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Title: Microeconomics
Description: Intro course for Microeconomics, typically a first year course focusing on reading graphs, supply & demand, elasticity, costs (short and long run), profit and monopolies.
Description: Intro course for Microeconomics, typically a first year course focusing on reading graphs, supply & demand, elasticity, costs (short and long run), profit and monopolies.
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10 Principles of Economics
Market Economy – allocates resources through decentralized decisions while interacting with the market
Scarcity – community has limited goods & services
People Face Tradeoffs
Ø Opportunity cost (whatever we must give up to obtain something, nothing is free)
Ø Equity vs Efficiency
The Cost of Something is What You Give Up to Obtain it
Ø weigh benefits vs cost
Rational People Think at the Margin
Ø Marginal Changes (small adjustments to a plan of action)
Ø Marginal benefit should exceed marginal cost
Ø Decisions are not black & white
People Respond to Incentives
Ø Cheaper prices are incentives
Ø Taxes on certain products create incentive for buying substitute products
Trade Can Help Everyone
Ø Allows specialization and variety
Ø Both parties usually benefit
Markets Can Organize Economic Activity
Ø Society develops economy, not authorities
Ø Prices & self-‐interest guides market
Ø Invisible hand (economy helps itself according to needs of societies, acting in self interest can help
others)
Government Can Help Market Outcomes
Ø Government enforces rules that help keep market fair (theft, fraud)
Ø Enforce property rights (ability to own & control scarce resources)
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Standard of Living Depends on Ability to Produce Goods & Services
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Income rises according to economy
Productivity helps quality of life
Productivity -‐ # of goods produced from each hour of worker’s time
Otherwise there is market failure (Market cannot use resources efficiently)
Prices Rise when Government Prints Too Much Money
Ø Inflation (prices rise)
Ø Influenced by amount of money
Society Faces Short-‐run Tradeoff Between Inflation & Unemployment
Ø More money causes more spending
Ø More demand à Higher prices à more goods/services
Ø More employment
Thinking like Economist
Economist as a Scientist
Ø Observations aid developing a theory
Ø Economists cannot create own data; they have to use whatever still exists
Role of Assumptions – make things easier to understand by simplifying
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Production Possibilities Frontier
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Show outcome of output produced from factors of production & technology
Displays tradeoffs
Most efficient is right on the curve (D & E)
If linear, business can switch between producing
Micro VS Macro
• Micro – how households & firms interact, within business
• Macro – economy wide, what affects the business
Economist as Policy Advisor
• Positive Statement – describing the world (data)
• Normative Statement – describing how the world should be (opinion)
Graphs
• Positive Correlation – coordinates move together
• Negative Correlation – coordinates move oppositely
Slope
• y/x = slope
• the steeper the demand curve the less demand changes with price change
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Interdependence & Trade Gains
Advantages
Absolute
• comparison according to productivity of producers
• the producer that can produce with less inputs than the other has an absolute advantage
Comparative
• less opportunity cost means comparative advantage
• more important in terms of trade
• specialization increases comparative advantage
• to find opportunity cost divide what you’re losing by what you gain
• lowest opportunity cost is highest comparative advantage
• EX) if you make 10 potatoes and 8 pieces of meat, making one more piece of meat will take away from
potato production
...
25 potatoes are the opportunity cost
Higher production of a product means the opportunity cost of producing more of that product is higher
Market Forces of Supply & Demand
Demand
• Relationship between price (y) & demand (x)
• Price determines demand, high price means low demand
Demand Curve
• High demand is right shift
• Low demand is left shift
Normal Good – high income means high demand (clothing, video games etc)
Inferior Good – high income means low demand (cheap items, bus tickets, bargain food)
Substitutes – 2 competing goods, one’s price rises, the others demand rises
Complement – 2 competing goods, one’s price rises, others demand demand falls (one creates demand for the
other, high gas price, low demand of cars)
Supply
• Relationship between price & quantity supplied
• High supply high price
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Curve
• High supply, right shift
• Low supply, left shift
Supply & Demand
Market Equilibrium – where supply and demands curves intersect (shows equilibrium quantity & price)
Surplus
• more supply than demand
• lower price to fix
• caused by actual market price being higher than equilibrium price
Shortage
• more demand than supply
• raise price to fix
• caused by actual market price being lower than equilibrium price
Along curves MOVEMENTS are changes in quantities, SHIFTS are changes in supply/demand
Elasticity
• responsiveness of demand/supply to a determinant
Price Elasticity of Demand
• how much demand responds to price change
• ((Q2-‐Q1)/(Q2+Q1)/2) / ((P2-‐P1)/(P2+P1)/2)
Determinants
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# of substitutes (more elastic)
Necessities (not as elastic) Luxuries (more elastic)
Narrow Markets are more elastic than broad markets
Longer time horizons mean more elastic demand
Classification
If Elasticity is…
• Less than one, elastic
• More than one, inelastic
• Equal to 1, unit elasticity
• Equal to 0, perfectly inelastic
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Revenue
Total Revenue
• amount paid by buyers & received by sellers
• P x Q sold
• High price causes low demand causing low total revenue
• OR low price causes high demand causing high total revenue
Inelastic Demand – price change is higher than change in demand
Elastic Demand – change in amount demanded is higher than price change
Unit Elastic -‐ demand change in equal to price change, total revenue does not change
Demand Curve
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Linear
The flatter the more elastic it is
Shift to right is more inelastic
Shift to left is more elastic
Income Elasticity of Demand
• How much demand responds to change in income
• % change in demand / % change in income
• Normal goods have positive income elastics
• Inferior goods have negative income elastics
• Necessities have lower income elastics (less responsive)
• Luxuries have higher income elastics (more responsive)
Cross Price Elasticity of Demand
• How much demand responds to price change of other goods
• Substitutes have positive cross price elasticity
• Complements have negative cross price elasticity
• % Change in demand of good 1 / % Change in price of good 2
Elasticity of Supply
• How much quantity supplied responds to price change
Determinants
• Flexibility of sellers (goods that have a fixed supply amount have inelastic supply)
• More inelastic in shorter time periods
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Supply Curves
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The flatter the more elastic
Linear
If elasticity is 0 or perfectly inelastic, vertical line
If supply is perfectly elastic, horizontal line
Elasticity is higher at lower level of supply
Government Policies
Controls On Prices
Price Ceiling
• legal max of price
• if higher than equilibrium it has no effect
• if lower than equilibrium, a shortage happens and there is more demand than supply as price is lower
than it should be
Price Floor
• legal min of price
• if lower than equilibrium, it has no effect
• if higher than equilibrium, a surplus happens because there Is more supply than demand as price is
higher than it should be
Taxes
Tax incidence – how tax is distributed in a market
Taxes on buyers
• taxes on goods decrease demand (because technically price rises)
• Buyers pay more for good and sellers receive less for good
Taxes on Sellers
• Less supply and less sold
• Buyers pay more for good, sellers receive less profit
Elasticity
• Demand elastic & supply inelastic – more tax burden on consumers (buyers have less alternatives)
• Demand inelastic and supply elastic – more tax burden on producers (sellers have less alternatives)
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Costs of Production
Opportunity Costs
• Implicit costs – input costs that aren’t required or opportunity costs
• Explicit costs – input costs that are required (wages, production costs)
Accountants focus on explicit, economists focus on implicit
• Economic Profit = total revenue – total cost (both implicit & explicit)
• Accounting Profit = total revenue – total explicit cost
Production & Costs
Production Function – relationship between inputs used and how much output is made from those inputs
Marginal Product – the amount extra of output made from more input
Diminishing Marginal Product – how much marginal product decreases as input increases
Marginal Product of Labour – change in output / change in labour (higher price, higher wage)
As labour increases, marginal product of labour decreases
Measures of Cost
Total Cost – market value of inputs
• Profit = total revenue – total cost
• Total cost = fixed cost + variable cost
• Fixed cost – costs that stay the same with change in output
• Variable cost – cost that do change with change in output
Average & Marginal Costs
Average Total Cost
• = total cost / # of output
• = average fixed cost + average variable cost
Average Fixed Cost = fixed cost / # of output
Average Variable Cost = variable cost / # of output
Marginal Cost
• Increase in total cost from more production
• Change in total cost / change in output
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Cost Curves
Rising Marginal Cost
• Result of diminishing marginal product
• More output results in more cost of production
Efficient Scale
• how much output decreases average total costs
• marginal cost intersects ATC at minimum/efficient scale
• Marginal cost rises as output rises
• ATV is U shaped
Costs Short or Long run
• Long run average is at minimum of short run average
• This is because the firm has more flexibility in the long run to deal with change
• Long run is more flat than short run
Economies & Diseconomies
• Economies of Scale – long run ATC decreases as a result of increased output
• Diseconomies of Scale – long run ATC increases as a result of increased output
• Constant Return to Scale – long run ATC equals change in output
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Firms in Competitive Markets
Revenue
Average Revenue – total revenue / quantity sold
Marginal Revenue
• Change in revenue from more products sold
• Change in total revenue / change in quantity
Demand Curve is horizontal if price equals Marginal AND Average Revenue
Profit Maximization
• If marginal revenue is higher than marginal costs, then output and price increase
• If marginal revenue is lower than marginal costs, then output decreases and price increases
Profit Maximization is where Marginal Revenue = Marginal Cost
Cost Curves
• Marginal Cost slopes upward
• Marginal Revenue is horizontal at market price average
• Marginal Cost Curve = how much supply at a certain price (supply curve)
Short Run Shut Down
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Still pay fixed costs
Shut down is no outputs
No revenue
Caused by total revenue being lower than variable costs
OR Price is less than AVC
Minimum point of AVC curve is shut down price
Sunk Cost – cost committed that can’t be recovered, no longer opportunity
Exit & Enter
Exit
• No revenue of costs
• Revenue is less than total costs
• Price is less than average total costs
Enter – if Price is greater than Average total costs
Profit = (price – ATC) x Q
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Long Run
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Firms earn profit, attract new firms, supply rises, price lowers, profit lowers
Firms suffer loss, firms exit, supply lowers, price rises, profit rises
Process ends when price = ATC
Consistent price is minimum of ATC
Long Run Supply Curve Sloping Up
• Limited resources cause a higher price and higher ATC
• Firms already in market will have lower costs, firms entering after will have higher costs
• Long run curves are more elastic than short run
Average Revenue = Marginal Revenue = Price
Monopoly
• Sole seller without substitute products
• Caused by barriers to entry
3 sources of Monopoly
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Natural Monopoly
One firms can supply a good at less cost than multiple firms could
Occur with economies of scale
ATC lowers
Marginal cost is lower than ATC
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• Low price, low demand for labour
Labour Demand Curve Shifts
Output Price
• High price, high marginal product of labour, high demand for labour
• Because more value for each worker hired
• Low price, low marginal product of labour, low demand for labour
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• Because lower value for each worker hired
Technological Advance – can either cause less need for labour or more need for labour
Supply of Labour
• leisure is an opportunity cost
• higher wage a higher opportunity cost for losing each hour you could have worked
Labour Supply Curve Shifts
• if curve slopes upwards, it means higher wage makes workers want to work more
• immigration causes more supply
• emigration causes less supply
Equilibrium
• wage is what balances supply and demand
• wage = VMPL for equilibrium
• each firm should have as much labour as is profitable
Shifts in Labour Supply
• high labour = right shift and surplus of labour, which results in low wages, MPL and VMPL
• low labour = left shift, shortage of labour, which results in high wages, MPL and VMPL
Shifts in Labour Demand
• high demand = right shift, shortage, price and MPL rise, causing a rise in VMPL and Wage
• Low Demand = left shift, suplus, price and MPL lower, causing lower VMPL and Wages
Monopsony
• Labour market is dominated by a single employer
• Wages are low
Land & Capital
Capital – equipment needs to produce
Equilibrium
• Purchase is permanent, Rental is limited
• Firms increase labour until Value of Marginal Product = rental price
Capital Income
• Less obvious than labour income
• Rent households get for use of their capital
• Paid depending on VMP
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Formulas
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Title: Microeconomics
Description: Intro course for Microeconomics, typically a first year course focusing on reading graphs, supply & demand, elasticity, costs (short and long run), profit and monopolies.
Description: Intro course for Microeconomics, typically a first year course focusing on reading graphs, supply & demand, elasticity, costs (short and long run), profit and monopolies.