a devious tactic for
persuading different minded groups that a proposed change should be
adopted
...
Selective distortion of information by both omission and commission
may be involved
...
Co-operation may be classified as a form of
manipulation
...
v)
Explicit and implicit Coercion: This method assumes that there is a
basic disagreement and that the principal parties involved are
operating from relatively fixed positions
...
Tactics involved may include violent disagreements as well as
threatened firings, transfers and loss of promotion possibilities
...
111
8
...
Climate refers to the way people behave and think
and culture refers to the values of people in the organization
...
The more these values and beliefs of people can be
changed, the more organizational change can be achieved
...
10
Organizational Development (od)
Organizational development is a technique of changing the people‟s culture,
knowledge, behavior, values and attitudes so that the people adopt new
values that espouse (enhance) trust and openness, and open and democratic
leadership styles
...
According to Bennin, organizational development is “a
response to change using a complex educational strategy intended to change
the beliefs, attitudes, values and structures of organizations so that they can
better adapt to new technologies, markets, and challenges and the dizzying
rate of change itself
...
10
...
There are many techniques in use
depending on the organization and the consultant
...
i)
Survey feedback
ii)
Confrontation meetings
112
iii)
Sensitivity training
iv)
The management grid
i)
The Survey feedback techniques
In this technique a questionnaire is used to measure altitudes of
employees
...
The main aim is to find out the
views of employees on certain issues
...
They can also be
used to follow up on the success or not of the proposed solutions
...
A consultant is included in the
meeting to help slash the issues that face the organization at any particular
moment
...
In such meetings, discussions on organization‟s operating problems
are held, and solutions proposed
...
It provides managers with
sensitivity for themselves and others and with skills necessary to more
effectively guide and direct changes in social arrangements and
relationships
...
It also
enables managers discover and develop tested principles and improved
methods of human relations training
Sensitivity training is arranged usually away from the job, no activities or
discussion topics are planned and the focus is on the here and now issues
...
The consultant or
114
trainer sees to it that an environment of mutual trust, understanding and
frankness is created
(iv)
The Managerial Grid
This method is used to bring about change in employees‟ attitudes and
values
...
The basic objective of the program is to develop managers with a high
concern for people and high concern for production
...
Phase II: The manager implements a climate of openness developed
in phase I
Phase III: The experiences of phase II are extended to include the
interrelationship of related organizational units
Phase IV: Top management works with other groups to develop an
ideal model of employee management relationship
...
115
Phase VI: The achievement of phases I-V are evaluated with the
objective of identifying weaknesses and telling corrective actions as
necessary
...
D is a strategy of improving organizational effectiveness by
means of behavioral science approaches involving the application of
diagnostic and problem solving skills by an external consultant in
collaboration with the organizations management
...
e psychology, social psychology and sociology in so far as they
relate to the study at work in organizations
...
It is aimed at
organizational effectiveness, not just changing people or structures for the
sake of change
...
Role of the change agent
The success of any O
...
The role ranges from the highly directive leader type of role to
non-directive counseling role
...
He will let the client make / suggest proposals
...
D process
- Intellect and personality, in particular the ability to listen
diagnostically, and to apply rational approaches to problems and
situations
...
- A preference for interpersonal relations based on mutual trust and
liking, for teamwork rather than competitiveness and for conflict to be
handled openly and constructively
...
8
...
2 Benefits of an O
...
- It can lead to organizational structures that facilitate employee cooperation and the achievements of task
...
- It can improve understanding of organizational objectives by
employees
117
- It can improve decision making processes and skills
...
- It usually increases the ability to management groups to work as
teams
...
10
...
D Program Successfully
...
- Empower employees to help the change happen by removing
obstacles such as restrictive structure, lack of necessary skills,
inflexible managers, and unimaginative reward systems
...
8
...
11
...
It is a
fundamental rethinking and a radical redesign of business processes to
achieve dramatic improvements in critical contemporary measures of
performance, such as quality, cost, service and speed
...
BPR processes include all the collection of
activities that take one or more kinds of inputs and creates an output that
is of value to the customer
...
The
reengineering process tends to lead to the following changes in the way
work is undertaken:
- Several jobs or tasks becoming combined with related tasks
...
- Processes having several versions to deal with differing customer
requirements
- Work is performed where it makes most sense
...
- The minimization of reconciliations (e
...
- A single point of contact with the customer
- Hybrid centralized / decentralized operations prevail
...
11
...
119
- Employees are empowered to act in ways that were previously
controlled by rules
- Empowerment implies a willingness and an ability to accept greater
responsibility for work outcomes
- Preparation for work implies a greater emphasis on education (i
...
- Advancement within the organization is more likely to be based on
the ability to undertake the work rather than on performance in the
current job
...
- Organizational
structures
are
likely
to
become
flatter
and
bureaucracies less critical
...
The personal computer, the photocopies,
the fax machine, e –mail, and the mobile phones, all show the
importance of IT in facilitating the BPE processes
...
11
...
ii)
BPR as practiced makes people work harder, than smarter
iii)
It is used as a tool of downsizing
iv)
Hence people become victims rather than beneficiaries
v)
The drive to please the customer rather than the boss can lead to
dysfunctional consequences to the organization
...
12 Ambidextrous Approach to Organizational Change
8
...
1 Meaning
In an ambidextrous approach to change, the change agent incorporates
structures and management processes that are appropriate to both the
creation and the use of the idea of change
...
8
...
2 Justification
Organic structures such as decentralization and low formalization encourage
creativity and innovation
...
121
8
...
3 Techniques for encouraging ambidextrous change in technology
change
i)
Switching structures: This means that an organization creates an
organic structure when such structure is intended for the innovation of
new ideas, and reverts to mechanistic structures during the
implementation of the changes
...
Departments that initiate change are organically
structured to facilitate generation of new ideas and techniques
...
Diagram 1: Creative Departments
General Manager
Creative department
Organic structure
iii)
Using
department
mechanistic
structure
Venture teams: These teams encourage creativity
...
The teams may be given
total license to establish new venture projects for any department
...
Employees are given leave and resources to go out of the organization
and create new business opportunities for the organization
...
If the idea is successful, the company can provide the necessary
financial resources to start – up the business
...
123
CHAPTER 9: ORGANIZATION CULTURE
9
...
It is often unspoken, but is clearly
understood by members of the organization
...
It is also unwritten
...
Culture generally evolves over time and begins with
a founder or early leader who articulates and implements particular ideas
and values as a vision, philosophy or business strategy
...
Over time, culture becomes artifacts, stories, symbols
and language of the organization
...
2
...
They include sounds, behavior, language,
products, rites and ceremonies
...
9
...
2 Stories:
These are narratives based on time events that are frequently shared among
organizational employees and told to new employees to inform them about
an organization
...
Some stories are
124
considered legends because the events are historic, and may have been
embellished with fictional details
...
9
...
3 Symbols:
A symbol is sometimes that represents other thing rites ceremonials are
symbols but symbols generally refer to physical aspects of culture
...
2
...
9
...
Culture integrates members
so that they know how to relate to one another
...
9
...
That is to say if the external environment requires flexibility and
responsiveness the culture should encourage adaptability
...
5 Dimensions / categories / types of culture
The organization culture can be differentiated into four categories based on
125
the extent to which the competitive environment requires flexibility or
stability and the extent to which the strategic focus and strength is internal or
external
...
This
type of culture encourages norms and beliefs that support the capacity of the
organization to detect, interpret and translate signals from the external
environment into new behavior responses
...
(ii)
The mission culture
This type of culture is characterized by emphasis on a clear vision of the
organization purpose and on the achievement of goals, such as growth
profitability or market share, to help achieve the purpose
...
Its
environmental characteristics is stability
(iii)
The clan culture
Has a primary focus on the involvement and participation of the
organization‟s members
...
Involvement and participation are assumed to create a
sense of responsibility and ownership which would lead to greater
commitment to the organization
...
126
(iv)The bureaucratic culture
In this type of culture, symbols, heroes and ceremonies support cooperation,
tradition and following established policies, and practices as a way to
achieve goals
...
There is a high level of consistency, conformity and collaboration
among members
...
9
...
6 Changing organization culture
Cultures do change
...
However, because culture
is locked up in people‟s beliefs, values and norms, cultural change will be
slow and may not change in the same fashion or speed required to keep up
127
with changes in the environmental factors
...
Cummings and Worley (2001) propose
six practical steps for achieving cultural change as follows
...
Effective cultural change
should start form a clear vision of the firm‟s view strategy and of the
shared values and behavior needed to make it work
...
(iii)
Model culture change at the highest level – Senior management
must communicate the new culture through their own actions
...
(v)
Select and socialize newcomers and terminate deviants – One of
the most effective methods for changing culture is to change
organizational membership
...
(vi)
Develop ethical and legal sensitivity – Most cultural change
programs attempt to change people‟s integrity and values
...
In other words, care should be
taken to follow equity, ethical, and legal methods
...
2 What is Organization size?
Organizational size can be measured in many ways including:
i
...
Number of branches: organizations with many branches in several
towns are thoroughly to be larger than single branch organizations
iii
...
Asset size is also considered as a measure of size
...
Number of full –time employees can also be used as a measure of size
...
10
...
This may include
Vertical differentiation – differentiation on hierarchal levels
Horizontal differentiation – differentiation on functional
departments
(c) Specialization- concentration of tasks into specialist areas
(d) Rutinization – development of a set of routines for the performance of
work
(e) More impersonal work environment
More impersonal atmosphere in the work place
Friendship groups tend to be limited to a few co-workers
(f) Less direct involvement by the chief executive: in small organizations
the entrepreneur is involved or takes part in all operations
...
10
...
3
...
The motives for
growth (why do firms grow) include: adventure and risk, prestige power and
job security, increases compensation, organizational self-realization, to
achieve a stable environment, organizational survival, increased profits,
increased revenue, decreased costs via economies of scale, and to achieve
130
monopolistic power
...
3
...
As an organization enters
each of these stages it encounters a predictive series of critical crises
accompanied by recognizable levy issues and results
...
Consequently, a
relatively small or newly founded organization may rapidly achieve
developmental maturity, and a relatively large (or comparatively older)
organization remain youthful
...
He identified five phases through which organization pass
through in their growth
...
Phase 1 Creativity
The organization is born
...
The founders are entrepreneurs and they devote full
energies to the technical activities of production and marketing
...
Control is based on the
owners‟ personnel supervision
...
They may restrict growth
...
If the leadership
crisis is resolved, the organization grows into the next phase
...
Departments are established
along with a hierarchy of authority, job assignments, and division of labor
...
Elements of bureaucracy become
apparent
...
Lower level managers begin to
acquire confidence in their own functional areas and want more discretion
...
Top management must delegate responsibility and decentralize
decision making
...
Internal control and information
systems are installed and used
...
New products and new employee‟s specialists may be added
...
In order to overcome the crisis, new techniques to coordinate
the increased number of departments and activities must be found
...
Staff personnel and specialists are required to review company wide
programs
...
Incentive systems based on profits may be
implemented to ensure that managers work towards what is best for the
overall company if the new systems are successful, and effective, the
organization will grow to the next phase
The red – tape crisis: the proliferation of systems and programs may begin
to frustrate middle level executives
...
The organization may seem too large to manage through
formal program
...
Managers develop skills for confronting problems and
resolving interpersonal differences and conflicts
...
10
...
Increased number of management levels (vertical complexity)
ii
...
Increased specialization of skills and functions
iv
...
Greater decentralization
vi
...
Greater percentage of technical and professional support staff
...
6 Organizational Decline
The term decline denotes a cut break in the size of the organization‟s
workforce, profit, budget, or clients
...
g
...
g
...
Organizational atrophy: atrophy occurs when the organization
grows order, inefficient and gets used to success
...
The alternative is to decline
...
Vulnerability – vulnerability reflects the inability of the organization
to prosper in its environment
...
It is
vulnerable to changes in consumer tastes or in the economic health of
the larger society
134
3
...
This may be because the organization products and services have
become out of step with the values and attitudes of the public
...
Environmental atrophy – this refers to the reduced capacity of the
environment to support the organization
...
The first and most positive approach to dealing with decline is to
simply embrace the change and try to make the best of it
...
People should also be made to understand and be informed of the need
for decline
3
...
4
...
5
...
135
LECTURE 11: ORGANISATIONAL POLITICS
11
...
Power is the
probability that one actor within a social relationship will be in a position to
carry out his own will despite resistance, regardless of the basis on which
this probability rests
...
Hodge and Anthony (1985) also define power as the ability (potential or
actual) to impose one‟s will on others
...
Dessler (1980) identifies five bases of power
...
These
bases are explained below
...
The
strength of the reward power one person holds over another increases with
the magnitude of the rewards the latter perceives the former can mediate for
him
...
The coercive power of one
person over another stems from real or imagined expectations on the part of
the latter that he will be punished if he fails to conform to the influence
...
The actual source of
this legitimate power and the reasons subordinates feel they ought to obey
might be tradition or may derive from the office the supervisor holds
...
Finally expert power derives from the fact that one person is viewed as an
expert in some area and others MUST therefore depend on him for advice
and counsel
...
Power is an important concept in organizations and individuals exert power
to get things done
...
Such persons can change the actions of many other
people
...
Given such outcomes, many people
in an organization invest considerable time and energy to get power
...
3 Effects of power on its holders
Power exerts strong effects upon those who hold it and those over whom it is
exercised
...
An example of such processes is negotiation
...
To the extent one party to
negotiations has an advantage in this respect it can shape the course of the
exchange, and obtain an agreement favorable to itself
...
If the persons representing
an organization in a beginning situation are low in power, they will have to
answer for their actions during negotiations
...
In contrast, if
negotiators are high in power, they will be protected from such censure and
may feel free to choose a more flexible and open approach
...
Involving high power representatives from both sides may be
more successful and more efficient than negotiations between persons of
lower power
...
4 Organizational politics
Organizational politics can be defined as any actions taken by individuals or
groups to gain power and so secure goals and outcomes that they personally
desire
...
Indeed this element
of using or gaining power to further one‟s own or groups‟ self-interest is one
of the major factors distinguishing politics from other more legitimate uses
of power
...
138
In most organizations, politics is common
...
As a result promotions,
salary raises and other rewards are not always distributed solely on the basis
of merit
...
And the principles of fair play and rationality do not
always serve as the guiding precepts
...
11
...
Among
them includes:
(i) Coalitions – forming the right alliances
This involves joining forces with persons or groups who have
something to contribute and who can be relied upon
...
(ii) Choosing a powerful mentor
Having an experienced and powerful mentor is beneficial to the group
or individual seeking this relationship and can be an effective tactic
for acquiring power and reaching important goals
...
However, given the
substantial benefits yielded by the protection and guidance of a
powerful mentor, efforts to establish such a relationship are well
worthwhile
...
For this reason,
polishing one‟s image often yields valuable dividends where
organizational politics is concerned
...
(iv)
Establishing control over access to information
This is another highly effective tactic for gaining power that can be
used both by individuals and by groups
...
Since information is the life blood of
organizations, any one who can control its flow or access to it,
acquires considerable power
...
Once they are made
part of the group they become part of it, subject to its norms, and often
adopt its values and goals
...
In general people treat
others as they have been treated previously
...
(vii) The use of ‘dirty tricks’
This refers to strategies that most people view as deceitful,
underhanded and dishonest – ones that violate the ethical principles of
human beings
...
b) Announcing one agenda for meetings, but then following a totally
different hidden one thus preventing opponents from being adequately
prepared
...
d) Spreading false rumors about their personal lives, lack of
commitment to the organization etc
...
11
...
Some tactics are manipulative, dishonest and in some cases even illegal
...
Such situations leave us with one issue: when are efforts to
acquire and use power through organizational politics justified, and when
are they inappropriate? The following principles suggested by Cavanagh,
Moberg and Velasquez (1980) offer some general guidelines in this regard
...
ii)
The impact of political behaviors upon the rights of individuals should
be addressed
...
iii)
The relationship of political behaviors to principles of equity and fair
play should be considered
...
Further most persons like to behave that
although all individuals would not finish together they can at least
begin from the same point and run the same course
...
Indeed in an
important sense, their ultimate aim is that of establishing two sets of
rules – one for those in power and another one for those without it
...
142
Thus political behavior in organizations is ethical only when it furthers
organizational as well as individual goals; when it does not violate
individual rights and when it is consistent with the principles of equity, fair
play and justice
...
2
Definition Conflict
Conflict refers to the interactive, opposing behaviors between two or more
people, groups or larger social systems having incompatible goals
...
Conflict ranges form
disagreements, debates, to physical confrontation, murder, and or
annihilations (elimination) i
...
12
...
(1) A WE –VERSUS – THEY constellation of attitudes and feelings forms
Both groups take pride in the group‟s accomplishments and make
favorable evaluation of “our” group in contrast to favorable or less
negative evaluations of characteristics of other groups
...
In addition to making
disparaging remarks within ones own group about the other groups,
contact with the other group is frowned upon and generally avoided
...
e
...
(7) Information is used to erode the position of the other group
...
‟ A representative
who is negotiating with the other group and who gives in too readily to
the position of the other group is branded a traitor
12
...
The winning group tends to be joyful, self congratulatory, and reveal
in the glow of victory
...
The role of the leader(s) is enhanced
...
3
...
Characteristically the winners
bask in their success and do not critique their performance
...
They become fat and happy
...
The winning group has little empathy for the losers
...
Further they cannot understand why the other group takes
the matter so seriously
...
6 The following things happen to the losing group
1
...
2
...
The judges who hard done the
decision are frequently perceived by the losing groups as biased,
unfair, and incompetent, and having no grasp of the problem
...
3
...
Feelings may sometimes run so high that the
leader or negotiator is deposed or resigns
...
Some critique of what happened readily occurs
...
5
...
In the losing
group, mutual blaming for the defeat frequently occurs
...
Recriminations may
proliferate for a while, with some disorganizing and splintering
occurring
...
6
...
They
see the celebration of the other group as excessive and they resent
their self congratulatory behavior
...
7 Function of conflict
1
...
Conflict can help redefine a group‟s or organization‟s mission and can
also help review group norms
3
...
Conflicts can also
- Lead to production of better ideas
- Lead to search for new products
- Lead to better clarification of news
...
Conflict can also lead to group solidarity and cooperation against the
other group
6
...
8 Dysfunctions of conflict
1
...
Can lead to destruction of property
3
...
Can lead to break down or distortion of communication
147
5
...
Can produce excessive levels of tension anxiety and stress
7
...
Can reduce trust, leading to antagonistic interactions
...
9
...
This leads to poor decisions made with poor information
12
...
In business, the third party may
be a customer, a supplier of raw materials, or distributor, or potential
employee
...
A third party choice may be viewed as a vote of success for
one of the competing organizations
...
10 Functional consequences of competition
Competition encourages creativity, lowering of prices, and quality
production
...
Within larger social systems, it encourages creativity, innovation and
effectiveness
...
11 Comparison between conflict and competition
1
...
Opposing behavior
In conflict, behavior is entirely (or mostly), opposing while in
competition, there is some opposing behaviors and some cooperative
behavior
3
...
Willingness to enter
In conflict one or both parties may be drawn or forced into the
conflict while in competition usually both parties enter willingly
12
...
12
...
12
...
13 Cooperation
Definition cooperation: Cooperation consists of mutually reinforcing or
supportive behaviors between two or more people, groups or larger social
systems
...
Cooperative behavior may be verbal, or non-verbal or both
...
The groups, individuals or larger systems work together in order to enhance,
the outcomes received by each
...
Example
i
...
managers use their expertise to reach an important
decision
The persons, groups or units involved coordinate their actions in order to
reach goals and levels of performance they could not attain alone
...
Cooperation often pays, for all concerned
...
150
12
...
In many cases therefore,
competition or conflict is the result
...
g status,
power promotions etc,) are in short supply and are sought by many more
persons or units than can hope to attain them: cooperation is scarce,
whereas competition and conflict are the norm
...
They can either choose
to cooperate to achieve mutually desired goals, or they can work on their
own to achieve the desired goals
...
Communication: in many situations where cooperation could develop,
but it does not, its absence is blamed on failure to communicate
...
Several factors contribute to this outcome
...
As groups increase in size communication among their members,
becomes more difficult
...
14 Consequences of cooperation
Shared benefits
Increased outcomes (synergistic)
Peace and stability within or between group
12
...
16 Differences between conflict and cooperation
1
...
2
...
- In cooperation, behavior is supportive while in conflict behavior is
opposing
...
3
...
4
...
In cooperation behaviors is usually overt
and direct as there is no reason to make it sub rosa
...
17 Comparisons between cooperation and conflict
(a) Similarities
(i) Cooperative behavior, like conflict behavior may be verbal or
nonverbal or both
...
(iv) In both conflict and cooperation, behaviors are interactive in the sense
that it is between at least two people and there is usually more than one cycle
of behavior and counter behavior
...
c) Cooperative behavior stems from a perception that collaboration will
help obtain mutual goals, while conflict stems from a perception of
conflicting goals
...
e) In cooperation, since each of the parties involved is obtaining
something desirable, or expects to, there is little reason for the
behaviors or be sub rosa
...
154
MAIN REFERENCES
(i)
B
...
Hodge and William P
...
(ii)
Herbert G
...
Ray Gullet (1975), “Organizations: Theory
and Behaviour” McGram-Hill International Edition
...
Robbins (1987) 2nd edition, “Organization Theory,
Structure, Design and Applications”
...
A division of
Simon and Schuster Eaglewood Cliffs, New Jersey
...
(iv)
Richard L
...
ISBN 0 – 314 -93170 – 8
...
Huse (2nd edition), “Organizational Development and
Change”
(ii)
John Child (1984), Organization – guide to problems and practice
(2nd edition) printed by Athenaeum Press Ltd
...
(iii)
David Silverman (1972), The theory of organizations
...
, 48 Charles Street, London
...
ISBN 043582810X & 0435828 118
...
Tosi 4th edition (1978), Theories of organization
...
ISBN No
...
156
Title: Organization theory
Description: it indicates and explain how organization started and how it is applied in modern businesses
Description: it indicates and explain how organization started and how it is applied in modern businesses