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Content
Slide
Content
2 Physical and Chemical Properties of Matter
28 Acids and Bases
3 States of Matter
29 Kinetic Particle Theory
4 Separation Techniques
30 Kinetic Particle Theory (2)
5 Separation Techniques (2)
31 Phase Diagram
6 Separation Techniques (3)
32 Types of Chemical Reaction
7 Separation Techniques (4)
33 Allotropes of Carbon
8 Introduction to Atoms
34 Atomic Radius
9 Introduction to Atoms (2)
10 Electron Shell
11 Elements, Compounds & Molecules
12 Atomic Orbitals
13 Periodic Table
14 Periodic Table (2)
15 Groups on a Periodic Table
16 Ionic Bonding
17 Ionic Bonding (2)
18 Ionic Compound Properties
19 Polyatomic Ions
20 Covalent Bonding
21 Covalent Bonding (2)
22 Covalent Compound Properties
23 Metallic Bonding and Properties
24 Intermolecular Forces
25 Intermolecular Forces (2)
26 Intermolecular Forces (3)
27 Balancing Chemical Equations
Physical and Chemical Properties of Matter
A matter is anything that has mass and takes up space
...
g
...
g
...
Extensive Properties - Properties of matter that will vary on the amount of matter
...
Solid
Liquid
Definite Volume
Gas
Definite Volume
Definite Shape
No Definite Shape
No Definite Shape
- Diffuses fairly easily, but not as
High Density
No Definite Volume
Incompressible
Low Density
easily as gas
Can diffuse, but millions of
Diffuses Easily
Surface Tension
times slower that diffusion in
liquids
...
Plasma is the most common state of matter in the universe
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Mixtures
A mixture which has
A heterogeneous mixture
- Solid-Liquid Mixture
uniform composition and
is made of different
- Solid-Solid Mixture
properties throughout is a
substances that remain
- Liquid-Liquid Mixture
homogeneous mixture
...
- Liquid from a Solution
Filtration
Filtration is used to separate insoluble solid particles from a liquid
Evaporation to Dryness
Evaporation to dryness is used to obtain a soluble solid from a solution by heating the solution until all the
water has boiled off
...
Separation Techniques (2)
Crystallisation
Crystallisation is used for obtaining a pure solid sample from its solution
...
For
such substances, evaporation to dryness is not a good method of separation and purification
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Magnetic Attraction
A magnet can be used to separate a magnetic substance from a non-magnetic substance
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Distillation is the process of boiling a liquid and condensing the vapour
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Fractional Distillation
Fractional Distillation is used to separate a mixture of miscible liquids with different boiling points
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They mix together completely to form a solution
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Many glass beads in the fractionating column provide a large surface area for vapour to condense on
...
The method is used for separating a
mixture of two liquids will depend on whether the liquids are immiscible or miscible
...
Chromatography
Chromatography is the method of identifying two or more components that dissolve in the same solvent
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Atoms are composed of 3 subatomic particles [Proton, Neutron & Electron]
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The mass of an electron is so light
that we consider it negligible
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This cluster of protons
and neutrons is very small, very dense, and very positively charged
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The electron cloud is the space in
which electrons move within an atom
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The atomic number is the number of protons in the atom’s nucleus
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In other words, no two elements will have the same atomic number
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Isotopes are atoms of the same element but have different numbers of neutrons
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The number on the lower left is the atomic number
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Mass Number = Number of Protons + Number of Neutrons
Atoms are electrically neutral, this can only be said when number of protons = number of neutrons
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Thus, it is no longer called atoms, it is called ions
...
If electrons > protons, ion is negatively charged, the ion is specifically called an anion
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Isotopes and Average Mass
Isotopes are atoms of the same element but have different numbers of neutrons
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Isotopes of Hydrogen
Natural abundance of each isotope respectively is 99
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015%
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015 amu
Electron Shell
Electrons: negatively charged subatomic particles
In actual fact, the electron cloud is a prediction of the area in which the electrons can be found
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Instead we use more of a probability function to sort of find the electron
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Electron Shells can also be called Energy Levels
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In order to move between shells, an
electron must absorb or release an
amount of energy corresponding
exactly to the difference in energy
between the shells
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The electrons in this shell are the ones
that are going to interact with other atoms
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A Compound is composed of two or more different elements that react and bond together in a fixed proportion
...
An Element is a pure substance made up of only one type of atom
N2
H2O
O2
CH4
NaCl
O3
Compound
H2
Molecules
An Mixture is a substance consisting of two or more different types of atoms physically combined together not in
a fixed proportion
...
Misconception: An orbital is the path followed by an electron
Correction: Electrons are not orbiting the nucleus the way a planet orbits the sun
Electron shells can also be known as energy levels
...
They are the s, p, d, f groups
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There are 3 P orbital that contain up to 6 electrons
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There are 7 F orbital that contain up to 14 electrons
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The periodic table is organised in order of increasing atomic number
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The period displays an element’s number of energy levels
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The group displays an element’s number of valence electrons
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Metals are found on the left side of the staircase
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Metals: shiny, good conductors of both heat and electricity, malleable, and ductile
Non-Metals: brittle in their solid form, dull, poor conductors of heat and electricity, and have much lower melting
and boiling points than metals
Some elements have properties of Metals and Non-Metals, which is why they are classified as Metalloids
...
They are lustrous, malleable and good conductors of heat and electricity
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Metals have antibiotic properties, which is why railings and handles in public areas are often made of metal
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Different metals lose different number of electrons
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Alkali Metals are silvery, soft and not very
dense
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Caesium can even melt in the palm of your hand
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As you go down the elements of the alkali metals column, the
ionization energy gets lower
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Alkali Earth Metals gets the name
“Alkaline” because of the basic nature compounds they form when bonded with oxygen
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Noble gases are a group of extremely nonreactive elements that all exist in the gas state
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Inert refers to an element’s
tendency to resist change and reactions
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They are also
monoatomic
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Ionic Bonds are strong chemical bonds
...
For example, Sodium & Chlorine…
Before the bonding, Sodium has one electron sitting in its valence shell while Chlorine is short of one
electron in its valence shell
...
By doing so, Sodium and Chlorine has full
valence shells
...
In that case above, the Sodium becomes a Cation while the Chlorine becomes an Anion
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This results in
Sodium Chloride
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Lattice Energy: the energy released when one mole of an ionic compound is formed
This means when the individual ions come to form the crystal lattice, they need less energy to stay together,
so the excess energy released is called the lattice energy
...
Sodium Chloride as the name suggest, sodium is the cation while chloride is the anion
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When they bond
together, we will add the suffix -ide to the anion name
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For example, from copper(II) sulphate, we can infer that copper that has
charge of +2
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A crystal is made up of an orderly and symmetrical pattern of atoms
called a crystal lattice
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Within the crystal, there are forces between oppositely charged ions and between the nuclei and
electrons of adjacent ions
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When ions of a similar charge are forced together, they will naturally repel each other, thus causing the ionic
crystal to shatter
...
Water molecules are described as being polar
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As a result, water molecules are attracted towards positive and negative ions
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Due to the very strong electrostatic force of attraction that holds the anions and cations together, ionic
compounds are all solids at room temperature
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Do not conduct electricity in the solid form, but do conduct electricity when molten or when
dissolved in water
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They are unable to
move towards the electrode of opposite charge
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Polyatomic Ions
A polyatomic ion is a group of multiple atoms bonded together with a charge
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Covalent Bonding
Covalent Bonds occur when atoms share electrons
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Covalent Bonds occur between non-metals
...
Instead of these dot representation of these electrons, the bond between the atoms is often abbreviated with a
line
...
Oxygen Molecule
Nitrogen Molecule
A dipole results when electrons in a covalent bond are not shared evenly between the two atoms, because of its
difference in electronegativity
...
Elements in Group 7 of the periodic table are
only short of one electron to complete their valence shell
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In covalent bonds, if the pull of electrons between atoms are unequal, we have a polar covalent bond
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Oxygen is more
electronegative than Hydrogen
...
This causes a partial positive charge at the hydrogen atom and a partial negative charge at the oxygen atom
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2
3
For example, name the chemical formula N O
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For the first element start with the element name
...
For the second element, add the suffix-ide
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Use prefixes to show how many atoms of each type there are
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Things to note: Do not use ‘mono’ for the first element
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Low melting and boiling points
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Cannot conduct electricity in any state
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Polar Covalent Compounds can dissolve in polar solvents but not non polar substances
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Covalent Compounds are hard and brittle
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Take any piece
of metal, at atomic level, those metals are sharing a big pool of valence electrons
...
The electrons are free to move away from their atoms of origin
...
This is due to the electrostatic attraction between the cations
and the electrons
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Conduct electricity in solid state
The free moving delocalised electrons are able to carry the charges to conduct electricity
...
Intermolecular Forces
Forces that hold molecules together are called Intermolecular Forces
...
There are 3 types of intermolecular forces
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g
...
Which causes the
oxygen atom to have a partial
negative charge and the carbon
atom to have a partial positive
charge
...
When there are two
polar acetone molecules, each
molecule will have a dipole
moment
...
And that
attraction is going to hold the
molecules together
...
Intermolecular Forces (2)
Hydrogen Bonding (e
...
Water Molecule)
It is the strongest intermolecular force
...
Which causes the oxygen atom to
have a partial negative charge and
the Hydrogen atom to have a partial
positive charge
...
With two water molecules, the
hydrogen atom of the first molecule
attracts the oxygen atom from the
second molecule
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Hydrogen bonding only occurs when the hydrogen atom of a molecule is bonded to a very
electronegative atom from another molecule
...
Compared to the Dipole-Dipole Interaction, the hydrogen bonding has a much stronger
intermolecular force
...
g
...
Molecules that uses London Dispersion Force are
usually non polar due to a very small difference in electronegativity among the atoms
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This is a methane molecule
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This causes a slight negative
charge on the right
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This causes a
slight negative charge on the left
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Balancing Chemical Equations
Let’s take for example Sodium Chloride
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It doesn’t go into details about the
quantities of each atom
...
It
is otherwise known as unbalanced equation
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A balanced equation has the same number of each type of atom on both sides of the equation
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Acids and Bases
The pH scale is a very simplistic way that we could express measurements of the acidity of a
solution
...
Anything higher than pH 7 is considered a
base
...
+
H 2O + H 2O = H 3O + OH
Hydronium Ion
-
Hydroxide Ion
Arrhenius definition
Acids - increases concentration of Hydrogen/Hydrodium ions/protons when in aqueous solution
Bases - increases concentration of Hydroxide ions when in aqueous solution
Bronsted-Lowry definition
Acids - Hydrogen ion/proton donor
Bases - Hydrogen ion/proton acceptor
pH calculations
We know that the pH of a solution is the measure of its hydrogen ion concentration
...
Kinetic Particle Theory
A particle refers to a quantity of matter that is used by scientists to construct theories about their
field of study
...
It mostly depends on the scientific field
and theory under development
...
This means that no matter what phase matter is in, it is made of
separate, moving particles
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The spaces between
molecules are wider as compared to that
of solids
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Particles are bonded together by
The forces of attraction are strong within
large forces, which result in solids
the molecules but weak across molecules
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Molecular Behaviour
Particles only vibrate in its fixed
position
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Molecules are free to move around in the
boundary of the container
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Gas molecules travel at
very high speed and move
in constant random motion
and they will occupy any
space available
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compressible
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The crystalline structure is an orderly, repeating arrangement of particles called a crystal lattice
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The ones that aren't are called amorphous solids
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Examples of amorphous solids include rubber, plastic and glass
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It can be moulded into any shape and remoulded anytime it is warmed up a bit
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Every change has a different
name
...
A Phase Transition is the change of substance from one phase to another where temperature does not
increase
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Phase diagrams are unique to every different substance
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They are the lines on a phase diagram
where two phases are in equilibrium
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One
shows the equilibrium point between liquid and gas
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The three phase equilibrium lines meet at a one point
...
At the critical point, the gas and liquid states of a liquid are identical and the substance is in one phase
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This is a state where the gas and liquid phase
of a substance are indistinguishable
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CH 4 + O 2 —> CO2 + H2O
C2H5OH + O2 —> CO2 + H2O
C x H y (Oz ) + O 2 —> CO 2 + H2O
(O z ) - presence of oxygen depends
Allotropes of Carbon
When a pure element can exist in different forms and exhibit different properties, those different forms of
that element are known as allotropes
...
Graphite
Diamond
Each carbon atom is bonded to 3 other carbon atoms, leaving a remaining electron lost as a
delocalised electron
...
Graphite have layers of extensive networks consisting of carbon atoms arranged in hexagonal
shapes with delocalised electrons moving around
...
Graphite is soft and slippery because the layers of carbon atoms are held together by weak van
der Waals’ forces
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This form a tetrahedral structure
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Diamond cannot conduct electricity in any state because there are no free moving electrons or
ions to carry charges to conduct electricity
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Buckminsterfullerene
Carbon is arranged in a three-dimensional shape similar to a soccer ball
...
Buckminsterfullerene
also known as Buckyballs, were discovered by scientists in the 1980s and were given their
name after scientist and architect Richard Buckminster Fuller, who first explored the geometric
structure that buckyballs exhibit
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As elements go from left to right across the period, atomic radius decreases
...
Ionic Radii
Atoms become ions by either gaining or losing electrons
...
For
example, fluoride (F-) is going to be larger than fluorine (F)
...
So sodium ion (Na+) is going to be smaller than sodium (Na)