Notesale: Turn your study into money

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The Earth’s Sea and Atmosphere
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Volcanoes gave out carbon dioxide
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Carbon dioxide dissolved in the oceans
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Photosynthesis gave out oxygen
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Atmosphere now is 78% nitrogen, 21% oxygen, argon 1%, and small amounts
of other gases like carbon dioxide, argon etc
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Extrusive = cools quickly =
small crystals
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Granite
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Has layers and can have fossils
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Metamorphic = other rocks under heat and pressure
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Limestone can be used for cement, concrete, glass, neutralising fields,
neutralising sulphur dioxide from power stations
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You can test by using a burette and slowly adding acid to a flash
of water with a dissolved tablet and universal indicator in it
Acid + metal oxide = salt + water
Acid + metal hydroxide = salt + water
Acid + metal carbonate = salt + water + carbon dioxide
EQUATIONS OF ACIDS
Electrolysis = breaking up with electricity
DC, electrolyte, electrodes (anode and cathode), broken down
Electrolysis of hydrochloric acid = hydrogen and chlorine
Electrolysis of brine = chlorine

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Electrolysis of water = hydrogen and oxygen
Chlorine can be used to make PVC, treat water supplies and manufacture
bleach
Test for oxygen = glowing split, relights
Test for hydrogen = lighted split, squeaky pop
Test for chlorine = damp litmus paper, bleached

Obtaining and Using Metals
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Unreactive metals are found in ores
More reactive metals are found in compounds with oxygen
If less reactive than carbon you displace by heating with carbon
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If more reactive than carbon you displace by electrolysis
Metals are malleable, strong and good conductors of heat and electricity
Aluminium = low density, reflective, doesn’t corrode
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Pipes, wires
Gold = reflective, excellent conductor, inert
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g
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g
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g
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Pure gold is too soft and
too expensive to use
We should recycle metals because it saves money, saves resources,
prevents waste, uses less energy

Fuels
 Crude oil is a mixture of hydrocarbons
 Separate hydrocarbons by fractional distillation – heating slowly to the boiling
points of different hydrocarbons and then condensing them off

 Gas (cooking and heating), petrol (cars), kerosene (jet fuel), diesel (lorries,
trains, some cars), fuel oil (boats), bitumen (surfacing roads)

 As you go down the fractionating column the boiling point gets higher, it gets
more viscous, less flammable and the chain gets longer

 Complete combustion = happens when there’s adequate oxygen
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 Incomplete combustion = happens when there’s inadequate oxygen
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Soot’s a carcinogen and carbon monoxide binds
to haemoglobin

 Can prevent by ventilating properly and watching for a yellow, sooty flame
 Criteria for a good fuel = ease of ignition, price, energy value, how cleanly it
burns, storage and transport

 Sulphur impurities exist in hydrocarbons, burnt, sulphur dioxide, reacts with
rainwater, sulphuric acid, acid rain, damages plants, damages buildings,
makes lakes acidic

 We can prevent by using catalytic convertors, ‘scrubbing’ fumes from power
stations and burning less fossil fuels

 Greenhouse gases act as an insulating layer and re-radiate heat from the sun
 We’re adding to greenhouse gases through deforestation, combustion of fossil
fuels

 We can help by iron seeding, converting carbon dioxide into hydrocarbons
 Biofuels – mostly biogas and ethanol (made from sugar cane/beet)
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Disadvantages = have to grow which increases food prices, no
refuelling network, cars aren’t set up for it

 Fuel cells –react hydrogen with oxygen to produce energy (and water)
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Disadvantages =
hydrogen acquired from electrolysis of water which uses electricity, difficult to
store and transport, refuelling network

 To test the energy content of fuels you put them in a spirit lamp (weigh) and
use them to heat water in a copper calorimeter with a thermometer
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Have a
double bond
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Some are not



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