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Title: Oxford University Behaviour and Genes notes first year Biomedical Sciences - lectures by Dorothy Bishop
Description: Thorough set of notes made from lectures given by Dorothy Bishop who carried out many well known genetic-behaviour experiments.

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Genes  and  behaviour  
 
Gain  and  Loss  of  a  chromosome    
 
Neurological  disorder  that  result:  
§   Down  syndrome  –C21  trisomy  –  1/830  births  
§   Turner  syndrome  
§   Sex  chromosome  trisomies    
 
 
Mutation  =  small  change  in  DNA  sequence  
Translocation  =  part  on  one  chromosome  attached  to  another  
CNV  (Copy  number  variation)  =  loss/gain  of  part  of  chromosome  
Aneuploidy  =  duplication/loss  of  whole  chromosome    
 
All  chromosomes  are  paired  except  for  the  Sex  chromosomes
...
   
 
Down  syndrome  
 
Physiologically:    
•   Caused  by  duplication  of  C21  
•   Effects  motor  output  and  skills,  particularly  fine  and  gross  motor  skills  due  disproportionatly  small  
cerebellum  
•   By  40  neurofibilary  tangles  and  plaques  like  in  alzehiemrs  present  
•   Suspectible  to  degeneration  early  in  life  such  as  hearing  loss  and  cardiac  problems  
Behaviourally:  LOTS  OF  VARIATION    
•   IQ  impaired  mild  to  severe  
•   Normal  development  neurologically  until  2  years    
•   Language  and  memory  is  poor  however  could  language  difficulty  be  a  secondary  symptom  which  
arises  as  a  result  of  hearing  problems  rather  than  directly  from  the  genetic  defect?  
 
Down  syndrome  short  term  memory  study:  Jarrold  and  Baddeley  1997    
 
Aim:    
§   to  understand  the  possible  explanations  for  poor  verbal  short  term  memory  in  DS  patients  –  does  any  
observed  deficit  actually  reflect  an  underlying  diffuclty  in  memory  or  is  it  caused  by  other  factors?  
§   Short  term  memory  =  ability  to  hold  information    
 
Method:    
1
...
 
2
...
  Verbal  using  digit  span  –  presented  with  series  of  numbers  and  asked  to  repeat  back  
4
...
   
§  
Does  not  prove  DS  have  specific  verbal  shor  term  memory  problem    
§  
May  be  little  to  do  with  memory  such  as  hearing  difficulties  as  digit  span  involves  auditory  
presentation  –  use  headphones  to  eliminate  possibility?    
§  
Problems  with  spoken  articulation    
§  
However,  there  is  relatively  little  evidence  to  for  this  suggestion  after  a  series  of  follow  up  
experiments  carried  out  to  eliminate  these  factors
...
 Aim:  understand  if  the  origin  of  the  behavioural  symptoms  displayed  in  DS  is  due  to  deficits  in  
mitotic  pathways  in  the  cerebellum  
 
o   Method:      
 
§   sonic  the  hedgehog  agonist  which  regulates  mitotic  pathway  shortly  after  birth  to  promote  
cellular  growth  in  the  cerebellum  given  to  Ts65Dn  mice  and  control  genetic  mice  
§   measured  motor  output  using  morris  water  maze  which  has  a  hidden  platform  water  made  
opaque  adding  milk  
§   learning  is  evaluated  using  the  time  taken  to  find  the  platform  
 
o   Results  
§   Both  control  and  Ts65Dn  mice  found  platform  when  it  was  not  hidden  
§   Ts65Dn  mice  struggled  when  hidden  as  use  if  visuospatial  cues  outside  tank  required  
§   Performance  equivalent  to  controls  when  given  sonic  hedgehog  agonist    
§   Rescued  MNDA  receptor  dependent  synaptic  plascitiy  
 

o   Interpretation  
§   Ts65Dn  mice  have  a  deficit  in  visuospatial  memory  rather  than  motor  skills  generally  
§   Confirm  role  of  sonic  hedgehog  pathway  in  cerebellum  development  and  direct  influence  in  
hippocampacal  function  
§   Potential  therapeutic  technique    
 
o   Evaluation    
§   No  consistent  cerebellum  specific  functional  effect  has  been  documented  in  Ts65Dn  mice    
§   SAG  only  recuses  the  number  of  granule  cells  and  not  their  function  –  they  have  short  Aps  
and  increased  excitability    
§   Better  if  registered  earlier  prenatal  period    
§   SAG  may  me  impacting  LTD  in  hippocampus  to  improve  spatial;  navigation    
 
 
Treatments:    
§   mitotic  pathway  -­‐  sonic  hedgehog  agonists  to  promote  cell  growth    
o   Limitation  –    
§   cell  growth  promoter  leading  to  cancer    
§   SAG  involved  in  development  of  neural  crest  and  axis  formation  therefore  difficult  to  apply  
prenatally
...
 Experiment  using  spontaneous  alternation:  
 
§   Assesses  short  term  memory  also    
 
Method:    
§   Mice  allowed  to  explore  T  or  Y  shaped  maze  
§   Innate  tendency  of  rodents  to  explore  novel  objects  investigated  by  measuring  the  percentage  of  times  
that  the  mouse  chooses  to  visit  a  different  arm  than  one  it  recently  visited
...
 
 
o   Incomplete  activation  as  pseudoautosomal  region  at  end  of  X  and  Y  chromosomes  not  
inactivated  and  nor  are  20%  of  the  genes  outside  the  pseudoautosomal  region  –  these  acts  are  
autosomal  genes    
 
o   Randomly  effects  each  chromosome  of  each  pair  
 
o   Seen  in  cats  which  have  different  colour  patches  of  fur  due  to  different  fur  colour  genes  on  the  X  
chromosomes  and  are  inactivated  relatively  early  on  in  development
...
 
 
Method:    
§   Devise  a  TS  phenotype  score  (TSCS  score);  mostly  cognitive  eg  impaired  viso-­‐spatial  abilities    
§   Techniques  used  =  X  inactivation  studies,  microsateliite  marker  genotyping  
§   Relate  this  score  to  how  much  of  the  inactivated  X  chromosome  genes  are  missing  
 
Results  
§   People  on  left  despite  having  little  missing  displayed  same  symptoms  as  TS  
§   Those  with  a  lot  missing  still  were  relatively  normal    
§   Mapping  suggests  that  haploinsufficiency  of  one  or  more  genes  in  inactivated  X  responsible  for  
neurocognitive  phenotype  
 
 

 
XXX  –  X  trisomy    
 
§   Only  one  X  chromosome  is  fully  active,  however  despite  the  extra  X  one  being  inactivated  there  are  the  
pseudoautosomal  regions  on  the  end  and  20%  outside  of  these  which  are  still  active  therefore  still  extra  
genetic  material    
 
XXY  –  Klinefelters  syndrome  
 
§   Extra  X  chromosome  inactivated  but  still  additional  material  from  pseudoautosomal  ends
...
5%  had  XYY  which  is  higher  than  expected  population  prevelance  of  0
...
   
§   No  link  to  violent  acts,  mostly  crimes  to  do  with  property  
 
Witkin  et  al  1976  
 
Aim:    role  of  extra  Y  and  X  chromsones  in  criminality  of  XYY  and  XXY  men    
 
Method:    
§   In  Denmark  men  are  required  to  report  to  draft  board  for  physical  examination  
§   Top  15%  height  men  chosen  
§   Genetic  samples  taken  at  homes  and  information  about  criminality  and  education  taken  from  records  
 
Results:  
§   12  XYY  and  16  XXY  men    
§   Mean  for  these  men  was  1  SD  below  the  mean  
§   Crimes  were  not  violent    
 
Interpretation:  
§   Simply  more  likely  to  be  caught  as  lower  IQ  –  not  necessarily  aggressive  
 
Prenatal  screening  and  unbiased  samples  could  be  carried  out  now  with  current  technology  but  unethical
...
   
 
Extra  X  chromosome  is  more  common  and  often  goes  unidentified    

 
 
Do  trisomies  impact  language  impairments  and  autism?    
 
Bishiop  et  al  2011    
 
Aim:  is  variation  due  to  nurture  in  the  home  and  is  autism  linked  to  XXY  klinefelter  syndrome?    
 
Method:    
§   Two  groups  of  parents  with  children  with  sex  triosomies  identified:  
 
1
...
 Identified  after  therefore  ascertainment  bias    
 
§   Both  groups  compared  with  sibling  of  same  age  as  a  control    
 
Results:  
§   Trisomy  children  greater  language  and  communication  educational  difficulties  than  siblings    
§   Autistic  rate  is  substantially  above  population  levels  in  this  sample    
 
Discussion:    
§   The  risk  of  autism  may  be  increased  in  those  with  XXY  genotype  but  the  majority  of  those  who  are  
autistic  are  not  XXY
...
 
§   Could  be  relating  to  parental  age  –  older  parents  are  more  likely  have  prenatal  screening  due  a  greater  
risk  of  child  disabilities
...
   
 
Why  is  there  variation  within  the  same  syndrome?      
 
1
...
  Aetiology  is  complex  and  multifactorial  in  these  syndromes  
§   Relatively  common  disorders  which  cause  infertility  yet  still  persistant  in  the  population      
§   Disorders  aggregate  but  do  not  segregate  in  families  
§   Unaffected  relatives  of  affected  indivduals  may  show  mild  symptons    
§   High  heritability  in  twin  studies  yet  genome  scans  show  reveal  very  few  single  gene  causes    
§   Genetic  background  autosomes  which  may  interact  with  the  trisomer  and  supress  them    
 
3
...
   
 
4
...
  Maternal  or  paternal  X  chromosome  can  effect  genetic  imprinting  and  the  random  pattern  of  inactivation  in  
each  
 
 
 
 
Impact  of  genetic  mutation  on  behaviour  lecture  2  
 
Mutation  –  very  rare  
Polymorphism  –  found  more  commonly  (>1%)  –  only  difference  in  definition  is  frequency    
 
Types  of  mutations:  
§   Silent  –  same  amino  acid    
§   Missense  –  different  amino  acid  
§   Nonsense  –  stop  codon  
 
Specific  language  impairement:    
 
§   When  language  does  not  follow  normal  developmental  course  and  not  due  to  hearing  loss,  physical  
abnormality  or  brain  damage  
§   Normal  development  and  other  areas  
§   Difficult  to  pin  down  cause  as  multiple  different  variations  of  condition    
 
Causes:    
•   Seen  that  language  difficulty  rates  higher  in  relatives  of  those  with  SLI  compared  to  the  controls  
•   Family  aggregation  as  opposed  to  segregation  suggesting  that  it  is  a  multifactorial  defect  and  not  
necessarily  caused  by  a  single  disease    
•   Does  not  prove  it  is  genetic  as  it  can  be  due  to  common  environment  eg  diet
...
   
 
Three  methods  of  research  of  FoxP2  involvement  in  language:  
 
1
...
  Phenotype  refinement  –  in  humans  refining  phenotype  to  include  neural  structure  and  functional  
correlations  
3
...
  Evolution  
 
§   Suprisingly  FoxP2  is  very  highly  conserved  with  only  3  AA  positions  differing  in  rat  and  human  FoxP2  –  
suggesting  that  it  is  not  simply  the  ‘language/speech’  gene  as  our  language  is  significantly  more  complex  
than  that  of  the  rat
...
   
§   Important  to  understand  it  would  not  have  been  the  only  gene  to  undergo  changes  and  positive  
selection  in  human  history  
§   Rather  than  its  selection  being  major  force  for  speech  development  it  is  more  so  within  a  framework  of  
other  events  integrated  together
...
   
§   Remains  unclear  whether  these  deficits  are  confined  to  oromotor  system  or  represent  a  more  general  
impairment  of  motor  control  which  impacts  primarily  on  speech  due  to  the  intense  demands  of  human  
spoken  language
...
   
§   Or  a  procedural  learning  deficit?  Learning  of  sounds  and  words  is  involved  in  sequential  unconscious  
learning?    
§   Pleiotropic  effect  –  mutation  may  have  multiple  parallel  effects  on  distinct  aspects  of  brain  development  and  
therefore  multiple  neural  circuits  so  a  range  of  potential  scenerios  may  account  for  the  relationship  that  is  
scene  between  language  development  and  oromotor  skills    
§   Procedural  learning  -­‐  May  simply  be  a  secondary  result  of  impaired  speech  articulation  in  early  development  
due  to  basic  motor  control  defect?  
 
 
Method  of  tracking  down  location  of  genes:  LINKAGE  ANALYSIS  in  KE  family;  Lai  et  all  2000  
 
Aim:  A  pedigree  based  approach  to  gene  mapping  to  find  markers  which  are  close  to  the  hypothetical  gene  locus
...
   
 
Method:  
§   First  recruit  families  known  to  have  individuals  with  SLI    
§   Non-­‐coding  junk  DNA  used  as  a  genetic  marker  as  significant  variation  enough  that  one  can  work  out  
from  which  parent  and  on  which  chromosome  the  gene  is  present  -­‐  polymorphic  markers    
§   Existence  of  recombination  allows  one  to  map  potential  risk  genes  to  specific  chromosomal  locations
...
   
§   Analyse  common  genetic  factors  between  affected  parents  and  children  with  similar  SLI  phenotype  
 
Results:    
-­‐   Observed  exchange  of  material  on  chromosomes  5  and  7
...
 Similar  as  they  use  vocalisation  that  are  imitatively  
learnt  during  a  critical  period  
§   influenced  by  the  environment  and  social  factors
...
 
Humans:  human  basal  ganglia    
§   DLM  –  part  of  feedback  loop  enabling  comparioson  of  own  song  template  –  human  
dorsolateral  medial  thalamus    
o   Gene  manipulation  in  Area  X:    
§   Inject  zebra  finches  with  tailored  piece  of  RNA  which  inhibits  the  FoxP2  gene  
§   Song  control  brain  circuits  have  already  developed  
§   Result:  birds  don’t  learn  new  songs  or  repeat  known  songs  properly  with  syllabus  left  out  or  
wrong  pitch  or  sung  incorrectly  
§   Conclusion:    dichotomous  role  of  FoxP2:  
o   Involved  in  formation  of  circuitry  employed  for  sensory  guided  motor  learning  by  influencing  
neuronal  differention  
o   Needed  for  proper  functioning  of  these  circuits  in  learning  juveniles  and  to  switch  singing  style  in  
adults    
 

Mouse  studies:    
 
§   Mice  produce  social  vocalisations    
§   Deaf  mice  also  vocalise  showing  it  is  not  simply  something  they  do  to  be  able  to  hear  themselves    
 
 
Aim  Castellucci  2016:  The  effect  of  knocking  out  Foxp2  in  mice  on  their  vocalisations:  
 
Method:    
-­‐   Knock  out  homozygous  foxp2  
-­‐   Knowck  out  heterozygous  foxp2  
Results:    
-­‐   Mouse  vocalisations  consist  of  bouts  of  calls  separated  into  syllables  by  periods  of  silence  
-­‐    homozygous  knock  out  results  in  stark  abnormalities  in  pup  and  isolation  calls  and  eventually  death  from  
early  motor  and  respiratory  defects  
-­‐   Heterozygous  KO  –  little  impact  on  pup  vocalisation  but  has  a  big  impact  on  courtship  vocalisation  produced  
longer  syllabules  and  defects  in  temporal  aspects  of  song  
 
Interpretation:  
-­‐   Shows  foxp2  is  necessary  for  normal  vocal  behaviour  in  juvenile  and  adult  mice    
-­‐   Humans  with  FOXP2  mutations  also  shown  to  have  strong  speech  timing  abnormalities  and  rhythmic  
distortions  were  seen  in  the  rats  –  possibly  to  do  with  common  motor  deficit  not  specific  to  language?  
-­‐   Therefore,  further  study  of  Foxp2  mutant  mice  and  their  vocalizations  may  provide  valuable  insights  into  the  
role  of  these  brain  regions  in  generating  the  coordinated  rhythmic  orofacial  motor  behavior  that  is  essential  
for  human  speech  production
...
   
 
Results:    
-­‐   Slower  learning  in  missense  mutation  similar  to  KE  family  
-­‐   Very  poor  learning  in  the  nonsense  mutation  mice  
 
Discussion:  
-­‐   This  study  is  moving  away  from  speech  and  language  parallel  of  motor  learning  
-­‐   One  study  on  its  own  is  simply  not  compelling  and  hearing  a  sound  and  jumping  is  not  a  good  model  for  
measuring  learning  ability  as  so  many  other  factors  such  as  motor  skills  and  development  contribute  to  the  ability  
to  jump
...
   Evidence  of  both  mouse  and  human  playing  roles  in  neural  
circuitry  from  examination  of  expression  patterns    
§   Foxp2  is  found  in  other  organs  such  as  lungs  and  plays  a  role  in  their  development  –  must  view  FOXP2  in  
the  context  of  systems  biology  recruited  for  repeated  use  in  different  pathways
...
   
 
 
FOXP2:  
§   Hyped  by  media  as  the  language  gene  

§   Genetic  mutation  of  gene  thought  to  affect  speech  and  language  
§   Huge  debate  over  function  of  gene    
§   More  so  one  critical  piece  of  a  complex  puzzle    
 
Conclusion  about  FOXP2:    
 
-­‐   New  questions  that  are  arising  which  are  most  exciting    
-­‐   Several  levels  of  approach  being  used  to  look  at  it  from  a  molecular  level  all  the  way  up  to  a  behaviour  level  
by  seeing  its  effects  on  neuronal  cells  in  culture  and  interfrating  findings  with  neuroimaging  data  
-­‐   Likely  other  genes  will  be  discovered  which  also  play  a  significant  role  in  speech    
-­‐   Shows  how  molecular  genetics  is  capable  of  bridging  several  disciplines    
 
 
Complex  multifactorial  aetiology  lecture  3  
 
§   These  aggregate  but  do  not  segregate  in  families  meaning  it  runs  through  families  but  cannot  trace  the  
effect  of  the  gene  
§   Different  to  simple  Mendelian  hereditary  pattern  as  if  it  were  caused  by  a  single  gene  it  would  have  been  
selected  out  of  the  population  
o   Heart  disease    
o   Diabetes  
o   Dyslexia  
o   ADHD  
o   SPI  
 
Dyslexia:    
 
Symptoms    
-­‐   Unexpected  difficulty  to  read  which  is  not  explained  by  a    
o   lack  of  opportunity  to  learn  
o   hearing  problem  
o   brain  damage  
-­‐   Usually  a  linguistic  problem  rater  than  a  visual  difficulty    
 
Defining  dyslexia  is  difficult  and  therefore  the  number  of  people  who  have  been  catergorized  as  having  dyslexia  has  
changed  as  it  depends  on:  
-­‐   Reading  ability  cut  off  
-­‐   IQ  inclusion  or  not    
-­‐   Type  of  reading  test  used  –  ability  to  understand  or  read  out  loud?    
-­‐   What  exclusionary  factors  are  used    
 
Methods  for  identifying  genetic  influences  on  multifactorial  disorders:  
 
By  identifying  the  genetic  differences  it  would  enable  one  to  distinguish  between  a  dyslexic  and  a  poor  reader    
 
1
...
  Molecular  genetics:  identifying  DNA  variants  associated  with  phenotypes    
 
Twin  study  methods:    
 
MZ  –  genetically  identical  and  always  same  sex    
DZ  –  share  50%  of  the  same  alleles  for  polymorphic  genes  and  same  sex  is  used  so  no  sex  gene  differences  
interfering  
 
-­‐   Phenotype  can  be  effected  by  both  genes  and  the  environment;  twin  studies  can  help  us  to  understand  this  

 
-­‐   Shared  environment  is  confounded  with  genetic  effects  thus  we  need  to  untangle  this  
 
 
General  method  for  twin  studies:  
 
1
...
5  and  MZ  0
...
   if  there  was  no  genetic  influence  and  it  was  simply  by  random  chance  with  no  common  shared  environment  
there  would  be  0  correlation  
3
...
  Only  shared  environment  determinant  =  1  for  both  MZ  and  DZ  
 
Genes  and  shared  environment  gives  a  positive  correlation  
Difference  in  environment  give  negative  correlation  between  twins    
 
Reading  scores  –  Harlaar  2005  
 
Aim:  to  obtain  an  estimate  for  the  proportion  of  the  variance  of  the  trait  that  is  genetic  (heritability)  by  using  
correlation  between  twins  which  is  the  equivalent  of  the  sum  of  the  shared  environmental  and  genetic  factors  thus  
suggesting  the  origins  of  the  individual  differences  in  reading  at  an  early  age  
 
Method:    
-­‐   Word  recognition  measured    
-­‐   Analyses  allowing  for  sex  differences  in  aetiology  used  to  estimate  the  extent  to  which  genetic  and  
environmental  factors  contribute  to  variation  in  in  word  recognition  and  difficulties  in  this
...
85  
-­‐   HZ  twins  =  0
...
   
 
-­‐   Take  observed  data  and  test  assumptions  and  add  measures  of  the  environment  and  confidence  intervals    
-­‐   Approach  allows  more  flexibility  therefore  modelling  of  multivariate  data  to  examine  genetic  and  
environmental  relation  between  2+  phenotypes    
 
Heritability  
 
§   A  population  statistic-­‐  does  not  make  it  untreatable  or  a  fixed  property  of  an  individual  or  phenotype  
§   Merely  indicates  what  proportion  of  genetics  relates  to  heritability  eg  herability  in  finland  for  education  is  
high  as  the  main  factor  for  failing  would  be  biological  as  good  education  whereas  genetics  is  not  a  high  
proportion  in  Brazil  therefore  the  heritability  is  low    
§   Environmental  contribution  to  the  varience  only  refers  to  the  current  environmental  condition:  new  
environmental  factors  eg  insulin  for  diabetes  effect  heritability    
 

Molecular  genetics  approach    
 
-­‐   Typical  approach  in  which  genetic  variants  which  are  found  to  differ  in  the  clinical  and  control  groups  are  
identified    
-­‐   It  is  obvious  to  compare  the  DNA  of  someone  with  a  condition  with  someone  without  it  but  the  problem  is  
that  there  is  too  much  DNA  to  compare!  
-­‐   Association  analysis  –  classical  way  of  investifating  genetics:  Newbury  (2009)  this  tests  how  one  repeats  
nonsense  words  and  found  two  genes  on  C16  are  associated  with  a  drop  in  nonword  repition  ability  in  a  
language  impaired  sample    
o    1
...
 Risk  alleles  only  have  a  small  effect  -­‐  neither  would  make  you  impaired  in  language  like  FOXP2  
mutation  which  clearly  results  in  an  abnormal  defect  
o   This  work  therefore  implicates  CMIP  and  ATP2C2  in  the  etiology  of  SLI  and  provides  

molecular  evidence  for  the  importance  of  phonological  short-­term  memory  in  
language  acquisition
...
  Doesn’t  involve  picking  out  bits  of  genetic  material  associated  with  trait  
2
...
  instead  compare  allele  frequencies  of  thousands  of  common  variants  between  large  samples  of  disease  
cases  and  controls
...
  take  all  p  values  
5
...
  ALLOWS  ALL  GENES  TO  BE  CONSIDERED  RATHER  THAN  CHERRY  PICKING  CANDIDATES    
 
Comparing  methods  for  calculating  heritability:  GWAS  vs  Twin  studies    
 
GWAS:  found  54  SNPs  related  to  height  but  the  effects  were  small  with  them  accounting  for  5%    
 
Twins  Studies:  estimated  heritability  for  height  was  80%  
 
Major  difference  between  twin  studies  and  GWAS  –  estimates  in  behavioural  measures  also  such  as  reading  and  IQ  
also  find  that  twin  studies  give  high  estimates  whereas  GWAS  find  only  small  effects
...
   
 
o   Gene  to  gene  interaction  between  =  greater  difference  in  genotypes  between  DZ  and  MZ  
twins  as  only  DZ  will  show  variation    
 
o   There  will  be  a  distortion  in  the  genetic  correlation  in  DZ  but  not  MZ  as  they  are  genetically  
identical  
 
 
2)    or  the  GWAS  studies  too  low  :  fails  to  detect  significant  heribility    
 
§   Only  looks  for  association  between  phenotypes  and  genotypes  and  does  not  detect  heriibility  to  gene-­‐
enviornment  and  gene-­‐gene  interactions
...
  Heritable  
2
...
  Inheritance  of  genetic  liability  is  not  sufficient  to  predict  whether  a  person  will  develop  the  disease    
 
Also  described  as  polygenic  which  suggests  that  the  disorder  results  from  the  combined  effect  of  multiple  genes:    
 
It  is  described  as  this  as  it  is  observed  to  agreggrate  but  not  segregate  in  families  like  in  simple  Mendelian  
inheritance:  
 
-­‐   This  is  true  for  disorders  in  which  risk  of  disease  is  increased  if  relative  has  a  disease  
 
This  interpretation  of  disorders  as  polygenic  is  what  gave  rise  to  GWAS    
 
This  conclusion  is  based  entirely  on  circular  logic  and  a  number  of  unfounded  assumptions,  particularly  the  
assumption  that  the  disorder  in  question  represents  a  single  biologically  valid  category  by  lumping  all  cases  
together  and  calculating  heritability  and  relative  risks  across  the  entire  population
...
   
§   Non  genetic  factors  may  also  be  important:  environmental  and  intrinsic  developmental  variation  –  hence  
why  not  100%  concordance  in  MZ  twim  phenotypes    
 
 
Genome  wide  complex  trait  analysis  (GCTA)  
 
-­‐   Doesn’t  look  at  individual  sections  of  DNA  but  instead  finds  similarities  between  all  DNA  using  all  of  the  
SNPs  to  find  index  of  relatedness  
-­‐   Comparision  of  SNPs  to  measure  relatedness  seen  whether  or  not  it  maps  onto  phenotypic  similarities
...
   
-­‐   Higher  estimates  of  heritability  but  still  less  than  twin  studies
...
  DCDC2  is  only  a  gene  which  has  been  associated  with  dyslexia,  there  is  no  causativity  confirmed  and  only  in  a  
few  studies  
2
...
005  
3
...
 
4
...
 
 
Typical  study  =    
 
1
...
  Compare  brain  structure  of  those  with  different  genetic  variants    
3
...
   


Title: Oxford University Behaviour and Genes notes first year Biomedical Sciences - lectures by Dorothy Bishop
Description: Thorough set of notes made from lectures given by Dorothy Bishop who carried out many well known genetic-behaviour experiments.