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Title: Oxford University first year Biomedical Sciences/Medicine notes on genes
Description: These set of notes are based on 20 lectures given throughout first year and include all aspects of genes in a lot of detail and are 24 pages long. Include experimental evidence and detailed descriptions of the mechanisms of transcription, DNA replication, translation and gene expression regulation.
Description: These set of notes are based on 20 lectures given throughout first year and include all aspects of genes in a lot of detail and are 24 pages long. Include experimental evidence and detailed descriptions of the mechanisms of transcription, DNA replication, translation and gene expression regulation.
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Genes
Study of genes and the processes involved emphasises the idea that there is an extensive degree of integration
between systems which requires the fine orchestration of specialized functions
...
Function:
• Store large quantity of information
• Allow accurate replication of information
Often depicted as a one-‐way pathway when proteins also control expression of DNA and RNA molecules have major
regulatory roles rather than simply acting as the messenger
...
-‐ Discovered by Friedrich Miescher and termed nuclein:
• Experiment:
1
...
2
...
Lipids removed using ether
4
...
Acid or ethanol added to obtain DNA precipitate
Rosalind Frankilin – X-‐ray diffraction images
• X rays have wavelength which has same order of magnitude as space between atoms in DNA
• X rays fired at sample and directions they are diffracted and different intensities are recorded on a
photographic plate
...
4A per residue
o 10 bases per helical turn
Structure:
Regular arrangement of phosphate and sugar but no distinct pattern of bases
-‐ Regular repeating structure
-‐ Two antiparallel polynucleotide chain to form right handed double helix
-‐
Strand has polarity in 5’ to 3’ direction
Molecular:
1
...
3
...
2-‐deoxyribose sugar bonded at 5’ position to negative phosphate
ii
...
Nucleotides joined by phosphodiester bond between 5’P and 3’OH of ribose
sugar of nucleotide
...
Bases hydrogen bond to complementary pair on opposing strand:
1
...
G-‐C = 3
Evidence for base pairing:
Chargaff – not equal no
...
Evidence for helical structure and H bonds
...
8 A, purine + purine = too short and pyrmidine – pyrimidine
to long
...
Phosphates on outside of molecule and bases in interior positioned perpendicular to axis of helix
suggested by Frankin as ability of phosphates to attract water and bases are hydrophobic
...
Function evidence
• Cell staining early 1900’s:
§ Feulgen stain showed nuclear component of chromosones
§ Due to the diversity of proteins people were focused on their role as a genetic material
rather than chromosones
...
§ Had slightly different morphology – pathogenic strain = smooth dome shape colonies so
called S form
...
Injected various combinations of each strain into mice]
2
...
3
...
4
...
5
...
CONCLUSION: harmless bacteria had been transformed permanently due to a transformable material that is DNA
Avery and McCarty 1994: Transforming principle
• Demonstrated DNA is the transforming material however when initially published still argued
contamination due to proteins
...
2
...
4
...
6
...
Addition of DNA nucleases did not cause death
...
coli and label
DNA and proteins
...
• Genetic material contained in head and injected using viral tail
...
Two batches of T2 phages labelled – one with phosphorus which is in DNA and one with sulphur which is
only present in proteins and not DNA
...
T2 and E
...
coli surface – phage ghosts = empty
viral head coats
3
...
coli which are more dense formed on bottom and separated from ghosts
...
Extracted and found mostly radioactive phosphorus in cells and sulphur remained in solution with phage
ghost heads
...
Therefore no movement of proteins but major movement of DNA into E
...
Macromolecular structure, packaging and regulation
Eukaryotic:
-‐ DNA packaged in multiple chromosomes an associated with histone proteins
...
Flexibility allows for easy access by proteins;
Forces involved in interactions:
§ Hydrogen bonding
§ Salt interactions
§ Hydrophobic effect
specific and non specific interactions:
Specific – base sequence matters
Non-‐specific – oblivious to DNA base sequence
Non specific:
-‐ Usually involve phosphate-‐sugar backbone of DNA and peptide backbone of protein -‐ electrostatic
interactions and hydrogen bonding
-‐ Interaction between DNA and histone proteins where most commonly seen
-‐ 142 hydrogen bonds formed between one histone core and a length of DNA
-‐
Histones contain many positively charged amino acids eg lysine and arginine as their electrostatic
interactions prevent repulsion between phosphates in backbone during packaging
-‐ Despite being non-‐specific some histones bind more tightly to certain sequences due to structural
preferences eg binding to sequence with many A/T requires compression of the minor groove resulting in
tighter interactions
...
-‐ All 4 types of histones have similar amino acid sequence and contain histone fold motif = 3 alpha helices
joined together by two loops
...
-‐ H1 has a globular region and pair of tails at both N and C terminus – C tail is required to bind to chromatin
...
-‐ 2 types of conformations that folding due to nucleosome interaction can lead to:
§ zigzag conformation – every other nucleosome interacts with stiff straight linker DNA
...
§
-‐ 3Onm fibre folded further into series of loops to form packagaed structure of approx 300nm
...
Evidence: Hewish and Burgyone:
• Nucleases used to cleave linker DNA and separate nucleosomes and unfolded chromatin
• Pure DNA when electrophoresed does not produce any bands
• Cleaved material electrophoresed and bands which were mutiples of each other produced
• Suggests proteins found at regular intervals on DNA
Regulation via packaging:
-‐ Histone proteins have been conserved throughout evolution and display very little variation between species
– depicts their importance
...
• Specific patterns of histone tail modification can communicate genes that are to be expressed or a
new length of DNA synthesized
...
o Non histone proteins tend to play regulatory role in condensation and
decondensation of chromosones
...
Eg repression of white eye gene in Drosophilia due to
displacement of barrier sequence which prevents it from usually spreading
to heterochromatin region
...
These are
inactivated during mitosis to help keep the structure of mitotic chromosomes
...
– epigenetic
inheritance
DNA replication
-‐
-‐
-‐
Strucutre of DNA consisting of double helix and complementary base pairing provided an indication of how
DNA replication occurs
...
Proposed DNA replicates by mechanism of semi conservative replication:
◦ Single strand of DNA used as template to produce new complementary sequence of base pairs
◦ Meselson and Stahl experiment:
E
...
Transferred to N14 medium – if hypothesis correct first generation contains DNA molecules with one
heavy and one light strand therefore single intermediate band formed when centrifuged
...
Components required for DNA replication:
DNA polymerases general:
• Product template directed ie template specifies product
• Catalyse phosphodiesterase bond between 3’OH and phosphate
• Low error rate with 1 in 109 nucleotides copied
...
• Requires SINGLE STRAND and PRIMER (either DNA or RNA)
• Nucleophilic attack occurs on the 3’OH of the primer by the incoming alpha phosphate of the incoming
nucleotide with a PPi being expelled therefore polymerisation occurs in the 5’ to 3’ direction
...
• Fidelity maintenance:
o Have an intrinisic 3’ to 5’ exonuclease which can remove nucleotides which have been incorrectly
incorperated
o When error is detected by polymerase this exonuclease is activated
...
• Evidence to detect activity of the polymerase:
o using radioactive TTP to monitor DNA synthesis as it is only used by DNA and not RNA
...
o Isolated from E coli as it grows rapidly and can be harvested in large quantities and purify DNA using
Prokaryote DNA replication (E
...
• First Recognition of OriC and separation of DNA strand at replication of origin
...
• Negative supercoiling of dnaA box causes separation of dnaB box region up stream which puts torque on
the nearby AT-‐rich region to denature and form a replication bubble
• DnaA complex recruits DnaB (helicase) on opposite sides of separated DNA strands and expands the
replication bubble in 5’ to 3’ direction using energy from ATP hydrolysis moving bidirectionally in opposite
directions
...
• SSBPs (single strand binding proteins) also bind to prevent reannealing of strands or formation of another
structure which would block replication
...
Primase forms primosome complex with template with DNA and
additional proteins
...
• Rnase removes the primers from the DNA
• Due to unidirectional catalysis by DNA polymerases antiparallel strands are synthesized at different rates:
o Leading strand
§ One RNA primer is made at the origin
§ DNA pol III attaches nucleotides in a 5’ to 3’ direction as it slides toward the replication fork
o Lagging strand
§ Synthesis is also in the 5’ to 3’ direction
• However it occurs away from the replication fork
§ Many RNA primers are required
§ DNA pol III uses the RNA primers to synthesize small DNA fragments (1000 to 2000
nucleotides each)
• These are termed Okazaki fragments after their discoverers
• DNA pol I removes the RNA primers and fills the resulting gap with DNA
• After the gap is filled, a covalent bond is still missing so
DNA ligase must create this bond
Exp: Ozakazi used pulse chase experiment:
-‐ replicating DNA radioactively labelled by short exposure to 3H thymidine containing nucleotides
...
-‐ Sediment coeffeicient of radioactive DNA different therefore could be centrifuged
-‐ Lyse cells and then expose to xray film
-‐ Labelled DNA only found to be present as long or short fragments – not inbetween
When primers are removed and filled with nucleotides by DNA polymerase, DNA ligase then catalyses nicks in
backbone in lagging strand
...
Instability of mismatched pairs
a
...
This feature only accounts for part of the fidelity
c
...
Configuration of the DNA polymerase active site
d
...
Energy penalty less as affinity correct nucleotide has for moving DNA polymerase is greater than
incorrect
f
...
g
...
Proofreading function of DNA polymerase
a
...
b
...
Nucleotide excision repair (NER)
-‐ repairs leisons that distort the DNA double-‐helix (e
...
pyrimidine dimers)
...
-‐ This fragment is 12-‐13 nucleotides long in prokaryotes, and 27-‐29 nucleotides long in eukaryotes
...
UvrA recognises and binds to damaged DNA
...
2
...
3
...
DNA polymerase I and DNA ligase refil and seal the gap
...
-‐ A family of DNA glycosylases recognise bases with a range of modifications, and upon recognition, will cleave
the glycosidic bond between the sugar and the base to leave an apurinic or apyrimidinic site
...
-‐ DNA polymerase I (E
...
DNA ligase ligates the backbone together
...
Most regulation occurs at initiation which is logical as little energy expense \
2
...
of DnaA boxes
3
...
ATP needs to bind to DnaA to initate replication and required for action of helicase
5
...
6
...
o Initiation of DNA synthesis occurs in G1 whereas actual replication is in S phase
o Multiple origins of replication due to size of genetic material
o Pre replication initiation complex consisting of hexamer of proteins binds to replication of origin called ARS
(autonomously replicating sequences) and remains bound throughout replication
o ORC, (equivalent to dnaA) binds to origin of replication in ATP dependent manner, induces unwinding of
DNA upstream of origin and recruits MCM
o Various proteins then coordinate the loading of the MCM complex (mini chromosome maintenance) by
binding to OCR and MCM to join them
...
o Pri made up multiple subunits synthesizes the RNA primer
o There are several DNA polymerases which form a complex to carry out DNA replication:
-‐
-‐
Polymerase gamma – mitochondrial DNA replication
Polymerase Beta – DNA repair and filling gaps
-‐
Pol α – Elongates chain from primer by forming a complex with the small catalytic subunit of Pri
(PriS) and large non catalytic subunit (PriL)
...
3’ to 5’ proofreading
exonuclease and processive
-‐
-‐
o Beta clamp protein which is not part of the polymerase complex like in prokaryotes ensures processivity
o Problem of linear sequence is that end of genetic sequence is lost in lagging strand as cannot be synthesized
to very end therefore require telomeres which consist of repeating sequences usually C and G
...
o Promoters at certain distance away from structural genes to prevent steric hinderence and
polymerase has to bind to promoter and then bend over DNA to bind to another region for
transcription
...
o Core of RNAP can now associate with DNA and covers 60bps
o C termal domain of alpha subunit binds to AT rich UP region
o Sigma factor and core complex undergo conformational change so RNAP latched on more tightly/
more stable and sigma factor loosens grip
...
o RNAP unwinds DNA between -‐9 and +3 – AT rich Pribnow box H bonds broken and 17bp
transcription bubble forms
...
• transcription bubble moves ahead of RNAP and rewinding of DNA behind polymerase contributes to driving
its movement
• To prevent entanglement of RNA-‐DNA hybrid negative supercoiling behind and supercoiling ahead –
supercoiling tension also drives movement but too much can prevent opening of transcription bubble
...
• Fidelity:
o RNAP backtracks if incorrect NTP inserted by pyrophosphorolytic editing involving reincorporation of
PPi
o Hydrolytic editing stimulated by Gre factors which cleave incorrect RNA sequence
Termination
1
...
Intrinsic terminators involved: stop codon has specific GC rich sequence which is transcribed into
RNA to form hairpin
...
End of sequence is AU rich therefore easily disrupted
c
...
Evidence for pull out model: Landick and Block using optical tweezers and optical traps to exert force
onto hybrid and investigate effect of different forces
...
Rho dependent
a
...
Clamps RNA and moves its way up DNA until it reaches the RNAP complex
c
...
Eukaryotes
Initiation
Promoters:
-‐
-‐
-‐
TATA Box:
• Position = upstream from genes -‐30 -‐ -‐40
• 60% of promoters = TATA\
Inr
• -‐22 -‐ +5 position
Downstream promoter element
• +22 -‐ +32
In order of most well
recognised due to their
positions
...
RNAP1
a
...
rRNA 5S
2
...
Trna
b
...
RNAP2:
-‐ In nucleus and main transcriptional RNA for mRNA
• Rbp11
• Rpb3 – alpha
• Rbp2 – beta
• Rpb1 – beta prime
• Rbp6
-‐ No sigma factor therefore requires aid of transcription factors for recognition of promoter
...
Contains zinc finger domain and only interacts with backbone and stabilises
complex by binding to TBP
...
• TFIIE – binds and recruits TFIIH and regulates its helicase and kinase activities
• TFIIH – Last to be assembled in complex and initiates transcription and acts as a DNA helicase and can repair
DNA damage by nucleotide excision repair
...
• Serine can be phosphorylated to regulate the RNAP – allows for transition between initiation and
elongation
...
conformational change and releases TF from the complex
ii
...
polyA tail machinery recruited if serine 2 is phosphorylated
iv
...
• Splicesome
Large ribonucleoprotein – snRNP particles (U1-‐U5)
Recognises spice sites and polarises all components involved in cleavage
Splicesome catalyses two transesterfication reactions
Splice site donor (5’ intron) and acceptor (3’ intron) between intron and extron
Branch point containing AT rich region followed by stretch of pyrimidines in intron
upstream of the splice receptor
§ Self –Cleavage: occurs internally – splicesome polaries 3’OH which will become a
nucleophile and attach 5’ phosphodiester bond and cleave forcing the intron into a
loop after two sequential cuts at donor and acceptor site
...
o Example: Src regulation:
-‐ Exon sequence of Src is only included in nerve cells where it provides an extra site of
phosphorylation of the Src tyrosine kinase in the neural form
§
§
§
§
§
Differences:
-‐ Chromatin needs to be unwound
-‐ Capping
-‐ polyA
-‐ splicing
Transcriptional Regulation:
Top of hierarchy
No superfluous intermediate
Main reason is conservation of energy:
Translation = extremely energetically expensive process due to:
-‐ GTP and ATP hydrolysis being used for almost every step for breaking of bonds
-‐ energy required for proofreading
-‐ 80% of available energy in cell used up on protein synthesis
Places at which regulation can occur:
1
...
RNA processing – EUKARYOTES
3
...
Translation
Points of regulation:
• Initiation:
• Sigma factor
• Transcription factor recruitment
• Histones – acess of RNAP2 to genes – histone methytransferases/aceyltrasnfererases:
• Type of promoter – different affinities
• Elongation
• Release of TF by phosphorylation so elongation can begin
Euk regulation:
General transcription factors: only needed in eukaryote transcription as no sigma factor:
-‐ TFIIE – regulates helicase and kinase activity of TFIIH
-‐ TFIIH phosphorylates RNAP2 C terminal domain releasing polymerase – important for transition from
initiation to elongation
Chromatin
• Activator can bind and loosen chromatin packaging so more accessible to RNAP2 and transcription factors
• Active process of chromatin remodelling
• Large protein complexes interact with transcription factors eg Swi/Snf in yeast to alter chromatin
remodelling
Mechanism of loosening to active chromatin:
• Phosphorylation of H1-‐type linker h istones
o Cause H1 to deplete
o Facilitate binding of regulatory factors to DNA
• Core histone acetylation
o Aceylation of lysine residues neutralises positive charges so DNA repels each other more so looser
o Also effect nucleosome-‐nucleosome interactions
• Increased incorporation of specific h istone variants
Mechanism of tightening to inactive chromatin: JUST TO OPPOSITE
• Dephosphorylation of H1 linker histones
• Deacylation
• Diminishment of histone varients
• methylation
Mechanism of long range silencing to form heterochromatin:
1
...
Sir3 and sir4 interact with the histone
3
...
Subnuclear localisation of genes:
a
...
These studies cannot distinguish between cause and effect of active transcription whereas:
-‐ Genetic studies of histone mutations
-‐ In vivo transcription systems
Prok regulation
-‐ Genetic switch transcription factors:
• DNA binding proteins distort the structure of the DNA to cause bending
• Simplest structure contains helix turn helix motif which is 2 helices at a fixed angle:
o Trp repressor in prok
-‐ When tryptophan acts as an activator of the repressor as if in medium no point making it
-‐ 2 tryptophan molecules bind to repressor and tilt the helix turn helix motif of the repressor so it can bind to
the major groove
...
o Homeodomain in euk
• Measure DNA and protein interaction by radioactively labelled DNA and doing Gel electrophoresis
...
Enhancers
1
...
Region of DNA where activators will bind to form a loop in the DNA contacting the promoter which
will recruit the mediator multiprotein complex:
§ Recruits Transcription factors which are normally diffusion limited
§ Modulates phosphorylation of serines of YSPTSPS
Silencers
• Block binding of activators to enhancers
• Make chromatin more compact and less accessible
Example: Lac operon in E
...
•
•
•
•
1
...
Repressor is normally bound to operator when no lactose present
...
RNA polymerase can still bind to promoter but sterically hindered so cannot carry out
transcription of operon (two or more coding regions)
3
...
Allows transcription to occur of:
a
...
Lactose permease – lacY
c
...
NEGATIVE CONTROL
Experiments to identify lac operon
Genetics:
-‐ Genes involved in lactose utilisation are closely linked:
• Usng complementation analysis lacZ and lacy genes identified by Lac mutations
...
Structure
-‐ Structure of lac repressor
• is a helix turn helix motifs which fits into the major groove of DNA
• tetramer and subunits have separate domains for inducer binding and DNA binding
• binding of the inducer (IPTG) changes the structure of the core and the headpieces of the dimer are
no longer orientated to permit optimal binding to the operator
• tetramer structure allows repressor to interact with 2 operators and therefore stabilise the DNA
protein interaction
...
When the inducer is bound to the repressor the lac genes are being readily expressed and their expression is
boosted by a positive regulator
...
When glucose is low there is an increase in the availability of adenylyl cyclase and so an increase in cAMP
concentration
3
...
CRP does not bind if the cell is metabolising glucose as there is an absence of cAMP
5
...
• This allows a rapid response so that the preinitiation complex does not have to reform to transcribe
the next gene
• Heat shock induces the activation of the heat shock transcription factor which binds to the
promotor proximal region of the hsp70
• This stimulates paused polymerase to continue elongation
Translation:
-‐
-‐
-‐
-‐
Process role is to produce proteins which are vital to all cellular processes
22 amino acids = range of different combination
requires tight regulation
understanding mechanism allow us to exploit for our uses such as genetic engineering and antibiotics
1
...
read in triplet groups with NO overlap
3
...
Wobble Hypothesis by Crick: 1st and 2nd positions pair strictly whereas 3rd undergos loose pairing so
can move and tolerate mismatches better
Prokaryotic: Translation and transcription occur simultaneously
Ribosomes:
Common features between eukaryotic = A (aminoacyl) , P (peptidyl) and E (Exist) sites
Prok -‐ 70S:
-‐ Small subunit – 30S
• 16S rRNA – ensures translational accuracy and correct binding of mRNA in position
• 21 proteins – help to stabilise rRNAs and protect from exonuclease activity
-‐ Large subunit – 50S
• 23S rRNA – peptidyl transfer activity
• 5S rRNA – stabilising 3D structure and evidence of involvement in signal transmission
• 31 proteins -‐ help to stabilise rRNAs and protect from exonuclease activity
Initiation:
1
...
10 bps upstream of desired AUG codon is Shine Dalgerno sequence (AGGA) which is complementary to the
seqeuence of the 16S rRNA
3
...
Blocks free amino acid group thus preventing the initiator from participating in the polypeptide
elongation
b
...
tRNA brings AA to ribsome:
a
...
variable region
ii
...
anticodon = 3’ single stranded region
b
...
3ry structure = L shape
5
...
Shape
b
...
size
6
...
Hydrolysis of ATP molecule to produce PPi and Amino acid-‐AMP complex
b
...
Assembley of the preinitiation complex:
a
...
IF3 blocks E site and maintains dissociation of subunits
i
...
P site holds tRNA with growing polypeptide chain
iii
...
c
...
Binds to fMet-‐tRNA and inserts tRNA into P site
ii
...
Causes conformational change releasing IF3 and IF1 so large subunit can associate
2
...
Good point of regulation: eg IF2 can be phosphorylated on its serine residues so it can no longer bind to
fMet tRNA
...
ribosome can only read two codons at one time so only 2 tRNAs can be present at one time
-‐2
...
f) EF-‐Tu dissociates
-‐3
...
• Guananine nucleotide exchange
-‐4 :
• Peptide bond formation occurs between amino on acid in p site and AA in a site calatylsed by 23S
...
Stop codon: UAA, UAG, UGA: These do not code for any tRNA therefore A site left empy
2
...
RF1 – UAA/UAG
b
...
These trigger ribosome to hydrolyse polypeptide from tRNA in P site – same reaction as peptidyl transfer
just onto water molecule instead of AA
...
RF3 – GTP bound: hydrolysis of GTP induces conformational change allowing RF1/RF2 to dissociate
5
...
RRF (ribosome recycling factor) which allows mRNA to be released
b
...
IF1
Regulation:
-‐ Harpin structure formation of the mRNA stops translation
-‐ Speed at which mRNA goes through ribosome: limited time for a hairpin to form
-‐ Phosphorylation of Ifs/EFs to prevent their binding
...
Ribosomes:
80S:
-‐ Small subunit – 40s
• 18S rRNA
• 33 proteins
-‐ Large subunit – 80s
• 28
...
8S rRNA
• 5S rRNA
• 45 proteijns
Initiation:
• e-‐IF1 -‐ Sits in A site so initiator tRNA only enters P
• e-‐IF1A – sites in E site so initiator tRNA only enters P
• e-‐IF2 – same role as in eukayotes
• e-‐IF3 -‐ binds near outside of ribosome and prevents association
-‐ e-‐IF4F – large complex
• e-‐IF4 – binds cap to help position mRNA in correct position
• e-‐IF4G – scaffolding to stabilise everything
• e-‐IF4A – helicase that unwinds secondary structure such as hairpins which may stop translation
process
• e-‐IF4B – helps Eif4A
• e-‐IF5 –
§ triggers GTP hydrolysis in e-‐IF2
§ replenishes GTP on e-‐IF2
-‐ Methylated 5’ cap helps position mRNA
-‐ Kozak sequence homogoulous to Shine Dalgernon sequence, however not always present just helpful for
identification of AUG start codon
There are not multiple start codons therefore not necessary to have Shine Dalgerno sequence
...
§ Protein can autoregulate as Mrna is then rapidly degraded by exonucleases
-‐
-‐
miRNA/siRNA – few base pairs complementary to mRNA and forms double strand triggering destruction by
recruiting machinery which removes polyA tail so prone to action of exonucleases or preventing
continuation of translation
-‐
Steps to ensure mRNA is read accurately and protein is synthesized accurately:
Key stage to ensure fidelity:
1
...
scanning for the start AUG codon
3
...
Initiator tRNA fmet that can bind in the partial P site
5
...
Correct geometry and hydrogen bonding within the ribosome
7
...
Rate of synthesis
Title: Oxford University first year Biomedical Sciences/Medicine notes on genes
Description: These set of notes are based on 20 lectures given throughout first year and include all aspects of genes in a lot of detail and are 24 pages long. Include experimental evidence and detailed descriptions of the mechanisms of transcription, DNA replication, translation and gene expression regulation.
Description: These set of notes are based on 20 lectures given throughout first year and include all aspects of genes in a lot of detail and are 24 pages long. Include experimental evidence and detailed descriptions of the mechanisms of transcription, DNA replication, translation and gene expression regulation.