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Title: Full Grade 10AP Science Notes
Description: Notes from grade 10. Including Chemistry, Physics and Biology. Full 30 pages.
Description: Notes from grade 10. Including Chemistry, Physics and Biology. Full 30 pages.
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Science 10AP Notes
Science Notes Physics
Significant Digits
● communicating uncertainty in measurements
● 19 is always significant 0, may not be
● 0’s in the middle are significant
● 0’s to the left are not significant
● o’s to the right are significant
● never round your answer until after the calculation
● Express your answer as the following
● adding and subtracting use least # of decimal places
● Multiplying and dividing use the least amount of significant digits
Formula Manipulating
● Perform opposites to isolate desired variable
● If you do it one side of the formula so it to the other side
● Work in reverse bedmas
Converting standard notification into scientific notation
● step 1:Move the decimal over so that only one nonzero digit is to the left of the decimal
● step 2:count the numbers of places the decimal has moved
...
remember this is
determined by the operation used in the calculation
● step 4:Write down the number from step 3 and multiply it by 10 to the exponent that you
came up with in step 2
Graph need to include
● Title
● Axes
● line of best fit (doesn't connect with the dots)
● Legend(if more that one set of data)
Labeling Axes
● Independent/manipulated variable
● things being changed
● goes on x axis
● dependent /responding variable
● goes on y axis
Steepness of a slope is rise over run
Scalar and Vector
● A scalar quantity is a one dimensional measurement of a quantity, like temperature, or
weight
...
A simple example is velocity
...
Displacement
● Vector quantity
● change in position
● the smartest path (straight line) between the starting point and the end point
● diection of vectors can be expressed as NSEW or +/
● displacement = position f
Speed
● speed is the change in distance over a change in time interval
● scalar quantity
● v= distance over time
Velocity
● the change in position(displacement) over a specific time interval
● vector quantity direction is same as displacement
● velocity is displacement over time
Acceleration
● vector quantity
● the change in velocity over a specified time interval
● same direction as velocity
● when object speeds up, slows down or changes direction
● negative acceleration doesn't have to be slowing down, it could depend on the direction
of velocity
Graphs
● uniform motion is always a straight line on a positiontime graph
● nonuniform motion is when object is accelerating
● the slope is the velocity
● curved line has a changing slope means the object is accelerating
● position time graphs are graphs of nonuniform motion
● a line with a constant slope on a velocitytime graph represents 0 acceleration
Laws of Motion
1
...
an object that is acted upon by an unbalance force experiences an acceleration in the
direction of the force
...
when one body exerts a force on another body, the second exerts an equal force in the
opposite direction of the first
...
The early theory of heat was that it was a combination of the four elements, fire, earth,
water and air…
2
...
The Caloric Theory: is the theory that heat is a mass less fluid found in all substances,
but when magnesium and other substances burned, the mass was greater than before,
which wouldn't be possible in this theory , because phlogiston flows out
...
81m/s
Mass
● scalar measured in Kg
● The amount of matter within the object
● Does not depend where the object is
Weight
● vector quantity, measured in N
● Force due to gravity
● Depends on where the object
Fg = mg weight mass x 9
...
A prokaryote ingested some aerobic bacteria, the aerobes were protected & produced energy
for the prokaryote
...
Over time the aerobes became mitochondria, no longer able to live on their own, and became
mitochondria
C
...
Eventually they couldn’t live on their own and became chloroplasts
Development of Cell Theory
1
...
The cells the basic unit of structure & organization in organisms, it’s the smallest unit of life
...
All cells come from preexisting cells
Organization of Life
Atoms Molecules Organelles Cells Tissues Organs Systems Organisms
Plasma Membrane
∙ A phospholipid bilayer composed of proteins and carbohydrates
...
It protects the cell and provides stability
∙ Proteins are found embedded within the plasma membrane, with some extending all the way
through in order to transport materials
...
(Chambers that fill with blood)
Left Atrium receives oxygenated
blood from the lungs (Chambers
that fill with blood)
Bottom
Ventricle
Right Ventricle receives
deoxygenated blood from the atria
and pumps it to the lungs
Left atrium receives oxygenated
blood from the atria and pumps It to
the body
Heart Structures
∙ Septum – muscular wall that separates the left and right sides of the heart
∙ Superior Vena Cava – collects deoxygenated blood from the head, chest, and arms
∙ Inferior Vena Cava – collects deoxygenated blood from central and lower body
∙ Pulmonary Arteries – The blood vessels that carry the deoxygenated blood from the right
ventricle to the lungs
...
(separate heart from lungs and heart from body)
● Prevents the blood from the blood vessels from flowing back into the heart
...
blood picks up oxygen and gives up carbon
dioxide
● Oxygenated blood brought back to heart
● Leaves right ventricle via pulmonary artery and enters left atrium by pulmonary veins
Systemic Circuit to and from rest of body
● Oxygenated blood pumped to the body where it gives oxygen to body cells and picks up
CO2
● Deoxygenated blood returns to heart
● Leaves right ventricle through aorta to body and back to right atrium by superior and
inferior vena cava
Coronary Circuit
● There is also a coronary circuit, which provides blood to the tissue of the heart itself
...
This
is because the oxygen can not effectively diffuse through all the cell layers of the heart
...
Flow of Blood through the Heart
1
...
Blood flows from the right atrium into the right ventricle through the tricuspid valve
...
Blood is pumped from the right ventricle, through the pulmonary semilunar valve, into the
pulmonary trunk that splits into the right and left pulmonary arteries
...
The deoxygenated blood travels up the pulmonary arteries and passes through the
capillaries of the lungs to become oxygenated
...
Oxygenated blood returns from the lungs by way of the right and left pulmonary veins
...
Oxygenated blood enters the left atrium when it returns from the lungs
...
Left atrium contracts and forces the oxygenated blood past the bicuspid valve and into
the left ventricle
...
The left ventricle contracts and forces the oxygenated blood past the aortic semilunar
valve into the aorta
...
Oxygenated blood travels up the aorta and out toward the body
...
Outer and Inner Layer
Primary connective tissue
1
...
Middle layers
Muscle Fibers and Elastic Connective tissue
Pulse created by the changes in the size of arteries
● Blood will pass from arteries into smaller vessels called arterioles
● the largest artery is the Aorta
Capillaries
● The site of fluid and gas exchange (oxygen and carbon dioxide)
● wall is a single layer of cells
● extremely narrow blood cells have to move through single file
● Very fragile and can break easily causes bruising
● Blood with oxygen will appear bright red in colour while blood without oxygen will be a
darker red colour
Veins
● Carry blood to the heart
● veins have thinner walls than arteries and walls are not elastic
● Capillaries will merge together and form Venules and then Veins
● Blood in veins don't have enough pressure to get back to the heart
veins have valves don't allow blood to flow backwards
Muscles help blood flow muscles will push against the side of the vein to push blood back to
the heart
● Important blood reservoirs(65% of blood in body)
● Largest Veins
1
...
Inferior Vena Cava
Brings blood to heart from lower body
Varicose Veins If valves do not function properly, blood will pool in lower limbs
Atherosclerosis
● Lipids are deposited on the walls of arteries, narrowing inside of arteries
● Leads to high blood pressure
● If the plaque and subsequent blood clots cut of blood flow altogether near heart it can
lead to heart attacks
Heart Noises
● Noises are made by the closing of AV valves when ventricles contract(first beat)
● The second beat is made from the closing of semilunar valves closing which occurs
when the ventricles relax
● The left AV valve(bicuspid) has to withstand great pressures it pumps blood to the
whole body from the left side of the heart(left ventricle is thicker than the right ventricle)
●
●
●
Heart murmurs are abnormal heart sounds produced when the valves are defective or
have been damaged by disease
blood leaks backwards through valves
decreased oxygen delivery to cells due to backflow and therefore faster heart beat
The Beating Heart
● stimulus that triggers a heartbeat in an electrical signal originating from the heart itself
● A bundle of nerve tissue called the sinoatrial (SA) node, in the wall of the right atrium
stimulates the muscle cells to contract and relax by sending an impulse
the SA node is also called the pacemaker it sets the rhythm of the heart to 70 beats /min
● The signal spreads to the left atrium and the 2 contract simultaneously
● Nerve impulses reach the AV node
...
(there is a
pause at the AV node to allow the atria to finish contracting, impulses travel faster than
before the atria can completely contact)
● Electrical signal is transmitted through the bundle of His(in septum) which transmit to the
Purkinje fibers (up sides of ventricles)
● Purkinje fibers cause the right and left ventricles to contract
● both the left and right atria contract before the right and left ventricles
Function of Blood
● Maintain fluid balance
● Maintains body temperature
● Maintain pH balance
● Deliver oxygen
● Protect the body against invaders
Blood Components
● Blood is considered a fluid tissue → connective tissue
● 55% fluid is called Plasma
plasma is 90% water, contains proteins, glucose, vitamins, minerals, dissolved gases
and waste products of cell metabolism
proteins are necessary for homeostasis
Three types of Blood Proteins
● Albumins materials establish osmotic pressure that helps to maintain fluid levels
● Globulins produce antibodies that provide protection against invading microbes
● Fibrinogens Assist in blood clotting
Blood Components
●
●
●
45% blood cells
erythrocytes = red blood cells
leukocytes = white blood cells
platelets = plug holes, and stop bleeding
Red Blood Cells
●
●
●
●
●
primary function → to carry oxygen
hemoglobin – the pigment in red blood cells that increases the capacity of the blood to
carry oxygen
without hemoglobin – enough oxygen to sustain life for ~4
...
5 million red blood cells per mL of blood (females ~4
...
anemia: a deficiency in hemoglobin or red blood cells decreases oxygen delivery to the
tissues
White Blood Cells
●
●
●
also called leukocytes
much less numerous than red blood cells (700:1)
have a nucleus
●
●
●
●
●
different types are produced in the bone marrow and some are modified by the lymph
nodes
recall the lymphatic system aids in fluid balance and “cleansup” with phagocytotic white
blood cells
some white blood cells destroy invading microbes by engulfing them
remaining protein from white blood cell and microbe is pus
some form special proteins called antibodies
interfere with microbes and toxins
Platelets
●
●
●
●
●
does not contain a nucleus
are produced in the bone marrow
are irregularly shaped
are fragile and will rupture if they strike a sharp
initiate blood clotting reactions
●
●
●
●
●
Blood Clotting
maintains homeostasis by preventing the loss of blood
also stall the rupturing of blood vessels → they become thinker
when the platelets reach a rough surface (ie: cut) they rupture and release a protein
called thromboplastin; which combines with calcium ions and activates a plasma protein
called prothrombin
prothrombin and fibrinogin are produced by the liver
prothrombin is then transformed into thrombin
thrombin acts like and enzyme and splices 2 amino acids from fibrinogen, which
converts it into fibrin threads that wrap around the cut, sealing it with a clot
●
●
thrombus – a blood clot that forms within a blood
some nearby tissues may not be supplied with oxygen and nutrients
a clot in the brain (cerebral thrombosis) may lead a clot in the coronary artery causes
coronary a dislodged clot becomes an embolus
cerebral embolisms, coronary embolisms & pulmonary
Respiratory System
Passive Transport
●
●
●
●
●
movement of molecules down the concentration gradient, from areas of high to low
concentration
...
Osmosis: Diffusion in water
Facilitated Diffusion: Controlled diffusion
●
●
●
●
Osmosis
movement of water through semipermeable membrane from lowhigh solute
concentration
Solute Substance which is being dissolved
Solvent substance that is dissolving the solute
Solution Homogeneous mixture of solvent and solute
Osmotic Solutions
● Hypotonic: contains lower concentration of solute than cell
● Isotonic: Solution contains the same concentration as cell
● Hypertonic: contains higher concentration of solute than cell
Breathing
● gas exchange requires
● Respiration includes, breathing, external respiration(between alveoli and capillaries and
internal respiration
...
Diagram contracts and flattens the external intercostal muscles pull ribs up and out
2
...
pressure in lung decreases
4
...
Diaphragm relaxes and internal intercostal muscles pull ribs down and in
2
...
Pressure increase
4
...
● chemoreceptors arteries send messages via nerves to the medulla oblongota
...
Conversely, the partical pressure of CO2 is highest in the
tissue
●
●
●
●
Role of Hemoglobin
When oxygen diffuses into the blood it binds to hemoglobin forming oxyhemoglobin
...
A drop in partial pressure
...
Oxygen then
diffuse into the tissues
The curve shifts right and left depending on levels of CO2
...
Decreased Ph will cause the curve to
shift right
...
●
●
●
●
●
●
●
●
●
Carbon Dioxide Transport
Carbon dioxide is carried in the blood in Three ways these included dissolved in plasma
as bicarbonate ion and attached to hemoglobin
The formation of the bicarbonate ion results from the combo of CO2 produced in the
cells and water with the aid of carbonic
...
Residual Volume: The amount of air left in your lungs even after a maximal exhalation
Diversity of Living Things
The 7 Characteristics of Life
1
...
Grow and change
3
...
Have a metabolism the sum of all the chemical reaction in a cell
5
...
Built of structures called cells
7
...
Both are either underlined or
Bolded
Classification of Humans
● Life
● Domain: Eukarya
● Kingdom: Animalia
● Phylum: Chordata
● Class: Mammalia
● Order: Primates
● Family: Hominidae
● Genus: Homo
● Species: Sapiens
Prokaryotes:
● Domain Archaea and Bacteria
● Prokaryote means before nucleus, as they existed prior to the evolution of a nucleus
● Has a nucleoid region that contains genetic information
It’s Anatrophic:
1
...
Chemoautotrophs(uses chemicals to make food by chemosynthesis)
3
...
Found in marshes,
swamps, sewage treatment facilities and even the guts of cows
...
They have countless roles such as
decomposition and recycling of nutrients, digestion and disease
● often involving a symbiotic relationship with organisms like bacteria that live in our
intestines, and bacteria that fix nitrogen from the atmosphere so that plants can use it
...
Domain Eukarya, Kingdom Protista
● Eukaryotic contain membrane bound organelles
● mostly unicellular(some are multi like algae)
● Can be hetero, or autotrophic
● Most live in water, some live in soil or human body
● All are Eukaryotic
● organized into three groups based on modes of nutrition
Animallike Protists
● unicellular\ar heterotrophs may have given rise to animals
● Classified by how they move
● Found in all aquatic environments, moist soils and on/in organisms
1
...
Sarcodines: move by cytoplasmic streaming
3
...
Sporozoans: Do not move on their own
FungusLike Protists
● Water molds are saprobic(get nutrients from the dead remains of organisms)
● Decomposers or parasites living in muddy or aquatic habitats
● Singlecelled species that produce motile spores to germinate host cells
● Slime molds: heterotrophic, freeliving
● cells are phagocytic and can aggregate to form a slimy ,ass that can migrate to find new
food sources, slime mold disperse by spores release from stalk like structures
PLantLike Protists
● Cantain chlorophyll and carry out photosynthesis
● commonly called algae
● Unicellular algae make the base of the aquatic food chain
● Multicellular protists include re, brown or green algae
● Manily photoautotrophs accessory pigments that help absorb light, giving algae a
variety of colors
● Red algae Phylum Rhodophyta
● multicellular mainly marine
● Brown Algae Phylum Phaeophyta
● Can be microscopic to the largest of the protists
● Includes kelp
● Used in ice cream, pudding, jellybeans, salad dressing and cough syrup
● Green Algae Phylum Chlorophyta
● Multicellular
● uses chlorophyll a and b
● Believed to have led to the development of plants
Domain Eukarya, Kingdom Fungi
● Manly multicellular
● posses cell walls made of chitin
● Are heterotrophs saprobic decomposers
● Repoduces sexually and asexuallt
● Return CO2 into the atmosphere and nutrients to the soil(decomposers)
●
Parities obtain their nutrients from living hosts
Kingdom Fungi
Phyla:
1
...
Ascomycota Includes truffles, yeast and fungi used in flavoured cheese
3
...
Deuteromycota imperfect fungi
Benefits and Detriments
● Food, flavours and yeast for fermentation
● Decompose water, dead organism, recycling nutrients, and elements back into the
environment
● Provide antibiotics
● Cause food to spoil,a and may produce toxins
● Athlete's foot, yeast infection, parasitic to people
Domain eukarya, Kingdom Plantae
● Multicellular photoautotrophs
● nonmotile
● cell wall made of cellulose
● contain chlorophyll used in photosynthesis
● sexual and asexual reproduction
● Categorized based on structure and mechanism of reproduction, which show their
evolutionary development of sequence
Phylum Bryophyta
● Seedless, nonvascular plants
● Reproduce via sexual spores
● lack vascular tissues
Phylum Pteridophyta
● Seedless, vascular Plants
● Reproduce with sexula pores
● Contain vascular tissues
Phylum Gymnosperms
● naked seeds, not encloses
● reproduce by sexual pollination
Phylum Angiosperms
● Flowering plants
● seeds are housed in an ovary embedded within a flower
● After fertilization, the flower falls and the ovary bulges into a fruit
● Evolved with pollinating animals
Domain Eukarya, kingdom Animalia
● Eukaryotic
● Multicellular
● Heterotrophic
● Require oxygen for aerobic cellular respiration
● Reproduce sexually and sometimes asexually
● are motile in some point of their life
Kingdom animalia
Classification according to the following 5 features
● Body symmetry radial vs Bilateral
● Cephalization concentration of sensory structures on the head
● Type of gut incomplete, one opening vs complete two openings
● Body cavities Acoelomate, pseudocoelomate, coelom
● Segmentation repeating series of body units
Kingdom Animalia, Phylum Porifera
● No symmetry
● no cephalization
● No gut
● no Body cavities
● No germ layers, therefore lack ture tissues(cells perform independent of each other) No
organs
Science Notes Chemistry
Binary Ionic Compounds
∙ Ionic compounds are made from one metal and one nonmetal
∙ The outer energy levels are filled by transferring electrons between atoms
∙ Cation (+) is attracted to Anion ()
∙ The net charge is still zero
To Name
1
...
Name the Anion
3
...
Write cation and anion beside each other with their charges
2
...
Reduce to lowest terms
Example = Al3+O2 = Al2O3
∙ Always show the simplest whole number ratio for each ion
∙ Subscript represents the whole number of each ion
∙ If it says LiCl it means 1 lithium and 1 chloride
Binary Ionic Compounds part 2
Roman Numerals
Naming Multivalent Cations
∙ Use Stocking System
∙ Roman Numerals in Brackets indicates a change in cation
Ex
...
Name the cation first
2
...
Write skeleton equation
2
...
Count the number of atom on both sides
4
...
Change, emission of light, sound, electrical energy
∙ Odour produced
∙ Colour change
∙ Formation of a gas, bubbles in a solution
∙ Formation of a solid, precipitate
Chemical Reaction
∙ During a chemical reaction electrons move, but the nucleus doesn’t
∙ Atoms can rearrange but no new chemicals are created
∙ Normally accompanied by electrical changes
∙ Things that undergo a reaction are called reactants
∙ Things that are formed in a reaction are called products
Ø Exothermic reaction release energy
Ø Endothermic reactions – absorb reactions
Law of the conservation Energy
∙ Energy cannot be created or destroyed only transformed into new forms
∙ In chemical reactions, energy is used to break bonds – endothermic and released when new
bonds are formed – exothermic
∙ Energy used to break bonds is greater than energy release when new bonds are made
–endothermic
Energy + water à hydrogen + oxygen
∙ Energy used to break bonds is less than energy release when new bonds are made
exothermic
Hydrogen + oxygen à water + energy
Law of the conservation Mass
∙ During a chemical reaction total mass of reaction = total mass of products
∙ Total number of atoms before reaction = total number of atoms after reaction
Solubility
∙ Some chemical reactions involving ionic compounds will result in the formation of precipitate
∙ Solid formed from reaction
Ionic Compounds
∙ High Solubility – Dissolve, separate in ions in water – state aqueous (aq)
∙ Low Solubility do not dissolve completely – state solid precipitate (s)
Predicting Solubility
1
...
Locate anion () in the top row of table
3
...
9 = acids, 7 = neutral, 7
...
Formation Reaction
∙ Also called synthesis or composition
∙ Two or more reactants combine to produce a new product
∙ Element + element à Compound
2
...
Single Replacement
∙ One element replaces another element in a compound
∙ Metal replaces metal and nonmetal replaces nonmetal
4
...
Hydrocarbon Combustion
∙ Only cation hydrogen or carbon has O2 CxHy + O2 = CO2 + H2O
The Mole
Mole
∙ Chemists group particles by large numbers so it's easier to work with
∙ A mole is the amount of substance that contains as many base units as exactly 12g of
carbon12
∙ It is a counting unit
Avogadro’s Number (NA)
∙ The number of particles contains in 1 mole of a substance
∙ 1 mole of particles contain 6
...
02 x 1023/ 1 Mole //or// 1 Mole/6
...
Convert mass to Moles using the molar mass conversion
2
...
Mass/molar mass x 6
...
Write a Balanced equation
2
...
Convert given values mass into moles using molar mass conversion factor
4
...
Convert moles of our required to mass of our required using molar mass conversion
Limiting Reagent: a reagent whose mass is entirely consumed in the chemical reaction,
because of this face, the reaction will stop when the limiting reagent is completely consumed
and thus limits the amount of products that can be produced
Excess Reagent: the reagent is in surplus amounts and thus allows for the complete
consumption of the limiting reagent
How to calculate the limiting reagent
1
...
Convert all info into moles
3
...
Use the amount of limiting reactant to calculate the amount of product produced
5
...
The farther away from the nucleus that the electrons are, the weaker the attraction to the
nucleus
2
...
The greater the number of protons in the nucleus, the greater the attraction for the electrons
Types of chemical bonds
Intramolecular bonds
∙ Occurs within a molecule or compound
∙ Includes ionic, covalent, and metallic bonds
Intermolecular bonds
∙ Occurs between atoms
Dipoledipole forces
∙ If molecules are polar, they are said to have molecular dipoles (one slightly positive and one
slightly negative end)
∙ When many of these molecules get together, they orient themselves so that the positive side of
1 molecule faces the negative side of the other molecules
∙ This intermolecular attraction is much weaker than a covalent, ionic or metallic bond but is still
significant
Compounds are ionic if the difference in electronegativity is greater than 1
...
If the difference is
less than 1
...
If the difference is E
...
7, than the
bonds are polar
...
Region between desecrate molecules are area’s where these London dispersion forces occur
∙ Two factors indicate how strong London dispersion forces are for a substance
∙ The total number of electrons in a molecule of the substance (more electrons means a greater
attraction between molecules)
∙ The shape of the molecules
...
For this to happen
...
The hydrogen atom must be covalently bonded to a very electronegative atom, thus pulling
hydrogen’s electrons away with a great deal of force
2
...
This
leaves the hydrogen worth one pair of electrons on one side (intra) and another pair to bond
with the other side (inter)
∙ Molecules that exhibit Hydrogen bonding
1
...
Any molecule with an –OH group
3
Title: Full Grade 10AP Science Notes
Description: Notes from grade 10. Including Chemistry, Physics and Biology. Full 30 pages.
Description: Notes from grade 10. Including Chemistry, Physics and Biology. Full 30 pages.