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Intro to Biology Notes

Chapter One
I
...


Characteristics of Life
a
...
Possesses a great variety of diverse life
c
...
Nourishment
ii
...
Growth
iv
...
Respond to outside stimuli
d
...
Are organized in a hierarchy of levels
1
...
Tissue: similar cells that perform a function
3
...
Organ system: organs working together
ii
...
Need outside of materials and energy (nutrients, energy, and water)
iii
...
Respond to stimuli
v
...
Grow and develop
1
...
Development: changes that take place from conception to death
vii
...
Assigned to groups based on similarities
b
...
Domain
Most Inclusive
ii
...
Phylum
iv
...
Order
vi
...
Genus
viii
...
Look at classifications of humans chart in power point
...
Scientific Names

III
...
Taxonomy is the assignment of binomial each species
ii
...
Genus name, species name
2
...
Human species depend on ecosystems
e
...
5-30 million species on earth
ii
...

Scientific Method
a
...
Observation
Hypothesis
Experiment
Conclusion
Scientific Theory
ii
...
2 groups
a
...
Experimental Group: receives treatment
2
...
Experimental (Independent) Variable: Factor of the
experiment being tested
...
Response (Dependent) Variable: Result or change that occurs
due to experimental variable
...

iii
...
Inductive reasoning: creative reasoning
...
Deductive reasoning: logical reasoning
...
Scientific Theory
1
...

a
...


Carbohydrates
a
...
Monosaccharides are sugars with 3 to 7 carbon atoms
1
...
Hexose refers to a 7 carbon sugar
ii
...
Examples
a
...
Polysaccharides- long polymers that contain many glucose subunits

1
...
Glycogen- storage of glucose in animals
3
...


III
...
Diverse in structure and function
b
...
Types
i
...
Phospholipids
iii
...
Fats
i
...
Solid at room temperature
e
...
Usually of plant origin
ii
...
Triglycerides
i
...
Fatty acid- hydrocarbon chain that ends with acidic group COOH
2
...
Unsaturated fatty acids- 1 or more double bonds between carbon
atoms
g
...
Fat droplets disperse in water
ii
...
Phospholipids
i
...
Primary components of cellular membranes
iii
...

i
...
All have a backbone of four fused carbon rings
1
...
Cholesterol, testosterone, estrogen
Proteins
a
...
Amino Acids
1
...
Acidic group (-COOH)
3
...
Peptides
1
...


2
...
Level on protein organization
1
...
Some have 4
3
...
Denatured, a protein loses structure due to heat of pH
Nucleic Acids
a
...
DNA stores genetic information in the cell and in the organism
b
...
both are polymers of nucleotides
1
...
phosphate
b
...
nitrogen- containing base (1 of 5)
c
...
2 strands held together by hydrogen bonding
ii
...
Adenine (A) always pairs with thymine (T)
2
...
RNA is single stranded
i
...
ATP (Adenosine Triphosphate)
i
...
ATP undergoes hydrolysis and energy is released
iii
...
ATP is the high energy form
v
...
Forms ADP (adenosine diphospahte)
vii
...
Add P to ADP to make ATP

Chapter 3
Cell Structure and Function

I
...
A cell
i
...
Smallest structure capable of performing all the functions necessary for life

II
...


b
...
Prokaryotic cells
1
...
Eukaryotic cells
1
...
Cell Theory
i
...
Cells are basic living unit of structure and function in living organisms
iii
...
Surface Area/ Volume Ratio
i
...
As cells increase in volume the proportionate amount of surface area decreases
iii
...
Plasma membrane regulates what enters and exits a cell
iv
...
Lack a membrane- bound nucleus
b
...
Generally Unicellular
i
...
Not all bacteria cause disease
i
...
Parts of the cell
i
...
Peptidoglycan
ii
...
Slime layer
iii
...
Movement
iv
...
Attachment
v
...
No membrane
2
...
Ribosomes
1
...
Prokaryotes are:
1
...
Metabolically diverse
3
...
Eukaryotic cells

b
...


d
...


f
...
Are structurally complex
ii
...
Possess membrane-bound organelles
iv
...
Some have cell walls
ii
...
Cellulose a constituent of primary wall
2
...
Lignin found in secondary cell walls
iii
...
Some cellulose
2
...
Stores DNA
1
...
Chromatin
1
...
Usually divided into chromosomes
iii
...
Where ribosomal RNA (rRNA) is made
iv
...
Nuclear pores
Ribosomes
i
...
use messenger RNA (mRNA) as template
ii
...
subunits consist of rRNA and protein molecules
iii
...
Consists of the nuclear envelope, the endoplasmic reticulum, the Golgi apparatus,
several vesicles (tiny membrane sacs)
ii
...
Compartmentalizes the cell
Endoplasmic Reticulum
i
...
Rough ER
1
...
Processing and modification of proteins
iii
...
No ribosomes
2
...
Various other functions
g
...
Post office of the cell
ii
...
Proteins made in the RER have tags that serve as “zip codes” to direct Golgi
apparatus where to send them
h
...
Produced by Golgi apparatus
ii
...
Break down unwanted, foreign substances or worn-out parts of cells
i
...
Large membrane sacs
ii
...
Most prominent in pants
iv
...
H20
2
...
Toxins
j
...
Membrane bound vesicles containing enzymes
ii
...
Immediately broken down into water and oxygen
k
...
Life is possible b/c of a constant input of energy
1
...
Mitochondria
a
...
Including plants and algae
b
...
Structure
i
...
Matrix
iii
...
Invaginations increase surface area
iv
...
Photosynthesis
a
...
Only plants, algae, and cyanobacteria
c
...
Cellular Respiration

a
...
All organisms convert chemical energy into ATP
c
...


m
...


o
...


q
...
Maintains cell shape
ii
...
Dynamic- assembled and disassembled
iv
...
Actin Filaments
2
...
Microtubules
Actin Filaments
i
...
Roles
1
...
Found in intestinal microvilli
3
...
Interacts with motor molecules
1
...
In the presence of ATP, myosin polls actin along
Intermediate Filaments
i
...
Functions
1
...
Cell to cell junctions, such as those holding skin cells tightly together
3
...
Hollow cylinders made of tubulin
ii
...
Under control of microtubule organizing center (MTOC)
2
...
Interacts w/ motor molecules kinesin and dynein to cause movement of
organelles
Centrioles
i
...
Short cylinders with a 9+0 pattern of microtubule triplets
Cilia and Flagella
i
...
In eukaryotic cells, cilia are much shorter than flagella
iii
...
9+2 patters of microtubules

IV
...
First cells were prokaryotes
b
...
Evolved in stages
d
...
Mitochondria and chloroplasts were derived from prokaryotes that were taken
up by a much larger cell

Chapter 4
Membrane Structure and function

I
...
Regulates the entrance and exit of molecules into and out of the cell
b
...
Hydrophilic (water-loving) polar heads
ii
...
Cholesterol
c
...
Peripheral proteins- associated with only 1 side of membrane
ii
...
can protrude from 1 or both sides
2
...
5 Membrane Protein Functions
i
...
Allows molecule or ion to cross the plasma membrane freely
2
...
Carrier Protein
1
...
GLUT carriers transfer glucose in and out of various cell types of body
iii
...
The major histocompatibility complex (MHC) glycoproteins are different
for each person
a
...
MHC glycoproteins are attacked by white blood cells
responsible for immunity
iv
...
Shaped so specific molecules can bind to it
2
...


v
...
Catalyzes a specific reaction
2
...
Cholera bacteria release a toxin that interferes w/ proper functioning of
adenylate cyclase
a
...
Differentially permeable
b
...
Size
ii
...
Concentration gradient
i
...
Going “down” a concentration gradient
1
...
Going “up” a concentration gradient
1
...
Requires input of energy
d
...
Water, small, noncharged molecules
ii
...
Other molecules cannot use…
i
...
Carrier proteins
iii
...
Endocytosis or exocytosis
f
...
Movement of molecules from area of higher to lower concentration
1
...
Solution contains a solute (solid) and a solvent (liquid)
3
...
Oxygen and carbon dioxide enter and exit this way
ii
...
Temperature
a
...
Pressure
3
...
Molecular size
g
...
Diffusion of water across a differentially permeable membrane
ii
...
Osmotic pressure is the pressure that develops in a system due to osmosis

1
...
Membrane is not permeable to solute
...
Isotonic
1
...
No net gain or loss of water
v
...
A solution has a lower solute concentration than inside the cell
2
...
Hypertonic
1
...
Cell loses water
h
...
Carrier proteins are specific
1
...

ii
...
Facilitated transport
2
...
Facilitated Transport
1
...
Molecules follow the concentration gradient
3
...
Active Transport
1
...
Often called pumps
2
...
Entering or leaving a cell
3
...
Vesicle Formation
1
...
Transport of macromolecules
3
...
Keeps macromolecule contained
5
...
Endocytosis- enter into a cell
vi
...
Vesicle fuses with plasma membrane as secretion occurs
2
...
Cells of particular organs are specialized to produce and export
molecules
a
...
Endocytosis
1
...
Phagocytosis- Large particle matter
b
...
Receptor Mediated Endocytosis – type of pinocytosis that
involves a coated pit
...


Cell increase and decrease
a
...
Cell increase
i
...
Growth from a fertilized egg
iii
...
Red bloos cells, skin cells, cell lining, respiratory and digestive track
2
...
Cell Decrease
i
...
Decreases number of cells
2
...
Tail of a tadpole
b
...

3
...
Cell cycle
1
...
Occurs between the time a cell divides and the time the resulting
daughter cell divides
3
...
Interphase
1
...
Grows larger
3
...
DNA amount doubles
iv
...
Mitosis: nuclear division
2
...


v
...
G1 Growth
a
...
Materials accumulated for DNA synthesis
2
...
Arrested: Do not complete cell cycle
b
...
S DNA replication-synthesis
a
...
At the end of this stage, each chromosome consists of two
identical sister chromatids
4
...
Synthesizes proteins necessary for cell division
...
Cell Cycle-Mitotic Stage
1
...
division of the nucleus and genetic material
i
...
Become daughter chromosomes
iii
...
Cytokinesis
a
...
2 daughter cells formed
ii
...
Apoptosis
1
...
Cell rounds up and nucleus collaspes
b
...
Plasma membrane blisters and blebs form
d
...
Series events bring about cell destruction
3
...
Held in check by inhibitors
b
...
Cell cycle controlled by
i
...
So that stages follow in normal sequence
ii
...
Govern whether cell divides or not
iii
...
Appropriate cyclin has to be present for cell to proceed to next stage

III
...
3 check points
1
...
G2
3
...
Check points are critical for preventing cancer development
vi
...
Carcinogenesis
i
...
Multistage process
2
...
Mutation initiates cancer
a
...
Encode proteins that promote cell cycle and prevent
apoptosis
1
...
Cancer
i
...
Proto-oncogenes
a
...
Cancer causing cell
2
...
Encode proteins that stop the cell cycle
b
...
Eukaryotic chromosomes are composed of chromatin
i
...
Dispersed in a non-dividing cell
iii
...
Each species has a characteristic chromosome number
c
...
Human body cells = 46 in 23 pairs
d
...
Human eggs or sperm= 23 or one member of each pair
e
...
Nuclear division in which chromosome number stays constant
ii
...
DNA replication produces duplicate chromosomes
iv
...
Sister chromatids are genetically identical
vi
...


IV
...
Prophase
1
...
Chromatin condenses and chromosomes now visible
a
...
Centromeres attach to spindle fibers
ii
...
Chromosomes line up at metaphase plate
iii
...
Centromeres divide, sister chromatids are puled t opposite poles by
fibers
iv
...
Nuclear membrance reforms, spindle disappears
2
...
Chromosomes become more diffuse again
g
...
Cleavage furrow forms between daughter nuclei
ii
...
Continues until separation is complete
Reducing the Chromosome Number
a
...
Occurs in the life cycle of sexually reproducing organisms
ii
...
Provides offspring with a different combination of traits from that of either
parent
b
...
Begin with one diploid cell
ii
...
End with 4 haploid daughter cells
iv
...
Meiosis I
1
...
When pairs separate, each daughter cell receives one member of the
pair
3
...
Meiosis II
1
...
Centromeres divide and sister chromatids migrate to opposite poles and
become individual chromosomes
3
...


5
...


7
...


9
...


a
...

Fertilization
a
...
Sperm and eggs
b
...
n + n = 2n
Meiosis helps ensure genetic variation
Genetic recombination occurs in two ways
a
...
Independent Assortment
Phases of Meiosis I
a
...
Synapsis occurs, nuclear membrane breaks down
ii
...
Metaphase I
i
...
Anaphase I
i
...
Telophase I – may or may not happen
i
...
Cytokinesis may happen producing 2 daughter cells
which are haploid
Interkinesis
a
...
No replication of DNA
Phases of Meiosis II
a
...
Cells have one chromosome from each homologous pair
b
...
Chromosomes line up at the metaphase plate
c
...
Centromeres divide and daughter chromosomes
migrate toward the poles
d
...
Nuclei form, cytokinesis occurs
Meiosis produces haploid cells
a
...


VI
...
Combining of chromosomes from genetically different gametes at
fertilization ensures offspring are not identical to parents
12
...
DNA replication occurs only once prior to either meiosis and mitosis
b
...
Meiosis produces four daughter cells, mitosis produces two
d
...
Daughter cells from meiosis are genetically variable, while those from mitosis are
genetically identical
f
...

The Human Life Cycle
a
...
Daughter cells from meiosis are genetically variable, while those from mitosis are
genetically identical
c
...

d
...
Occurs in testes
ii
...
Primary spermatocytes (2n) divide in meiosis I to form two secondary
spermatocytes (1n)
iv
...
Spermatids then mature into sperm (spermatozoa)
e
...
Begins in the fetus
1
...
At puberty, one primary oocyte continues the process of meiosis during each
menstrual cycle
iii
...
Division is unequal as secondary oocyte receives most of the cell
contents and half the chromosomes
iv
...
Another unequal division will occur, the egg receiving most of the
cytoplasm
2
...
If the secondary oocyte is not fertilized, it disintegrates

Chapter 11

Human Organization
Tissues and Organs

I
...
A tissue is composed of similarly specialized cells that perform a common function in the
body
b
...
Epithelial: covers body surfaces and lines cavities
ii
...
Muscular: moves the body and its parts
iv
...
Cancer
i
...

1
...
Most common
a
...
Muscle or connective tissue-sarcoma
1
...
Lymphatic -Lymphoma
iii
...
Features: tightly packed cells that form a continuous layer
2
...
covers surfaces
b
...
Functions
a
...
Protects the body from injury, drying out, invasion by
pathogens
b
...
Secrete mucus along digestive tract
c
...
Absorbs molecules from kidney tubules
ii
...
Excretion
e
...
Basement membrane
a
...
Consists of glycoproteins secreted by epithelial cells
c
...
Classified According to
a
...
Number of layers in the tissue
6
...
Squamous: flattened cells
b
...
Columnar: cells resembling rectangular pillars or columns

iv
...


vi
...


viii
...
Classified According to the Number of Layers in the Tissue
a
...
Stratified: Multiple cell layers
c
...
causes changes in mucous secretion
2
...
Results in chronic inflammatory condition
Glandular epithelium
1
...
Gland – can be single or multiple cells
a
...
Exocrine glands – secrete products into ducts
c
...
Pancreas is both an exocrine and endocrine gland
a
...
Secretes insulin into the bloodstream (endocrine)
Junctions between epithelial cells
1
...
Helps the cells function as tissue
2
...
Tight junction
b
...
Adhesion junction
3
...

4
...
Intestines
6
...
Gap junction - forms when two adjacent plasma membrane channels
join
8
...
Adhesion junction desmosome – adjacent plasma membranes do not
touch
10
...
Like rivets
12
...
Binds organs together
2
...
Fills spaces
4
...
Stores fat
Components of Connective Tissue

1
...

3
...


5
...


7
...


9
...


11
...


Matrix: noncellular material - solid, semisolid jelly-like, or liquid
Fibers: collagen, elastic, reticular
Cells: various types
Three types of fibers
a
...
Flexibility and strength
b
...
Elastin-elastic
c
...
Thin and branched
Loose fibrous connective tissue
a
...
Forms a protective covering enclosing many internal organs
Dense fibrous connective tissue
a
...
Found in structures such as tendons and ligaments
Both types have cells called fibroblasts separated by a jellylike matrix
with collagen and elastic fibers
Adipose Tissue
a
...
Used for energy, insulation, and organ protection
Reticular Connective Tissue
a
...
Found in spleen, thymus and bone marrow
Cartilage
a
...
Cells lie in small chambers called lacuna
c
...
Hyaline: contains very fine collagen fibers
ii
...
Fibrocartilage: contains strong collagen fibers
Bone
a
...
Consists of a matrix of calcium salts deposited around collagen
fibers
c
...
Compact bone
1
...
Units called osteons
ii
...
End of long bones
Blood
a
...
e
...
Functions
i
...
Helps distribute heat

iii
...
Protects us from disease
v
...
Components of Blood
i
...
Variety of inorganic and organic substances
dissolved or suspended in water
ii
...
Red Blood Cells (erythrocytes)
a
...
White Blood Cells (leukocytes)
a
...
Platelets (thrombocytes)
a
...
Muscular Tissue
1
...
Muscles fibers contain actin and myosin filaments
a
...
Types of Muscle Tissues
a
...
Smooth (visceral)
c
...
Skeletal Muscle
a
...
Cells are striated and multinucleated
c
...
Smooth Muscle
a
...
Cells are spindle-shaped, each has a single nucleus
c
...
Is involuntary
6
...
Occurs in the wall of the heart
b
...
Is involuntary
x
...
Neurons (nerve cells)
a
...
Sensory input, integration, motor output
b
...
Dendrites
ii
...
Axon – may have myelin sheath to increase speed
2
...
Support and nourish neurons
b
...

ii
...

iv
...


Microglia: engulf bacterial and cellular debris
Astrocytes: provide nutrients
Oligodendrocytes: form myelin sheaths
Ependymal cells: line fluid-filled spaces of brain and
spinal cord

Organ System
a
...
Protects body
...
Receives sensory input
...
Helps control temperature
...
Synthesizes vitamin D
b
...
Ingests food
...
Digests food
...
Absorbs nutrients
...
Eliminates waste
...
Cardiovascular system
i
...

ii
...

d
...
Helps control fluid balance
...
Absorbs fats
...
Defend against infectious disease
...
Respiratory system
i
...

ii
...

iii
...

f
...
Excretes metabolic wastes
...
Helps control fluid balance
...
Helps control pH balance
g
...
Supports the body
...
Protects body parts
...
Helps move the body
...
Stores minerals
...
Produces blood cells
...
Muscular system
i
...

ii
...

iii
...

i
...
Receives sensory input
...
Integrates and stores input
...
Initiates motor output
...
Helps coordinate organ systems
...
Endocrine system
i
...


III
...
Helps coordinate organ systems
...
Responds to stress
...
Helps regulate fluid and pH balance
...
Helps regulate metabolism
...
Reproductive system
i
...

ii
...

iii
...

iv
...

Homeostasis and Body Systems
a
...
Maintenance of relatively constant internal environment
b
...
Cardiovascular system conducts blood to and away from capillaries
1
...
Tissue fluid, which bathes all the cells of the body, is refreshed when molecules
such as oxygen and nutrients move into tissue fluid from the blood and when
carbon dioxide and wastes move from tissue fluid into the blood
c
...
Respiratory system-brings in oxygen and removes carbon dioxide
ii
...
Liver- assists in digestive process, regulates blood composition, removes toxins,
and makes urea
iv
...
The Support Systems
i
...
Integumentary system produces vitamin D
iii
...
The Control Systems
i
...
Direct effectors to become active – muscles and glands
f
...
Abnormality in the body’s normal processes that significantly impairs normal
function
ii
...
Restricted to one part of the body
iii
...
Affects entire body
iv
...
Occur suddenly
2
...
Chronic disease
1
...
Develop slowly

Chapter 12
Cardiovascular System

I
...


III
...
Major cause of death in developed countries
b
...
Greater than 50-50 chance of developing cardiovascular disease (heart and/or blood
vessels)
d
...
Three Types of Blood Vessels
i
...
Capillaries: permit exchange of materials with tissues
iii
...
Three layers to an arterial wall
i
...
Inner layer - simple squamous epithelium with basement membrane
ii
...
Thickest layer, contains smooth muscle
iii
...
Fibrous and loose connective tissue
c
...
Join arterioles to venules
ii
...
Form vast networks in all regions of the body
iv
...
Oxygen and nutrients
2
...
Excess fluid picked up by lymphatic system
d
...
Walls are structured similarly to the walls of arteries (three layers)
1
...
Often have valves to prevent the backflow of blood
1
...
Great capacity to expand
1
...
Size of a fist
b
...
Behind the sternum
d
...
Pericardium

i
...
Major portion
ii
...
Endocardium
i
...
Membrane of connective tissue and endothelium
h
...
Four-chambers
1
...
Two ventricles – thick-walled, pump blood to lungs and body
ii
...
Four valves prevent the backflow of blood
1
...
Chordae tendineae
b
...
AV valve on left = bicuspid or mitral valve
2
...
Pulmonary semilunar
b
...
Path of Blood Through the Heart
i
...
right atria through tricuspid valve to right ventricle
iii
...
pulmonary arteries to the lung
v
...
4 pulmonary veins with oxygen to left atrium
2
...
left ventricle through aortic semilunar valve to aorta
4
...
Oxygen-rich blood does not mix with oxygen-poor
vii
...
Right ventricle sends oxygen-poor blood into the pulmonary circuit
2
...
Heartbeat - Cardiac Cycle
i
...
The two atria contract simultaneously
2
...
All the chambers relax
ii
...
Diastole: Relaxation of the heart muscle
iv
...
“lub-dup” sound
a
...
“Dup” sound - semilunar valves closing
2
...
May be due to a leaky valve
b
...


v
...
Nodal tissue that has muscular and nervous characteristics
2
...
Located in the upper dorsal wall of the right atrium
3
...
Located in the base of the right atrium wall
4
...
Initiates the heartbeat
b
...
Causes the atria to contract
d
...
Reaches smaller numerous Purkinje fibers
f
...
If SA node fails, AV node generates to slow a heart beat
h
...
Extrinsic Control of Heartbeat
1
...
Influences heart beat via the autonomic nervous system
i
...
Parasympathetic system decreases heart rate
2
...
Released by adrenal medulla
b
...
Fight or flight
vii
...
A recording of the electrical changes occurring in the heart
2
...
QRS complex occurs just prior to ventricular contraction
4
...
ECG can detect abnormalities
a
...
Irregular stimulation of ventricles
ii
...
Ventricles must be defibrillated by applying strong
electrical current
iv
...
Coronary arteries
1
...
First branches off aorta
3
...
Portal system begins and ends in capillaries
1
...
Blood pressure
i
...
results from blood forced into the arteries
ii
...
the pressure in the arteries

IV
...
Blood pressure falls
1
...
Difference between systolic and diastolic pressure gradually diminishes
v
...
Sphygmomanometer
1
...
Measured on the brachial artery
viii
...
120/80
x
...
When skeletal muscles contract they put pressure on veins
xii
...
Muscle contraction moves blood back to the heart
l
...
Clots in deep veins of legs
ii
...
Can break free and travel to lungs
iv
...
Atherosclerosis
i
...
Interferes with blood flow
iii
...
If clot breaks loose it becomes an embolus- traveling
2
...
Dissolving blood clots
i
...
Converts plasminogen into plasmin to dissolve blood clots
ii
...
Lowers probability that clot will form
c
...
90,000 people/year have faulty heart valves repaired or replaced
ii
...
Degenerate with age or disease
iv
...
Mitral valve prolapse
vi
...
Artificial valves
viii
...
Tread compact artificial valve through an artery in the leg
d
...
Cerebrovascular accident
ii
...
Lack of oxygen to brain can cause paralysis or death

iv
...
Heart attack
i
...
Chest pain from partially blocked coronary artery
ii
...
Myocardial infarction
1
...
Aneurysm
i
...
Most often in abdomen or brain
iii
...
Bursting of blood vessels can be fatal
v
...
Replace damaged or diseased portion of blood vessel with synthetic graft or
stent
vii
...

1
...

2
...

g
...
Coronary Bypass Operations
1
...
Can graft another vessel to the aorta and then to the blocked coronary
artery past the point of blockage
ii
...
Virus engineered to contain gene coding for VEGF - vascular endothelial
growth factor
a
...
Angioplasty
1
...
Balloon attached to catheter is inflated
3
...
Stents can be placed to keep vessel open
h
...
Transplants usually successful but shortage of donors
ii
...
Temporary alternative to heart transplant
2
...
Blood is pumped to the aorta
i
...
TAH-total artificial heart
1
...
Survival rates are not good but may be because patients are so ill
j
...
Affects about 20% of all Americans
ii
...
Age, gender, and lifestyle can influence blood pressure
1
...
Smoking
3
...
Medications can be used to treat this disease

Chapter 14
Digestive System and Nutrition

I
...
Contributes to homeostasis by…
i
...
Digesting food into nutrients
iii
...
Eliminating indigestible remains
b
...
Mechanical
1
...
Churning and mixing in the stomach
ii
...
Enzymes
a
...
The Mouth
i
...
Comprised of skeletal muscles
2
...
Roof of the mouth divided into:
1
...
bones
2
...
muscle
b
...
A finger shaped projection at the back of the mouth
c
...
Help protect the body from infections
iii
...
keeps the mouth moist
2
...
contains enzyme salivary amylase
b
...
Pharynx
i
...
Swallowing

i
...
Soft palate closes off the nasopharynx
iii
...
Food can only enter esophagus
f
...
Continuous with esophagus and duodenum of small intestine
ii
...
Moves food into the small intestine
iv
...
Can expand
vi
...
Gastric pits lead into gastric glands
viii
...
Enzyme-Pepsinogen (becomes pepsin)
2
...
Mucus
ix
...
Stomach wall has three layers of muscles
xi
...
Chyme – food leaving stomach
1
...
The Small Intestine
i
...
Duodenum
1
...
Receives bile from the liver
a
...
Receives pancreatic juice from the pancreas
a
...
Bicarbonate to neutralize acidic pH of chyme
iii
...
Middle section
iv
...
Remainder leading to large intestine
2
...
The small intestine has a large surface area
1
...
Blood capillaries for nutrient absorption
b
...
Carries digested fats
2
...
Regulation of digestive secretions promoted by the nervous system and by hormones
i
...
Stomach churns, gastric gland activity increased
ii
...
Inhbits gastric gland secretion
iii
...


III
...
Release stimulated by entrance of acidic chyme
iv
...
Release stimulated by proteins and fat in chyme
v
...
Pancreas to increase pancreatic juice output
2
...
Gallbladder to contract to release bile
i
...
Includes cecum, colon, rectum and anal canal
ii
...
Absorbs water, salts, and some vitamins
iv
...
Colon
1
...
Rectum
1
...
Anus
1
...
Defecation reflex
Accessory Organs of Digestion
a
...
Endocrine function
1
...
Regulates blood glucose
ii
...
Sodium bicarbonate: neutralizes the stomach acid
2
...
Trypsin: protein digestion
4
...
The Liver
i
...
Acts as a gatekeeper for the blood
1
...
Removes and stores iron and vitamins A, D, E, K, and B12
3
...
Regulates cholesterol
5
...
Produces bile
a
...
Bile salts – emulsify fat
c
...
Liver produces 400-800 ml of bile each day
ii
...
Water reabsorbed – thickens bile
iv
...
Nutrient- component of food that performs physiological function
i
...
All body functions depend on proper nutrition
c
...
Carbohydrates and fats
1
...
Proteins
1
...
Regulate metabolism (with vitamins and minerals)
3
...
Water
iv
...
Cells are 70-80% water
d
...
Food pyramids may vary but most nutritionists agree on
1
...
Eat a variety of foods, in order to acquire all needed nutrients
ii
...
is moderate in total fat intake and low in saturated fats and cholesterol
2
...
is low in refined carbohydrates
4
...
contains adequate protein from poultry, fish, plants
6
...
Avoid questionable supplements and food additives
e
...
Organic compounds needed for metabolic purposes but the body is unable to
produce
1
...
Deficiencies produce specific symptoms
ii
...
Fat soluble - Vitamins A,D,E,K
2
...
Antioxidants-defend against free radicals
1
...
Superoxide (O2-) and hydroxide (OH-)
b
...
Vitamins C,E, and A believed to defend the body
3
...
Minerals
i
...
Constituents of cells and body fluids
2
...
Trace Minerals
1
...
Calcium
1
...
Afflicts ¼ of older men and ½ of older women in US

2
...
Sodium
1
...
Average American intake is 4000-4700 mg/day
3
...


II
...
Gregor Mendel
i
...
Concluded that plants transmit distinct factors to offspring
1
...
Chromosomes come impairs called homologous chromosomes
i
...
Same length, centromere location, same gene for same trait
iii
...
Alleles at the spot on each homologous chromosome-locus
2
...
Laws of segregation
i
...
The factors segregate (separate) during the formation of gametes
iii
...
Fertilization gives each new individual two factors for each trait
...
Phenotype
i
...
Physical, microscopic, metabolic characteristic
a
...
Genotype
i
...
2 alleles for a trait
a
...
Capital letter symbolizes a dominant allele (W)
3
...
Dominant- The allele that will mask the expression of the recessive
allele
c
...
Dominant allele
1
...
Recessive allele
i
...
WW – Homozygous
2
...
Ww- Heterozygous
2
...
Heterozygous – 2 members of the pair of alleles are different
4
...
2 possible Phenotypes
i
...
Ww- Dominant
iii
...
Gamete formation
i
...
Follows Mendele’s laws of segregation
2
...
One trait cross
i
...


ii
...
Chance of 2 or more independent events occurring together is the
product of their chance of occurring separately
a
...
In the cross Ww x Ww what is the chance of obtaining either a W or a w
from a parent
3
...
Probability of having these genotypes is as follows
i
...
Chance of Ww = ½ x ½ = ¼
iii
...
Chance of ww= ½ x ½ = ¼
The inheritance of 2 traits
i
...
Each pair of factors assorts independently (without requard to how the
other separate)
2
...
Example: Homozygous widows peak and short singers with straight
hairline and long fingers
4
...


WWWS

SS
Allele

W=
Ws
w = Straight
S = Short
s = Long

WS

♀

Ws

wS

WWSS

F1 gametes

WWSs

WwSS

WwSs

WWSs

WWss

WwSs

Wwss

wwSS

wwSs



ws

ww

ss

F1 generation

sperm

P

♀

wS
WwSS

WwSS

ws
WwSs

Wwss

wwSs

wwSs

Offspring

g
...
WwSs x WwSs (different from table)
1
...
9 widow’s peak, short fingers
3
...
3 straight hairline, short fingers
5
...
9:3:3:1 phenotypic ratio is always expected for a dihybrid cross when simple
dominance is present
h
...
Probability laws
1
...
Probability of short fingers = ¾
3
...
Probability of long fingers = ¼
ii
...
Probability of widow’s peak and short fingers
a
...


2
...
¾ x ¼ = 3/16
3
...
¼ x¾= 3/16
4
...
¼ x 1/4 = 1/16
i
...
Impossible to tell by inspection whether an individual is expressing the
dominant allele for two traits is homozygous dominant or heterozygous in
regard to these traits
ii
...
Recessive phenotype is used because it has a known phenotype
...
Pedigrees
i
...
Males = square
iii
...
Affected individuals shaded
...
Use pedigree for an autosomal disorder
i
...
Autosomal recessive
c
...
The child is affected, but neither parent is
ii
...
Parents are carriers because they are unaffected

=

IV

Aa

carrier (unaffected)
A?
aa

aa

A

•

iv
...
equal frequency
...
Reproduction between cousins more likely to have recessive traits expressed
...
Each child born to heterozygous parents has 25% chance of disorder
...
Aa x Aa
iii
...
A = ½
v
...

f
...

unaffected
Most affected children have unaffected Inc
...

Copyright © The McGraw-Hill =
Companies,
parents
...
Why will unaffected parents have unaffected children?
i
...

h
...
Tay-Sachs disease
1
...
Results from a lack of the enzyme hexosaminidase A (Hex A)
3
...
Lysosomes buildup in brain cells resulting in progressive deterioration of
psychomotor functions
5
...
Cystic Fibrosis (CF)
1
...
Chloride ions fail to pass through a plasma membrane channel protein
in cells
3
...
Lack of water Causes abnormally thick mucus in bronchial tubes and
pancreatic ducts
iii
...
Lack the enzyme needed for the normal metabolism of the amino acid
phenylalanine
2
...
Infants will develop normally if placed on a low phenylalanine diet
4
...
Sickle Cell Disease
1
...
Differs from normal hemoglobin by one amino acid
3
...
Poor circulation, anemia, low resistance to infection, internal
hemorrhage, damage to internal organs
i
...
Marfan Syndrome
1
...
Dislocated eye lens
3
...
Caved in chest
5
...
Huntington Disease
1
...
Neurological disorder
3
...
Caused by a mutated copy of the gene for a protein called huntingtin
5
...
Most patients appear normal until they are of middle age and have
already had children
7
...
Incomplete Dominance
i
...
Do not use the same capital and lower case letters
iii
...
straight hair X curly hair
v
...
H1H2 x H1H2
vii
...

viii
...


Two unaffected parents will not have affected children
...

affected
AA
aa = unaffected

ix
...
Single dose gives intermediate result
b
...
Alleles are equally expressed in a heterozygote
1
...
Blood type AB is an example
1
...
Also example of multiple alleles
c
...
A trait is controlled by multiple alleles, the gene exists in several allelic forms
1
...
3 alleles for same gene
iii
...
IA = A antigens on red blood cells
v
...
i = has neither A nor B antigens on red blood cells
vii
...

Phenotype
Genotype
A
IAIA or IAi
B
IBIB or IBi
AB
IAIB
O
ii
ix
...

xi
...

xiii
...


Blood tests used for paternity
Man with AB blood could not be the father of a child with O blood
Why?
The Rh factor is inherited separately
Rh+ blood cells have a specific antigen
Rh- antigen absent
1
...


d
...
Occurs when a trait is governed by two or more genes (sets of alleles)
ii
...
Continuous variation of phenotypes
iv
...

v
...
Possibly controlled by many pairs of alleles
2
...
Aa and Bb
4
...
Very dark person reproduces with very light person, children
have medium brown skin
vi
...

AABB
x
...

AaBb or AAbb or aaBB

vii
...

Very dark

A

xi
...

Medium Brown

A

xiv
...

aabb

xv
...

Very Ligh

V
...
Range of Phenotypes
i
...
Bell shaped curve is expected
1
...
Most people in the middle
Environmental influences
a
...
In the case of height, differences in nutrition are one of the factors that bring
about a bell shaped curve
1
...


Chapter 24
Chromosomal Basis of Inheritance
I
...
Males and Females have 23 pairs of chromosomes
i
...
One pair is the sex chromosomes
1
...
Females are XX
b
...
X-linked are found on the X chromosome
1
...
No matching gene on the Y
ii
...
Most X-linked traits are recessive
i
...
One X chromosome from each parent
ii
...
X from mother
2
...
Y does not carry an allele for the trait
4
...
Sex-linked Alleles
e
...
Xb = color blind
i
...
Well known X-linked recessive disorder
ii
...
Carrier – female capable of passing recessive allele
a
...
Color-blind males are more common than color-blind females
a
...
Color blind female
a
...
Genotypes

h
...


Female who has normal color vision

k
...


Carrier female who has normal color vision

m
...
Female who is color blind

o
...
Male who has normal vision

q
...


i
...
Perform a cross with a normal male parent and carrier female
...
Determine the gametes
ii
...


Pedigree for X-linked Disorders
i
...
X-linked recessive disorder
ii
...
Recessive allele on X always expressed in males
B

b
X Y grandfather

B

X X

B

B

b

X X

X Y

daughter

B

b

X Y

b

X X
b

XY
B

X Y

B

B

X X

B

b

X X

b
X Y grandson

Ke y
B

B

X X = Unaffected female
B b
X X = Carrier female
b b
X X = Color-blind female
B
X Y = Unaffected male
b
X Y = Color-blind male
iii
...
More males than females are affected
...
An affected son can have parents who have the normal phenotype
...


II
...


For a female to have the characteristic, her father must also have it
...

4
...

5
...

u
...
X-linked dominant disorder
1
...
Affected males pass the trait only to daughters
b
...
X-linked Recessive Disorders of Interest
i
...
Duchenne muscular dystrophy
1
...
Absence of protein dystrophin
iii
...
Most common cause of inherited mental impairment
2
...
Hemophilia
1
...
Missing clotting factor now available as a biotechnology product
Gene Linkage
a
...
Linkage group – all the alleles on one chromosome that are inherited together
c
...
Two trait crosses assume the alleles are on nonhomologous chromosomes
e
...
Alleles that are linked do not show independent assortment
g
...
Chromatids exchange genetic material
h
...
Occurrence of crossing-over can tell the sequence of genes on a chromosome
i
...
Zg more often than Sr
Changes in Chromosome Number
a
...
Occurs during meiosis I
1
...
Occurs during meiosis II
1
...
Trisomy or monosomy result after fertilization
iv
...
Monosomy – 1 copy of 1 chromosome
b
...
Trisomies are tolerated better than monosomies

1
...
Chromosome 21 is one of the smallest chromosomes
ii
...
Down Syndrome – trisomy 21
i
...
Easily recognized physical features
iii
...
Chances of a woman having a Down syndrome child increase rapidly with age
1
...
Reasons not entirely known
d
...
visual display of chromosomes
1
...
Abnormal number of structure of chromosomes result in a syndrome
3
...
Group of symptoms that always occur together
ii
...
Amniocentesis
1
...
Chorionic Villus Sampling (CVS)
1
...

2
...

3
...
Extra copy causes increased level to purines in blood
a
...
In the future control Gart gene expression before birth to
reduce symptom
...
Abnormal numbers of sex chromosomes
i
...
Barr body – inactive X chromosome
2
...
Turner syndrome- zygote with one X chromosome, can survive
ii
...

1
...
Extra Y chromosomes are tolerated
...
XYY Jacobs syndrome
a
...
Changed in Sex Chromosome number
1
...
SRY (sex- determining region of Y) gene
i
...
Produces testis- determining factor
iii
...
Chromosomal mutations occur when chromosomes break

1
...
Ordinarily, break reunites with the same sequence of genes
3
...
Deletion, duplication, translocation, or inversion
...
Deletion
1
...
or when two simultaneous breaks lead to the loss of an internal
chromosomal segment
3
...
Duplication
1
...
Individual has more than two alleles for certain traits
3
...
Inverted duplication on chromosome 15
viii
...
Exchange of chromosomal segments between two nonhomologous
chromosomes
2
...
Unless the chromosome exchange breaks an allele into two
pieces
3
...
Inversion
1
...
Reverse sequence of alleles can lead to altered gene activity
3

---