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I
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Anatomy and Physiology
a
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Made up of muscles, bones, joints, and related structures
ii
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Composed of contractile cells or fibers
i
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Contribute to posture and body heat
c
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Make up the bulk of the body
e
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Attach to bones or internal organs and blood vessels
g
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Apparent motion is like walking and talking
ii
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Three types of muscle tissue
i
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Muscles whose action is under voluntary control
2
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Cardiac muscles
1
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Unique for its interconnections
3
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Smooth muscle (involuntary or visceral muscles)
1
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Found in visceral organs, wall of arteries, and respiratory passages,
and urinary and reproductive ducts
i
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Appendage: any body part attached to a main structure
ii
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Articulations: place of union between two or more bones; also called
joints
iv
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Cruciate ligaments: ligaments that cross each other forming and X within
the notch between the femoral condyles
vi
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Hematopoiesis: production and development of blood cells, normally in
bone marrow
j
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Adduction: moves closer to the midline

III
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Abduction: moves away from the midline
iii
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Extension: increases the angle of a joint
v
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Pronation: turns the palm down
vii
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Inversion: moves the sole of the foot inward
ix
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Dorsiflexion: elevates the foot
xi
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Attachments
i
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Fibrous attachments: the connective tissue converges at the end of the
muscle to become continuous and indistinguishable from the periosteum
iii
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Some attachments are found in the back
v
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Ligaments: flexible bands of fibrous tissue that are highly adapted for resisting
strains and are one of the principle medical factors that holds bones close
together in a synovial joint
i
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Provide the framework of the body, protects vital organs, stores calcium, and
produces blood cells
i
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Make movement possible because they provide points of attachment
i
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They are the “storing house” for minerals
p
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Short bones: cube-shaped, consists of a spongy core or cancellous bone,
enclosed by a thin surface of compact bone
ii
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Flat bones: exactly what their name suggests
iv
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Diaphysis: the shaft or long, main portion of the bone
2
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Medullary cavity (marrow cavity): contains fatty yellow marrow
in adults and consists of fat cells and few blood cells
4
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Provide a bulbous shape to provide more space for the
muscle and ligaments to attach

5
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Spongy bone: make up the epiphyses are made up of largely of a
porous chamber, surrounded by a layer of compact bone
a
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Erythropoiesis: occurs in red bone marrow
ii
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Periosteum: a dense, white, fibrous membrane, covering the
remaining surface of the bone
a
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Bones that lose it through injury or disease usually scale or
die
c
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Osteoblasts: the inner layer contains the bone-forming cells
q
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Surfaces are rarely smooth
ii
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Provide sites for muscle and ligament attachment
2
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various types of projections are evident in bones
1
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Surfaces may be rounded, sharp, or narrow or have a large ridge
v
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Provide pathways and openings for blood vessels, nerves, and
ducts
a
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Trochanter- very large, irregularly shaped process
found only on the femur
b
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Tubercle- small, rounded process
ii
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Projections that form joints
i
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Head- Prominent, rounded, articulating end of a
bone
d
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Foramen- rounded opening through and nerves a
bone to accommodate blood vessels
ii
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Meatus-Opening or passage into a bone
iv
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Divisions of the Skeletal System
i
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Divided into two groups
1
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Appendicular System
s
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Divided into three major regions:
1
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Contributes to the formation of body cavities and provides protection for
internal organs such as the brain, spinal cord, and organs enclosed in the
thorax
t
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Consists of cranial bones and facial bones
ii
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Sutures- lines of junction between two bones and usually immovable
u
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Eight bones
ii
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Connected to muscles to provide head movements, chewing movements,
and facial expression
iv
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Allows the bones to move as the fetus passes through the birth
canal during the delivery process
2
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Frontal bone- forms the anterior portion of the skull (forehead)
and the roof of the bony cavities that contain the eyeballs
...
Parietal bone- situated on each side of the skull just behind the
frontal bone
...
Coronal Suture- where the parietal bone meets the frontal bone
6
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Contains an
opening in its base through which spinal cord passes
7
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has a complicated shape
b
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projects downward to form mastoid process
8
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Sphenoid Bone- located at middle part of the base of the skull,
forms a central wedge that joins with all other cranial bones
holding them together
10
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Facial Bones
i
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ii
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Mandible-lower jaw bone, movement is needed for speaking and
chewing
2
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Fused in the midline by suture
b
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If bones do not fuse properly before birth, a congenital
defect called cleft palate results
3
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Lacrimal Bones- two paired lacrimal bones are located at the
corner of each eye
...
Thin, small bones
b
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Zygomatic Bones- located on the side of the face below the eyes
and form the higher portion of the cheeks below and to the sides of
the eyes
...
Vomer- a single, thin bone that forms the lower part of the nasal
septum
7
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Open into the nasal cavities
b
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When unable to drain properly, a feeling of being “stuffed
up” ensues
i
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Thorax
i
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Enclosed and protected by a bony rib cage
ii
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True Ribs- first seven pairs, attached directly to the sternum by a
strip of costal cartilage
2
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Floating Ribs- last two pairs of false ribs not joined to the sternum
but attach posteriorly to thoracic vertebrae
x
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Adult consists of 26 bones called Vertebrae
ii
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Provides a protective bony canal for spinal cord

iv
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Cervical and lumbar regions curve forward
2
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Abnormal curves can result from a congenital defect, poor posture, or
bone disease
vi
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Cervical Vertebrae- form the skeletal framework of the neck
a
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Axis- second cervical vertebrae, makes possible the
rotation of the skull on the neck
2
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Lumbar Vertebrae- situated in the lower back area and carry
most of the weight of the torso
4
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Coccyx- the tail of the vertebral column, consists of four or five
fragmented fused vertebrae
6
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Appendicular Skeleton
i
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Enables the body to move
z
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Consists of two bones
1
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Scapula- triangular shoulder blade, posterior
ii
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Upper Limbs
i
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Humerus- upper arm bone, articulates with the radius and ulna at
the elbow
ii
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Bones of the hand
1
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Metacarpals: palm bones, five radiating
3
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Pelvic (Hip) Girdle
i
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Attaches lower limbs to axial skeleton
iii
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V
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Male and females are different in size and shape but share same basic
structures
1
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Females supports the enlarged uterus as the fetus matures provides
a large opening for infant to pass during birth
v
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Ilium
2
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Pubis
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Acetabulum- deep socket of hip bone
2
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Sacrum and Coccyx- rectum is in the curve
cc
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Supports the complete weight of the erect body and are subjected to
exceptional stresses, especially in running and jumping
ii
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Massive bones are specialized for stability and weight bearing
iv
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Femur- a single bone that makes up the thigh
a
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Tibia- bone which helps make up the leg
3
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Tarsals- ankle bones
5
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Phalanges- toes
Joints or Articulations
a
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Articulating points form joints that have various degrees of mobility
i
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Amphiarthroses- slightly movable joints
iii
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Necessary for smooth, coordinated body movements
d
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Joint Capsule- sleevelike extension of the Periosteum
i
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Strengthened by ligaments that lash the bones together
f
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Synovial Fluid- a lubricating fluid secreted by synovial membrane
h
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Blood, Lymph, and immune
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Bone marrow provides a place for cells of the immune system to develop

VI
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Cardiovascular
i
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Digestive
i
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Muscles of the stomach mechanically break down food to prepare it for
chemical digestion
d
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Exercising skeletal muscles stimulate release of hormones to increase
blood flow
e
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Skeletal muscles are important in sexual activity and during delivery of
the fetus
ii
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Pelvis helps support the enlarged uterus during pregnancy
f
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Skeletal muscles are important in sexual activity
ii
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Skeletal muscles help control urine elimination
g
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Involuntary muscle contractions (shivering) help regulate body
temperature
h
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Bones protect the brain and spinal cord
i
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Muscles and ribs work together in the breathing process
Medical Word Elements
a
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Ankyl/o- stiffness; bent, crooked
ii
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Kyph/o- humpback
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Lord/o- curve, swayback
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Orth/o- straight
viii
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Ped/o- foot, child
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Scoli/o- crooked, bent
xii
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Specific Bones
i
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Brachi/o- arm
iii
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Carp/o- carpus (wrist bone)
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Cervic/o- neck; cervix uteri (neck of uterus)
vii
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Cost/o- ribs
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Dactyl/o- fingers, toes
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Fibul/o- fibula (smaller bone of lower leg)
xiii
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Ili/o- ilium (lateral, flaring portion of hip bone)
xv
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Lumb/o- loins (lower back)
xvii
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Metatars/o- metatarsus (foot bones)
xix
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Pelv/i- pelvis
xxi
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Phalang/o- phalanges (bones of the fingers and toes)
xxiii
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Pub/o- pelvis bone (anterior part of the pelvic bone)
xxv
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Spondyl/o- vertebrae (backbone)
xxvii
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Stern/o- sternum (breastbone)
xxix
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Muscular System
i
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Muscul/o- muscle
iii
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Rhabd/o- rod-shaped (striated)
v
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Related Structures
i
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Fasci/o- band, fascia(fibrous membrane supporting and separating
muscles)
iii
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Synov/o- synovial membrane, synovial fluid
v
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Tend/o-tendon
vii
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Suffixes
i
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–blast: embryonic cell
iii
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–clast: to break

VII
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v
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–malacia: softening
vii
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–porosis: porous
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Prefixes
i
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Dys-: bad, painful, difficult
iii
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Supra-: above, excessive superior
v
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Joints are vulnerable to constant wear and tear
i
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Disorders of the musculoskeletal system are likely causes by injury than
disease
c
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Orthopedist- physician who specializes in diagnoses and treatment
i
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Rheumatologist- specializes in treating joint disease
f
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Include fractures, infections, osteoporosis, and spinal curvatures
b
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Fracture- broken bone
ii
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Open (compound) fracture- involves broken bone and an external
wound that leads to site of fracture
...
Complicated Fracture- a broken bone has injured an internal organ
v
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Impacted fracture- occurs when bone is broken and one end is wedged
into the interior of another bone
vii
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Greenstick fracture- broken bone does not extend through the entire
thickness of the bone
1
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most often in children
3
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d
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f
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Colles fracture- break at the lower end of the radius, occurs just above the
wrist
1
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Occurs as a result of flexing a hand to cushion a fall
x
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Seen on radiographic examination as a very thin hairline between
the two segments
2
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Pathological (spontaneous) Fracture- usually caused by a disease
process such as a neoplasm or osteoporosis
Bones sometimes require months to heal
Several factors influence rate to heal
i
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Achieved with bandages, casts, traction, or fixation device
2
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Fractures with bone fragments require surgery to reposition and fix bones
securely so that surrounding tissue heal
iii
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Older patients require more time for healing
iv
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Osteomyelitis- infection of bone and bone marrow
1
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Primarily caused by pus- forming bacteria
3
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Causes blood clot
4
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Some result in destruction of the bone and stiffening or freezing of
the joints
ii
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can occur in any bone
2
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found in people over age 40
4
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osteoporosis- common metabolic bone disorder in the elderly
1
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characterized by decreased bone density that occurs when rate of
bone resorption exceeds rate of bone formation
3
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disturbances of protein metabolism
b
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c
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estrogen deficiencies associated with menopause
e
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long term administration of high doses of corticosteroids
4
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Spinal Curvatures
i
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Three common deviations:
1
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May be congenital, caused by chronic poor posture during
childhood
b
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Exercises
ii
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Back brace
iv
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Kyphosis- abnormal curvature of the upper portion of spine
a
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Treatment consists of: spine stretching exercises, sleeping
with a board under the mattress, wearing a brace, or surgery
3
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Caused by increased weight of the abdominal contents,
resulting from obesity or excessive weight gain during
pregnancy
Joint Disorders
a
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Main Types: osteoarthritis, rheumatoid arthritis, gouty arthritis, or gout
1
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Results in crippling deformities
b
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Most common in women ages 23-35
d
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No specific cure
i
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Osteoarthritis (degenerative joint disease)
a
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Cartilage destruction and new bone formation at the edges
of joints are the most common pathologies

X
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c
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May result in fusion of two bone surfaces, completely
immobilizing the joint
e
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Gouty Arthritis (Gout)a
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Crystals may become deposited in joints and soft
tissue near joints causing swelling and inflammation
b
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Include muscular dystrophy and myasthenia gravis
i
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most common type:
a
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Affects children
ii
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Transmitted as a sex linked disease passed from
mother to son
iv
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No cure
vi
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Myasthenia Gravis- neuromuscular disorder
1
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Characterized by destruction of receptors in the synaptic region
3
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Women are affected more
5
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Can be controlled
7
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Two major malignancies that affect bone
i
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rare
ii
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Quite prevalent
b
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Sacromas: malignancies that originate from bone, fat, muscle, cartilage, bone
marrow, and cells of lymphatic system

XII
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Three major Sacromas: fibrosarcoma, osteosarcoma, and Ewing Sarcoma
1
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Osteosarcoma: develops from bone tissue and generally affects
the knees, upper arms, and upper legs, usually between ages 20-25
3
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usually affects the shaft of long
b
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young boys between ages 10-20
ii
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swelling and tenderness
iii
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magnetic resonance imagining (MRI)
2
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Ankylosis: stiffening and immobility of a joint as a result of disease, trauma,
surgery, or abnormal bone fusion
b
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Claudication: lameness, limping
d
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Crepitation: dry, grating sound or sensation caused by bone ends rubbing
together, indicating a fracture or joint destruction
f
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Exacerbation: increase in severity of a disease or any of its symptoms
h
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Hemarthrosis: effusion of blood into a joint cavity
j
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Multiple myeloma: primary malignant tumor that infiltrates the bone and red
bone marrow
l
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Phantom Limb: perceived sensation, following amputation of a limb, that the
limb still exists
n
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Rickets: form of osteomalacia in children caused by vitamin D deficiency; also
called rachitis
p
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Spondylolisthesis: any slipping (subluxation) of a vertebra from its normal
position in relationship to the one beneath it
r
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Sprain: tearing of ligament tissue that may be slight, moderate, or complete
t
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Subluxation: partial or incomplete dislocation
v
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Arthroscopy: series of radiographs taken after injection of contrast material
into a joint cavity, especially the knee or shoulder, to outline the contour of the
joint
x
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Computed tomography (CT): imaging technique that uses an x-ray beam
and a computer to make a series of cross-sectional images of a body part,
which together make up a three-dimensional view of the area scanned;
formerly called computerized axial tomography (CAT)
z
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Lumbosacral spinal radiography: radiography of the five lumbar vertebrae
and the fused sacral vertebrae, including anteroposterior, lateral, and oblique
views of the lower spine
bb
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Scintigraphy: nuclear medicine procedure that visualizes various tissues and
organs after administration of a radionuclide
dd
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Reduction: procedure that restores a bone to its normal position
ff
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Open: reduction procedure that treats bone fractures by placing the bones in
their proper position using surgery
hh
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Splinting: application of an orthopedic device to an injured body part for
immobilization, stabilization, and protection during the healing process
jj
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Amputation: partial or complete removal of an extremity due to trauma or
circulatory disease
ll
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XIV
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Arthroclasia: surgical breaking of an ankylosed joint to provide movement
nn
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Bone grafting: implanting or transplanting bone tissue from another part of the
body or from another person to serve as replacement for damage or missing
bone tissue
pp
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Laminectomy: excision of the posterior arch of a vertebrae
rr
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Sequestrectomy: excision of a sequestrum
tt
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Total hip replacement: surgical procedure to replace a hip joint damage by a
degenerative disease, commonly arthritis
Drugs used to treat musculosketetal disorders
a
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Gold salts: treat rheumatoid arthritis by inhibiting activity within the immune
system
c
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Sacicylates: relieve mild to moderate pain and reduce inflammation
e
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ACL: anterior cruciate ligament
b
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AK: above the knee
d
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BK: below the knee
f
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Ca: calcium; cancer
h
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CTS: carpal tunnel syndrome
j
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DEXA, DXA: dual energy x-ray absorptiometry
l
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EMG: electromyography
n
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MG: myasthenia gravis
p
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HNP: herniated nucleus pulposus
r
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IS: intracostal space
t
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IV: intravenous

v
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L1, L2, and so on: first lumber vertebrae, second lumber vertebrae, and so on
x
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MG: myasthenia gravis
z
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MS: musculoskeletal
bb
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ORTH, ortho: orthopedics
dd
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PCL: posterior cruciate ligament
ff
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RF: rheumatoid factor; radio frequency
hh
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SD: shoulder disarticulation
jj
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THR: total hip replacement
ll
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TKR: total knee replacement
nn

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