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Title: Microeconomics
Description: Intro course for Microeconomics, typically a first year course focusing on reading graphs, supply & demand, elasticity, costs (short and long run), profit and monopolies.

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10  Principles  of  Economics  
 
Market  Economy  –  allocates  resources  through  decentralized  decisions  while  interacting  with  the  market  
 
Scarcity  –  community  has  limited  goods  &  services    

People  Face  Tradeoffs  
 

Ø   Opportunity  cost  (whatever  we  must  give  up  to  obtain  something,  nothing  is  free)  
Ø   Equity  vs  Efficiency  

The  Cost  of  Something  is  What  You  Give  Up  to  Obtain  it  
 

Ø   weigh  benefits  vs  cost  

Rational  People  Think  at  the  Margin  
 

Ø   Marginal  Changes  (small  adjustments  to  a  plan  of  action)  
Ø   Marginal  benefit  should  exceed  marginal  cost  
Ø   Decisions  are  not  black  &  white  

People  Respond  to  Incentives  
 

Ø   Cheaper  prices  are  incentives  
Ø   Taxes  on  certain  products  create  incentive  for  buying  substitute  products  

Trade  Can  Help  Everyone  
 

Ø   Allows  specialization  and  variety  
Ø   Both  parties  usually  benefit  

Markets  Can  Organize  Economic  Activity  
 

Ø   Society  develops  economy,  not  authorities  
Ø   Prices  &  self-­‐interest  guides  market  
Ø   Invisible  hand  (economy  helps  itself  according  to  needs  of  societies,  acting  in  self  interest  can  help  
others)  

Government  Can  Help  Market  Outcomes  
 
 
 

 

Ø   Government  enforces  rules  that  help  keep  market  fair  (theft,  fraud)  
Ø   Enforce  property  rights  (ability  to  own  &  control  scarce  resources)  

1  

Standard  of  Living  Depends  on  Ability  to  Produce  Goods  &  Services  
 
Ø  
Ø  
Ø  
Ø  

Income  rises  according  to  economy  
Productivity  helps  quality  of  life  
Productivity  -­‐  #  of  goods  produced  from  each  hour  of  worker’s  time  
Otherwise  there  is  market  failure  (Market  cannot  use  resources  efficiently)  

Prices  Rise  when  Government  Prints  Too  Much  Money  
 

Ø   Inflation  (prices  rise)  
Ø   Influenced  by  amount  of  money  

Society  Faces  Short-­‐run  Tradeoff  Between  Inflation  &  Unemployment  
 

Ø   More  money  causes  more  spending  
Ø   More  demand  à  Higher  prices  à  more  goods/services  
Ø   More  employment  

Thinking  like  Economist  
Economist  as  a  Scientist  
 

Ø   Observations  aid  developing  a  theory  
Ø   Economists  cannot  create  own  data;  they  have  to  use  whatever  still  exists  

 
Role  of  Assumptions  –  make  things  easier  to  understand  by  simplifying  

 
 

 
2  

Production  Possibilities  Frontier  
 
•  
•  
•  
•  

Show  outcome  of  output  produced  from  factors  of  production  &  technology  
Displays  tradeoffs  
Most  efficient  is  right  on  the  curve  (D  &  E)  
If  linear,  business  can  switch  between  producing    
 

 

Micro  VS  Macro  
 
•   Micro  –  how  households  &  firms  interact,  within  business  
•   Macro  –  economy  wide,  what  affects  the  business  

Economist  as  Policy  Advisor  
 
•   Positive  Statement  –  describing  the  world  (data)  
•   Normative  Statement  –  describing  how  the  world  should  be  (opinion)  

Graphs  
 
•   Positive  Correlation  –  coordinates  move  together  
•   Negative  Correlation  –  coordinates  move  oppositely  
   
 
Slope  
•   y/x  =  slope  
•   the  steeper  the  demand  curve  the  less  demand  changes  with  price  change  
 
 
 
 
 
 

3  

Interdependence  &  Trade  Gains  
 

Advantages  
 
Absolute    
•   comparison  according  to  productivity  of  producers  
•   the  producer  that  can  produce  with  less  inputs  than  the  other  has  an  absolute  advantage  
 
Comparative  
•   less  opportunity  cost  means  comparative  advantage  
•   more  important  in  terms  of  trade  
•   specialization  increases  comparative  advantage  
•   to  find  opportunity  cost  divide  what  you’re  losing  by  what  you  gain    
•   lowest  opportunity  cost  is  highest  comparative  advantage  
•   EX)  if  you  make  10  potatoes  and  8  pieces  of  meat,  making  one  more  piece  of  meat  will  take  away  from  
potato  production
...
25  potatoes  are  the  opportunity  cost  
 
Higher  production  of  a  product  means  the  opportunity  cost  of  producing  more  of  that  product  is  higher  
 

Market  Forces  of  Supply  &  Demand  
Demand  
 
•   Relationship  between  price  (y)  &  demand  (x)  
•   Price  determines  demand,  high  price  means  low  demand  

 
Demand  Curve  
•   High  demand  is  right  shift  
•   Low  demand  is  left  shift  
 
Normal  Good  –  high  income  means  high  demand  (clothing,  video  games  etc)  
 
Inferior  Good  –  high  income  means  low  demand  (cheap  items,  bus  tickets,  bargain  food)  
 
Substitutes  –  2  competing  goods,  one’s  price  rises,  the  others  demand  rises  
 
Complement  –  2  competing  goods,  one’s  price  rises,  others  demand  demand  falls  (one  creates  demand  for  the  
other,  high  gas  price,  low  demand  of  cars)  

Supply  
 
•   Relationship  between  price  &  quantity  supplied  
•   High  supply  high  price  
 

4  

 
Curve    
•   High  supply,  right  shift  
•   Low  supply,  left  shift  

Supply  &  Demand  
 
Market  Equilibrium  –  where  supply  and  demands  curves  intersect  (shows  equilibrium  quantity  &  price)  
 
Surplus    
•   more  supply  than  demand  
•   lower  price  to  fix  
•   caused  by  actual  market  price  being  higher  than  equilibrium  price  
 
Shortage  
•   more  demand  than  supply  
•   raise  price  to  fix  
•   caused  by  actual  market  price  being  lower  than  equilibrium  price  
 
Along  curves  MOVEMENTS  are  changes  in  quantities,  SHIFTS  are  changes  in  supply/demand  
 

Elasticity  
 
•   responsiveness  of  demand/supply  to  a  determinant  

Price  Elasticity  of  Demand  
 
•   how  much  demand  responds  to  price  change  
•   ((Q2-­‐Q1)/(Q2+Q1)/2)  /  ((P2-­‐P1)/(P2+P1)/2)  

Determinants    
 
•  
•  
•  
•  

#    of  substitutes  (more  elastic)  
Necessities  (not  as  elastic)  Luxuries  (more  elastic)  
Narrow  Markets  are  more  elastic  than  broad  markets  
Longer  time  horizons  mean  more  elastic  demand  

Classification  
 
If  Elasticity  is…  
•   Less  than  one,  elastic  
•   More  than  one,  inelastic  
•   Equal  to  1,  unit  elasticity  
•   Equal  to  0,  perfectly  inelastic  
 
 

5  

Revenue  
 
Total  Revenue    
•   amount  paid  by  buyers  &  received  by  sellers  
•   P  x  Q  sold  
•   High  price  causes  low  demand  causing  low  total  revenue  
•   OR  low  price  causes  high  demand  causing  high  total  revenue  
 
Inelastic  Demand  –  price  change  is  higher  than  change  in  demand  
 
Elastic  Demand  –  change  in  amount  demanded  is  higher  than  price  change  
 
Unit  Elastic  -­‐  demand  change  in  equal  to  price  change,  total  revenue  does  not  change  

Demand  Curve  
 
•  
•  
•  
•  

Linear  
The  flatter  the  more  elastic  it  is    
Shift  to  right  is  more  inelastic  
Shift  to  left  is  more  elastic  

 
Income  Elasticity  of  Demand  
•   How  much  demand  responds  to  change  in  income  
•   %  change  in  demand  /  %  change  in  income  
•   Normal  goods  have  positive  income  elastics    
•   Inferior  goods  have  negative  income  elastics  
•   Necessities  have  lower  income  elastics  (less  responsive)  
•   Luxuries  have  higher  income  elastics  (more  responsive)  
 
Cross  Price  Elasticity  of  Demand  
•   How  much  demand  responds  to  price  change  of  other  goods  
•   Substitutes  have  positive  cross  price  elasticity  
•   Complements  have  negative  cross  price  elasticity  
•   %  Change  in  demand  of  good  1  /  %  Change  in  price  of  good  2  

Elasticity  of  Supply  
 
•   How  much  quantity  supplied  responds  to  price  change  
Determinants    
•   Flexibility  of  sellers  (goods  that  have  a  fixed  supply  amount  have  inelastic  supply)  
•   More  inelastic  in  shorter  time  periods  
 
 
 
 
 

6  

Supply  Curves  
 
•  
•  
•  
•  
•  
 

The  flatter  the  more  elastic  
Linear  
If  elasticity  is  0  or  perfectly  inelastic,  vertical  line  
If  supply  is  perfectly  elastic,  horizontal  line  
Elasticity  is  higher  at  lower  level  of  supply  

Government  Policies    
Controls  On  Prices  
 
Price  Ceiling    
•   legal  max  of  price  
•   if  higher  than  equilibrium  it  has  no  effect  
•   if  lower  than  equilibrium,  a  shortage  happens  and  there  is  more  demand  than  supply  as  price  is  lower  
than  it  should  be  
 
Price  Floor    
•   legal  min  of  price  
•   if  lower  than  equilibrium,  it  has  no  effect  
•   if  higher  than  equilibrium,  a  surplus  happens  because  there  Is  more  supply  than  demand  as  price  is  
higher  than  it  should  be    

Taxes  
 
Tax  incidence  –  how  tax  is  distributed  in  a  market  
 
Taxes  on  buyers  
•   taxes  on  goods  decrease  demand  (because  technically  price  rises)  
•   Buyers  pay  more  for  good  and  sellers  receive  less  for  good  
 
Taxes  on  Sellers  
•   Less  supply  and  less  sold  
•   Buyers  pay  more  for  good,  sellers  receive  less  profit  
 
Elasticity  
•   Demand  elastic  &  supply  inelastic  –  more  tax  burden  on  consumers  (buyers  have  less  alternatives)  
•   Demand  inelastic  and  supply  elastic  –  more  tax  burden  on  producers  (sellers  have  less  alternatives)  
 
 
 
 
 
 

7  

Costs  of  Production  
Opportunity  Costs  
 

 

•   Implicit  costs  –  input  costs  that  aren’t  required  or  opportunity  costs    
•   Explicit  costs  –  input  costs  that  are  required  (wages,  production  costs)  
Accountants  focus  on  explicit,  economists  focus  on  implicit  

 

•   Economic  Profit  =  total  revenue  –  total  cost  (both  implicit  &  explicit)  
•   Accounting  Profit  =  total  revenue  –  total  explicit  cost  

Production  &  Costs  
 
Production  Function  –  relationship  between  inputs  used  and  how  much  output  is  made  from  those  inputs  
 
Marginal  Product  –  the  amount  extra  of  output  made  from  more  input  
 
Diminishing  Marginal  Product  –  how  much  marginal  product  decreases  as  input  increases  
 
Marginal  Product  of  Labour  –  change  in  output  /  change  in  labour  (higher  price,  higher  wage)  
 
As  labour  increases,  marginal  product  of  labour  decreases  

Measures  of  Cost  
 
Total  Cost  –  market  value  of  inputs    
 
•   Profit  =  total  revenue  –  total  cost  
•   Total  cost  =  fixed  cost  +  variable  cost  
•   Fixed  cost  –  costs  that  stay  the  same  with  change  in  output  
•   Variable  cost  –  cost  that  do  change  with  change  in  output  

Average  &  Marginal  Costs  
 
Average  Total  Cost  
•   =  total  cost  /  #  of  output  
•   =  average  fixed  cost  +  average  variable  cost    
 
Average  Fixed  Cost  =  fixed  cost  /  #  of  output  
 
Average  Variable  Cost  =  variable  cost  /  #  of  output    
 
Marginal  Cost  
•   Increase  in  total  cost  from  more  production  
•   Change  in  total  cost  /  change  in  output  
 

8  

Cost  Curves  
 
Rising  Marginal  Cost  
•   Result  of  diminishing  marginal  product  
•   More  output  results  in  more  cost  of  production  
 
Efficient  Scale    
•   how  much  output  decreases  average  total  costs  
•   marginal  cost  intersects  ATC  at  minimum/efficient  scale  
 
•   Marginal  cost  rises  as  output  rises  
•   ATV  is  U  shaped  
 

 

Costs  Short  or  Long  run  
 
•   Long  run  average  is  at  minimum  of  short  run  average  
•   This  is  because  the  firm  has  more  flexibility  in  the  long  run  to  deal  with  change  
•   Long  run  is  more  flat  than  short  run  

Economies  &  Diseconomies  
 

 
 
 
 
 
 

•   Economies  of  Scale  –  long  run  ATC  decreases  as  a  result  of  increased  output  
•   Diseconomies  of  Scale  –  long  run  ATC  increases  as  a  result  of  increased  output  
•   Constant  Return  to  Scale  –  long  run  ATC  equals  change  in  output  

9  

Firms  in  Competitive  Markets  
Revenue    
 
Average  Revenue  –  total  revenue  /  quantity  sold  
 
Marginal  Revenue  
•   Change  in  revenue  from  more  products  sold  
•   Change  in  total  revenue  /  change  in  quantity  
 
Demand  Curve  is  horizontal  if  price  equals  Marginal  AND  Average  Revenue  

Profit  Maximization  
 
•   If  marginal  revenue  is  higher  than  marginal  costs,  then  output  and  price  increase  
•   If  marginal  revenue  is  lower  than  marginal  costs,  then  output  decreases  and  price  increases  
 
Profit  Maximization  is  where  Marginal  Revenue  =  Marginal  Cost  

Cost  Curves  
 
•   Marginal  Cost  slopes  upward  
•   Marginal  Revenue  is  horizontal  at  market  price  average  
•   Marginal  Cost  Curve  =  how  much  supply  at  a  certain  price  (supply  curve)  

Short  Run  Shut  Down  
•  
•  
•  
•  
•  
•  

Still  pay  fixed  costs  
Shut  down  is  no  outputs  
No  revenue  
Caused  by  total  revenue  being  lower  than  variable  costs  
OR  Price  is  less  than  AVC  
Minimum  point  of  AVC  curve  is  shut  down  price  

 
Sunk  Cost  –  cost  committed  that  can’t  be  recovered,  no  longer  opportunity  

Exit  &  Enter  
 
Exit  
•   No  revenue  of  costs    
•   Revenue  is  less  than  total  costs  
•   Price  is  less  than  average  total  costs  
 
Enter  –  if  Price  is  greater  than  Average  total  costs  
 
 

 
Profit  =  (price  –  ATC)  x  Q  
10  

Long  Run    
 
•  
•  
•  
•  

Firms  earn  profit,  attract  new  firms,  supply  rises,  price  lowers,  profit  lowers  
Firms  suffer  loss,  firms  exit,  supply  lowers,  price  rises,  profit  rises  
Process  ends  when  price  =  ATC  
Consistent  price  is  minimum  of  ATC  

Long  Run  Supply  Curve  Sloping  Up  
 

 

•   Limited  resources  cause  a  higher  price  and  higher  ATC  
•   Firms  already  in  market  will  have  lower  costs,  firms  entering  after  will  have  higher  costs  
•   Long  run  curves  are  more  elastic  than  short  run  
Average  Revenue  =  Marginal  Revenue  =  Price  
 

Monopoly  
 
•   Sole  seller  without  substitute  products  
•   Caused  by  barriers  to  entry  

3  sources  of  Monopoly  
 
 

 

1
...
  Natural  Monopoly  
One  firms  can  supply  a  good  at  less  cost  than  multiple  firms  could  
Occur  with  economies  of  scale  
ATC  lowers  
Marginal  cost  is  lower  than  ATC  
3
...
 
 
•   Low  price,  low  demand  for  labour  

Labour  Demand  Curve  Shifts  
 
Output  Price  
•   High  price,  high  marginal  product  of  labour,  high  demand  for  labour  
•   Because  more  value  for  each  worker  hired  
•   Low  price,  low  marginal  product  of  labour,  low  demand  for  labour  
 

13  

•   Because  lower  value  for  each  worker  hired  
 
Technological  Advance  –  can  either  cause  less  need  for  labour  or  more  need  for  labour  

Supply  of  Labour  
 
•   leisure  is  an  opportunity  cost  
•   higher  wage  a  higher  opportunity  cost  for  losing  each  hour  you  could  have  worked  

Labour  Supply  Curve  Shifts  
 
•   if  curve  slopes  upwards,  it  means  higher  wage  makes  workers  want  to  work  more  
•   immigration  causes  more  supply  
•   emigration  causes  less  supply  

Equilibrium  
 
•   wage  is  what  balances  supply  and  demand  
•   wage  =  VMPL  for  equilibrium    
•   each  firm  should  have  as  much  labour  as  is  profitable  

Shifts  in  Labour  Supply  
 
•   high  labour  =  right  shift  and  surplus  of  labour,  which  results  in  low  wages,  MPL  and  VMPL  
•   low  labour  =  left  shift,  shortage  of  labour,  which  results  in  high  wages,  MPL  and  VMPL  

Shifts  in  Labour  Demand  
 
•   high  demand  =  right  shift,  shortage,  price  and  MPL  rise,  causing  a  rise  in  VMPL  and  Wage  
•   Low  Demand  =  left  shift,  suplus,  price  and  MPL  lower,  causing  lower  VMPL  and  Wages  

 
Monopsony  
•   Labour  market  is  dominated  by  a  single  employer  
•   Wages  are  low  

Land  &  Capital  
 
Capital  –  equipment  needs  to  produce  
 
Equilibrium    
•   Purchase  is  permanent,  Rental  is  limited  
•   Firms  increase  labour  until  Value  of  Marginal  Product  =  rental  price  
 
Capital  Income  
•   Less  obvious  than  labour  income  
•   Rent  households  get  for  use  of  their  capital  
•   Paid  depending  on  VMP  
 

14  

Formulas  
 
 

 

15  


Title: Microeconomics
Description: Intro course for Microeconomics, typically a first year course focusing on reading graphs, supply & demand, elasticity, costs (short and long run), profit and monopolies.