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Environmental Studies For Undergraduate Courses
Erach Bharucha
CORE MODULE SYLLABUS FOR ENVIRONMENTAL STUDIES
FOR UNDER GRADUATE COURSES OF ALL BRANCHES
OF HIGHER EDUCATION
Vision
The importance of environmental science and environmental studies cannot be
disputed
...
Continuing problems of pollution, loss of forget, solid waste disposal, degradation of
environment, issues like economic productivity and national security, Global warming,
the depletion of ozone layer and loss of biodiversity have made everyone aware of
environmental issues
...
It is clear that no citizen of the earth can
afford to be ignorant of environment issues
...
Managing environmental hazards has become very
important
...
Even our ancient scriptures have emphasized about practices and values of environmental
conservation
...
India is rich in biodiversity which provides various resources for people
...
Only about 1
...
Still manay more remain to be identified and described
...
Intellectual property rights (IPRs) have
become importanat in a biodiversity-rich country like India to protect microbes, plants
and animals that have useful genetic properties
...
It is feared that a large proportion of life on earth
may get wiped out in the near future
...
Recognizing this, the
Hon’ble Supreme Court directed the UGC to introduce a basic course on environment at
every level in college education
...
The experts committee appointed by the UGC has looked into all the pertinent
questions, issues and other relevant matters
...
We are deeply conscious that there are bound to be gaps between the
ideal and real
...
The success of this course will depend on the initiative and drive of the
teachers and the receptive students
...
II
Unit 2 : Natural Resources :
Renewable and non-renewable resources :
Natural resources and associated problems
...
Timber extraction, mining, dams and their effects on forest and tribal people
...
c)
Mineral resources : Use and exploitation, environmental effects of extracting
and using mineral resources, case studies
...
e)
Energy resources : Growing energy needs, renewable and non renewable
energy sources, use of alternate energy sources
...
f)
Land resources : Land as a resource, land degradation, man induced
landslides, soil erosion and desertification
...
•
Equitable use of resoureces for sustainable lifestyles
...
III
•
Structure and function of an ecosystem
...
•
Energy flow in the ecosystem
...
•
Food chains, food webs and ecological pyramids
...
Forest ecosystem
b
...
Desert ecosystem
d
...
•
Biogeographical classification of India
•
Value of biodiversity : consumptive use, productive use, social, ethical, aesthetic
and option values
•
Biodiversity at global, National and local levels
...
•
Threats to biodiversity : habitat loss, poaching of wildlife, man-wildlife conflicts
...
(8 lectures)
Unit 5 : Environmental Pollution
Definition
•
Cause, effects and control measures of :a
...
Water pollution
c
...
Marine pollution
e
...
Thermal pollution
g
...
•
Role of an individual in prevention of pollution
...
•
Diaster management : floods, earthquake, cyclone and landslides
...
Case
Studies
•
Environmental ethics : Issues and possible solutions
...
Case Studies
...
•
Consumerism and waste products
...
•
Air (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act
...
•
Public awareness
...
•
Population explosion – Family Welfare Programme
...
•
Human Rights
...
•
HIV/AIDS
...
•
Role of Information Technology in Environment and human health
...
(6 lectures)
Unit 8 : Field work
•
Visit to a local area to document environmental assetsriver/forest/grassland/hill/mountain
•
Visit to a local polluted site-Urban/Rural/Industrial/Agricultural
•
Study of common plants, insects, birds
...
(Field work Equal to 5
lecture hours)
VII
SIX MONTHS COMPULSORY CORE MODULE COURSE IN
ENVIRONMENTAL STUDIES : FOR UNDERGRADUATES
Teaching Methodologies
The core Moudle Syllabus for Environment Studies includes class room teaching
and Field Work
...
The first
seven units will cover 45 lectures which are class room based to enhance knowledge
skills and attitute to environment
...
Field experience is one of the most effective learning tools
for environmental concerns
...
Field studies are as essential as class work and form an irreplaceable synergistic tool in
the entire learning process
...
The universities/colleges can also draw upon expertise of outside resource persons
for teaching purpose
...
Annual System :
The duration of the course will be 50 lectures
...
VIII
Semester System : The Environment course of 50 lectures will be conducted in the
second semester and the examination shall be conducted at the end of the second
semester
...
Exam Pattern :
In case of awarding the marks, the question paper should
carry 100 marks
...
C
...
Ltd
...
b)
Bharucha Erach, The Biodiversity of India, Mapin Publishing Pvt
...
,
Ahmedabad – 380 013, India, Email:mapin@icenet
...
C
...
480p
d)
Clark R
...
, Marine Pollution, Clanderson Press Oxford (TB)
e)
Cunningham, W
...
Cooper, T
...
Gorhani, E & Hepworth, M
...
2001,
Environmental Encyclopedia, Jaico Publ
...
K
...
g)
Down to Earth, Centre for Science and Environment (R)
h)
Gleick, H
...
1993
...
,
Environment & Security
...
Institute Oxford Univ
...
473p
i)
Hawkins R
...
, Encyclopedia of Indian Natural History, Bombay Natural
History Society, Bombay (R)
j)
Heywood, V
...
T
...
Global Biodiversity Assessment
...
Press 1140p
...
M
...
Environmental Protection and Laws
...
House, Delhi 284 p
...
L
...
M
...
Environmental Science systems &
Solutions, Web enhanced edition
...
m)
Mhaskar A
...
, Matter Hazardous, Techno-Science Publication (TB)
n)
Miller T
...
Jr
...
(TB)
o)
Odum, E
...
1971
...
W
...
Saunders Co
...
& Datta, A
...
1987
...
Oxford & IBH Publ
...
Pvt
...
345p
...
K
...
Environmental Chemistry
...
House, Meerut
r)
Survey of the Environment, The Hindu (M)
s)
Townsend C
...
K
...
K
...
K
...
D
...
W
...
Saunders Co
...
Prof
...
Prof
...
Manoharachary
Department of Botany
Osmania University
Hyderabad
3
...
S
...
Prof
...
C
...
Of Environment Science
Gauhati University
Guwahati-781 014
5
...
Mehta
Director EE Division
Ministry of Environment & Forest
Prayavaran Bhawan, CGO Complex
Lodhi Road, New Delhi-110 003
UGC OFFICIALS
6
...
N
...
Jain
Joint Secretary
UGC, New Delhi
XII
Textbook for
Environmental Studies
For Undergraduate Courses
of all Branches of Higher Education
Erach Bharucha
for
University Grants Commission
Natural Resources
Preliminary Pages
...
Photographs – Erach Bharucha
Drawings – Bharati Vidyapeeth Institute of Environment Education and Research
All rights reserved
...
2004
...
p65
2
4/9/2004, 5:06 PM
Vision
The importance of Environmental Studies cannot be disputed
...
The degradation of our environment is linked to continuing
problems of pollution, loss of forest, solid waste disposal, issues related to economic productivity
and national as well as ecological security
...
The United Nations Conference on Environment and Development held in Rio
De Janero in 1992, and the World Summit on Sustainable Development at Zoharbex in 2002 have
drawn the attention of people around the globe to the developing condition of our environment
...
Environmental
management has become a part of the health care sector
...
Human beings have been interested in ecology since the beginning of civilization
...
It is now
even more critical than ever before for mankind as a whole to have a clear understanding of
environmental concerns and to follow sustainable development practices
...
It is also the basis for biotechnological development
...
8 million living organisms have been described and named
globally
...
Attempts are made to conserve
them in ex-situ and in-situ situation
...
Destruction of habitats, over use of energy resources and environmental pollution have
been found to be responsible for the loss of a large number of life forms
...
In spite of the developing status of the environment, the formal study of environment has so far not
received adequate attention in our academic performances
...
Accordingly the matter was considered by the UGC and it was decided that a six months compulsory core module course in environmental studies may be prepared and compulsorily implemented
in all the Universities/ Colleges in India
...
This was followed by framing of the Core Module Syllabus for Environmental Studies for undergraduate courses of all branches of Higher Education
...
The Committee has attempted to minimize the gaps by intellectual and material inputs
...
Members of the Curriculum Development Committee
Natural Resources
Preliminary Pages
...
Prof
...
Prof
...
Prof
...
Prof
...
Shri R Mehta
Director EE Division
Ministry of Environment and Forests,
Paryavaran Bhavan, CGO Complex,
Lodhi Road, New Delhi – 110 003
UGC Officials
6
...
NK Jain
Joint Secretary,
UGC, New Delhi
Environmental Studies for Undergraduate Courses
iv
Preliminary Pages
...
The syllabus is divided into eight units covering 50 lectures
...
Unit eight is based on field activities and would be covered over five lecture hours and would
provide students with first hand knowledge on various local environmental aspects
...
This moves out of the
scope of the textbook mode of teaching, into the realm of real learning in the field, where the
teacher acts as a catalyst to interpret what the student observes or discovers in his/her own environment
...
The course material provided by UGC for class room teaching and field activities should be utilised
...
The Environmental Core Module shall be integrated into the teaching programs of all undergraduate courses
...
The exam will be conducted along
with the Annual Examination
...
Credit System: The core course will be awarded 4 credits
Exam Pattern: In case of awarding the marks the question paper should carry 100 marks
...
p65
v
5
4/9/2004, 5:06 PM
Further Readings
1
...
Environmental Biology, Nidi Publishers Ltd
...
2
...
The Biodiversity of India, Mapin Publishing Pvt
...
Email: mapin@icenet
...
Brunner RC, 1989, Hazardous Waste Incineration, McGraw Hill Inc
...
4
...
5
...
Environmental Encyclopaedia,
Jaico Publishing House, Mumbai, 1196pgs
...
De AK, Environmental Chemistry, Wiley Eastern Ltd
...
Down to Earth, Center for Science and Environment (R)
8
...
Water in Crisis, Pacific Institute for Studies in Development, Environment and
Security
...
9
...
Heywood VH, and Watson RT, 1995
...
Cambridge University
Press 1140pgs
...
Jadhav H and Bhosale VM, 1995
...
Himalaya Publishing
House, Delhi 284pgs
...
Mckinney ML and Schoch RM, 1996
...
Web enhanced edition, 639pgs
...
Mhaskar AK, Matter Hazardous, Techno-Science Publications (TB)
14
...
Environmental Science, Wadsworth Publishing CO
...
Odum EP, 1971
...
WB Saunders Co
...
16
...
Waste Water Treatment
...
Pvt
...
345pgs
...
p65
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4/9/2004, 5:06 PM
Contents
PREFACE
xiii
FOREWORD
xv
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
xvi
UNIT 1: THE MULTIDISCIPLINARY NATURE OF ENVIRONMENTAL
STUDIES
1
...
1
...
1
...
1
...
2
3
3
3
5
NEED FOR PUBLIC AWARENESS
1
...
1 Institutions in Environment
1
...
2 People in Environment
8
9
12
UNIT 2: NATURAL RESOURCES
2
...
2 RENEWABLE AND NON-RENEWABLE RESOURCES
2
...
1 Natural resources and associated problems
2
...
2 Non-renewable resources
2
...
3 Renewable resources
a
...
Timber extraction, mining, dams and their effects on forests and tribal people
b
...
c
...
d
...
Energy Resources: Increasing energy needs, Renewable/ non renewable,
Use of Alternate energy sources, Case studies
f
...
20
20
22
22
23
Natural Resources
vii
Preliminary Pages
...
3 ROLE OF AN INDIVIDUAL IN CONSERVATION OF NATURAL RESOURCES
50
2
...
1 Concept of an ecosystem
3
...
1 Understanding ecosystems
3
...
2 Ecosystem degradation
3
...
3 Resource utilisation
54
55
55
56
3
...
3 Producers, consumers and decomposers
57
3
...
4
...
4
...
4
...
4
...
4
...
4
...
5 Ecological succession
62
3
...
6
...
6
...
6
...
7 Introduction, Types, Characteristic features, Structure and functions
3
...
1 Forest ecosystem
3
...
2 Grassland ecosystem
3
...
3 Desert ecosystem
3
...
4 Aquatic ecosystems (ponds, lakes, streams, rivers, estuaries, oceans)
63
65
70
74
75
UNIT 4: BIODIVERSITY AND ITS CONSERVATION
4
...
1
...
1
...
1
...
2 BIOGEOGRAPHIC CLASSIFICATION OF INDIA
84
Environmental Studies for Undergraduate Courses
viii
Preliminary Pages
...
3 VALUE OF BIODIVERSITY: CONSUMPTIVE, PRODUCTIVE USE, SOCIAL, ETHICAL,
AESTHETIC AND OPTION VALUES
4
...
1Consumptive value
4
...
2 Productive value
4
...
3 Social value
4
...
4 Ethical value
4
...
5 Aesthetic value
4
...
6 Option value
84
85
86
86
88
88
88
4
...
5 INDIA AS A MEGA DIVERSITY NATION
89
4
...
7 THREATS TO BIODIVERSITY: HABITAT LOSS, POACHING OF WILDLIFE,
MAN-WILDLIFE CONFLICTS
91
4
...
8
...
8
...
9 CONSERVATION OF BIODIVERSITY: IN-SITU AND EX-SITU
4
...
1 In-situ conservation
4
...
2 Ex-situ conservation
104
104
108
UNIT 5: ENVIRONMENTAL POLLUTION
5
...
2 CAUSES, EFFECTS AND CONTROL MEASURES OF:
113
5
...
1 Air Pollution
113
5
...
2 Water Pollution
123
5
...
3 Soil Pollution
131
5
...
4 Marine Pollution
135
5
...
5 Noise Pollution
140
5
...
6 Thermal Pollution
142
5
...
7 Nuclear hazards
143
5
...
4 ROLE OF INDIVIDUALS IN POLLUTION PREVENTION
150
Natural Resources
Preliminary Pages
...
5 POLLUTION CASE STUDIES
153
5
...
1 FROM UNSUSTAINABLE TO SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT
165
6
...
3 WATER CONSERVATION, RAIN WATER HARVESTING, WATERSHED
MANAGEMENT
6
...
1 Water conservation
6
...
2 Rain water harvesting
6
...
3 Watershed management
168
168
170
171
6
...
CASE STUDIES
172
6
...
5
...
5
...
5
...
5
...
5
...
5
...
5
...
5
...
6 CLIMATE CHANGE, GLOBAL WARMING, ACID RAIN, OZONE LAYER DEPLETION,
NUCLEAR ACCIDENTS AND NUCLEAR HOLOCAUST
...
6
...
6
...
6
...
6
...
6
...
7 WASTELAND RECLAMATION
187
6
...
9 ENVIRONMENT PROTECTION ACT
193
6
...
11 WATER (PREVENTION AND CONTROL OF POLLUTION) ACT
196
Environmental Studies for Undergraduate Courses
x
Preliminary Pages
...
12 WILDLIFE PROTECTION ACT
197
6
...
14 ISSUES INVOLVED IN ENFORCEMENT OF ENVIRONMENTAL LEGISLATION
6
...
1Environment Impact Assessment (EIA)
6
...
2 Citizens actions and action groups
201
201
202
6
...
15
...
15
...
1 POPULATION GROWTH, VARIATION AMONG NATIONS
7
...
1 Global population growth
214
214
7
...
2
...
1
...
3 ENVIRONMENTAL AND HUMAN HEALTH
7
...
1 Environmental health
7
...
2 Climate and health
7
...
3 Infectious diseases
7
...
4 Water-related diseases
7
...
5 Risks due to chemicals in food
7
...
6 Cancer and environment
220
221
223
224
227
231
232
7
...
4
...
4
...
4
...
5 VALUE EDUCATION
7
...
1 Environmental Values
7
...
2 Valuing Nature
7
...
3 Valuing cultures
7
...
4 Social justice
7
...
5 Human heritage
7
...
6 Equitable use of Resources
7
...
7 Common Property Resources
7
...
8 Ecological degradation
236
237
240
241
241
242
242
242
242
7
...
p65
xi
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7
...
8 ROLE OF INFORMATION TECHNOLOGY IN ENVIRONMENT AND HUMAN HEALTH 247
UNIT 8: FIELD WORK
8
...
2 VISIT TO A LOCAL POLLUTED SITE
262
8
...
4 STUDY OF SIMPLE ECOSYSTEMS
270
Environmental Studies for Undergraduate Courses
xii
Preliminary Pages
...
This has undoubtedly been accelerated
by the judgement of the Honorable Supreme Court of India that Environmental Education must
form a compulsory core issue at every stage in our education processes
...
The author is currently constantly asked to provide inputs to ‘environmentalise’ textbooks and provide inputs at NCERT, SCERTs
and at the UGC level to further the cause of formal environment education
...
This rush job invites comments
from just about everyone who wishes to contribute towards its improvement in the coming years
...
It must change with the changing times which
inevitably changes our environment
...
Every one of us is constantly doing something to our
environment and it is frequently a result of an act that we can hardly ever reverse
...
This textbook is written to bring about an awareness of a variety of environmental concerns
...
But a textbook can hardly be expected to achieve a total behavioral
change in society
...
If every
college student is exposed to the wonders of the Indian wilderness, a new ethic towards conservation will emerge
...
Natural Resources
Preliminary Pages
...
p65
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Foreword
Natural Resources
Preliminary Pages
...
For me the wilderness is a throbbing, living place – the home of the goddess of nature, which is none other than Mother Earth
...
This textbook came about from my having been included in a Committee selected by the UGC to
develop a practical and ‘do-able’ syllabus as a Core Module for Environmental Studies for all undergraduate courses
...
While hoping
only to sensitize young people to our environment, it has also to be as comprehensive as feasible
...
C Manoharachary, Prof
...
DC Goswami, Shri R Mehta
and Dr
...
All the inputs the Committee made during these deliberations have found a place in the current textbook
...
I have no words to thank the Chairman of the UGC, Dr
...
He has always been as inspiration for me
...
(Mrs
...
This was further carried out due to the
enthusiasm and constant support of Dr
...
I cannot thank them
enough for their cooperation and many kind gestures
...
Shamita Kumar wrote the chapter on pollution, which she has painstakingly developed to suit the needs of undergraduate students from different faculties
...
Shambhavi Joshi helped
me to frame the final chapter on fieldwork
...
Prasanna also dug up
several case studies included in the book
...
Without them the textbook
would have been yet another drab textbook
...
He has spent many
painful hours going over the text with a fine tooth English comb
...
Finally, for the one person who has
put all her heart and soul into this book, working long hours, and cheerfully making the constant
changes I demanded
...
Behafrid Patel
...
Without her it could not have been produced in this
brief span of time
...
p65
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UNIT 1:
The Multidisciplinary Nature of
Environmental Studies
1
...
1
...
1
...
1
...
2
DEFINITION, SCOPE AND IMPORTANCE
Importance
5
NEED FOR PUBLIC AWARENESS
8
1
...
1
Institutions in Environment
9
1
...
2
People in Environment
12
This course on the environment is unlike any other
...
It is about the way we all
should live
...
When you develop
this concern, you will begin to act at your own level to protect the
environment we all live in
...
The Multidisciplinary Nature of Environmental Studies
Chapter1
...
It stresses on a balanced view of
issues that affect our daily lives
...
Unlike most other textbooks, it not only makes the reader better
informed on these concerns, but is expected to lead him or her towards positive
action to improve the environment
...
Firstly is the
need for information that clarifies modern environmental concepts such as
the need to conserve biodiversity, the need to lead more sustainable lifestyles
and the need to use resources more equitably
...
Thirdly there is the need to create a
concern for our environment that will trigger pro-environmental action,
including activities we can do in our daily life to protect it
...
p65
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4/9/2004, 5:07 PM
1
...
1
...
It is essentially a
multidisciplinary approach that brings about an
appreciation of our natural world and human
impacts on its integrity
...
Its components include biology, geology, chemistry, physics, engineering, sociology, health,
anthropology, economics, statistics, computers
and philosophy
...
1
...
Most of us live in landscapes that have
been heavily modified by human beings, in villages, towns or cities
...
Thus
our daily lives are linked with our surroundings
and inevitably affects them
...
We
breathe air, we use resources from which food
is made and we depend on the community of
living plants and animals which form a web of
life, of which we are also a part
...
Our dependence on nature is so great that we
cannot continue to live without protecting the
earth’s environmental resources
...
This has led to many cultural practices that helped traditional societies protect and
preserve their natural resources
...
All our traditions are based on these values
...
Over the past 200 years however, modern societies began to believe that easy answers to the
question of producing more resources could be
provided by means of technological innovations
...
The industrial development and intensive agriculture that provides the goods for our increasingly consumer oriented society uses up large
amounts of natural resources such as water,
minerals, petroleum products, wood, etc
...
Renew-
The Multidisciplinary Nature of Environmental Studies
Chapter1
...
But these too will be depleted if we continue to use them faster than nature can replace them
...
And loss of forest cover
not only depletes the forest of its resources, such
as timber and other non-wood products, but
affect our water resources because an intact
natural forest acts like a sponge which holds
water and releases it slowly
...
Such multiple effects on the environment resulting from routine human activities must be
appreciated by each one of us, if it is to provide
us with the resources we need in the long-term
...
If we use it rapidly, the capital
will be reduced to zero
...
This is called sustainable
utilisation or development
...
Unsustainable utilization can
result from overuse of resources, because of
population increase, and because many of us
are using more resources than we really need
...
Thus, for all our actions to be
environmentally positive we need to look from
a new perspective at how we use resources
...
We, each one of us, must
become increasingly concerned about our envi-
Who uses it most intensively and how?
How is it being overused or misused?
Who is responsible for its improper use –
the resource collector, the middleman, the
end user?
•
How can we help to conserve it and prevent its unsustainable use?
Activity 2:
Try to answer the questions above for one
of the components in the article you chose
in Activity 1
...
p65
•
•
Take any article that you use in daily life –
a bucket full of water, or an item of food, a
table, or a book
...
How many of these components are renewable resources and how
many non-renewable?
What is the rarity of the resource and where
does it originate?
•
Activity 1:
•
4
4/9/2004, 5:07 PM
•
Are you using
unsustainably?
that
resource
•
In what ways could you reduce, reuse
and recycle that resource?
•
Is there an unequal distribution of this
resource so that you are more fortunate
than many others who have less access
to it?
each of us uses also increases, the earth’s resource base must inevitably shrink
...
Added to this is
misuse of resources
...
Manufacturing processes create solid waste
byproducts that are discarded, as well as chemicals that flow out as liquid waste and pollute
water, and gases that pollute the air
...
These accumulate in our environment, leading to a variety of diseases and other
adverse environmental impacts now seriously affecting all our lives
...
Once we begin to ask these questions of ourselves, we will begin to live lifestyles that are
more sustainable and will support our environment
...
1
...
It is an integration of several subjects that include both
Science and Social Studies
...
Thus the scope of environmental studies is extremely wide and covers
some aspects of nearly every major discipline
...
Water, air, soil, minerals, oil, the
products we get from forests, grasslands, oceans
and from agriculture and livestock, are all a part
of our life support systems
...
As we keep increasing in numbers and the quantity of resources
Improving this situation will only happen if each
of us begins to take actions in our daily lives
that will help preserve our environmental resources
...
We need to do it ourselves
...
The Multidisciplinary Nature of Environmental Studies
Chapter1
...
List these activities and identify the
main resources used during these activities
...
How could you reduce
their use?
Activity 4: Exercises in self learning about
the environment
Attempt to assess the level of damage to
the environment due to your actions that
have occurred during your last working day,
the last week, the last year
...
Use the following examples for the above exercise:
Example – Plastic: Plastic bags, plastic ball pens
Think about all the articles you use daily that
are made from plastic
...
When we leave a motorbike or car running during a traffic stop, we do not usually remember
that the fuel we are wasting is a part of a nonrenewable resource that the earth cannot reform
...
Only if each of us contributes our part in conserving fossil based energy can we make it last
longer on earth
...
How can you reduce the amount of plastic you
use?
Do you feel you should change the way you use
water? How can you change this so that it is
more sustainable?
What effects does plastic have on our environment?
Example – Food:
Where did the plastic come from/ how is it
made?
Environmental Studies for Undergraduate Courses
6
Chapter1
...
Thus the urgent need to protect all living species is a concept that we need to understand
and act upon
...
There is a close link between agriculture and the forest, which illustrates its productive value
...
Their life cycles however frequently require
intact forests
...
These are the raw
materials that are used for developing new
medicines and industrial products and are a
storehouse from which to develop thousands
of new products in the future
...
If we degrade
their habitat these species will become extinct
...
Once they are lost, man cannot bring them back
...
This
is created by developing National Parks and
Wildlife Sanctuaries in relatively undisturbed
areas
...
It brings about an understanding of
the oneness of nature and the fact that we are
entirely dependent upon the intricate functioning of ecosystems
...
One can appreciate the magnificence of a mountain, the power of the sea, the beauty of a forest, and the vast expanse of the desert
...
It has also
inspired artists to develop visual arts and writers and poets to create their works that vitalize
our lives
...
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A wilderness experience has exceptional recreational value
...
These recreational
facilities not only provide a pleasurable experience but are intended to create a deep respect
and love for nature
...
In an urban setting, green spaces and gardens
are vital to the pschycological and physical health
of city dwellers
...
Thus urban environmental planners must ensure that these facilities are created in growing urban complexes
...
These have got
great value in sensitizing school students to wildlife
...
In the absence of access to a Protected Area, a
botanical garden or a zoo, one concept that can
be developed is to create small nature awareness areas with interpretation facilities at district and taluka levels
...
Such
nature trails are invaluable assets for creating
conservation education and awareness
...
This
would bring home to the visitor the importance
of protecting our dwindling wilderness areas
...
Thus if we use up all our resources, kill off
and let species of plants and animals become
extinct on earth, pollute our air and water, degrade land, and create enormous quantities of
waste, we as a generation will leave nothing
for future generations
...
however, nature
provides us with various options on how we
utilize its goods and services
...
We can use up goods and services greedily
and destroy its integrity and long term values,
or we can use its resources sustainably and reduce our impacts on the environment
...
1
...
We
often feel that managing all this is
something that the Government
should do
...
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way in which the Government can perform all
these clean-up functions
...
Just as for any disease, prevention is better than cure
...
Individually we can play a major
role in environment management
...
This can only be made possible through mass
public awareness
...
However, someone has to bring this
about
...
Politicians in a democracy always
respond positively to a strong publicly supported
movement
...
We are living on spaceship earth with a
limited supply of resources
...
Suggested further activities for concerned students:
•
Join a group to study nature, such as WWFI or BNHS, or another environmental group
...
that will tell you more about our
environment
...
•
Lobby for conserving resources by taking
up the cause of environmental issues during discussions with friends and relatives
...
•
Join local movements that support activities such as saving trees in your area, go on
nature treks, recycle waste, buy environmentally friendly products
...
•
Take part in events organised on World
Environment Day, Wildlife Week, etc
...
1
...
1 Institutions in Environment
There have been several Government and Nongovernment organizations that have led to environmental protection in our country
...
The traditional conservation practices
that were part of ancient India’s culture have
however gradually disappeared
...
Among the large number of
institutions that deal with environmental protection and conservation, a few well-known
organizations include government organisations
such as the BSI and ZSI, and NGOs such as BNHS,
WWF-I, etc
...
It grew from a group of
The Multidisciplinary Nature of Environmental Studies
Chapter1
...
The influence on wildlife policy building, research, popular publications and peoples
action have been unique features of the multifaceted society
...
It is India’s oldest conservation research based
NGO and one that has acted at the forefront of
the battle for species and ecosystems
...
Its other publications include the
Salim Ali Handbook on birds, JC Daniel’s book
of Indian Reptiles, SH Prater’s book of Indian
Mammals and PV Bole’s book of Indian Trees
...
Salim Ali
whose ornithological work on the birds of the
Indian subcontinent is world famous
...
World Wide Fund for Nature (WWF-I), New
Delhi: The WWF-I was initiated in 1969 in
Mumbai after which the headquarters were
shifted to Delhi with several branch offices all
over India
...
It runs several programs including the Nature Clubs of India program for school children and works as a
think tank and lobby force for environment and
development issues
...
It published a major document on
the ‘State of India’s Environment’, the first of
its kind to be produced as a Citizen’s Report on
the Environment
...
It conducts a variety of programs to spread
environmental awareness and creates an interest in conservation among the general public
...
Its
programs include components on wildlife and
biodiversity issues
...
Centre for Environment Education (CEE),
Ahmedabad: The Centre for Environment Education, Ahmedabad was initiated in 1989
...
CEE’s Training in Environment Education {TEE}
program has trained many environment educators
...
The Institute has a PhD, a
Masters and Bachelors program in Environmental Sciences
...
It implements a large outreach programme
that has covered over 135 schools in which it
trains teachers and conducts fortnightly Environment Education Programs
...
It develops low cost Interpretation
Centres for Natural and Architectural sites that
are highly locale specific as well as a large
amount of innovative environment educational
Environmental Studies for Undergraduate Courses
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Chapter1
...
It is involved
in the publication of material in the form of
books, posters, video films and also conducts
workshops and seminars on biodiversity related
issues
...
Its unique
feature is that it conducts environment education from primary school level to the postgraduate level
...
It has developed a teacher’s handbook
linked to school curriculum, a textbook for UGC
for its undergraduate course on environment
...
Uttarkhand Seva Nidhi (UKSN), Almora: The
Organisation is a Nodal Agency which supports
NGOs in need of funds for their environment
related activities
...
The main targets are linked with sustainable resource use at the village level through
training school children
...
Kalpavriksh, Pune: This NGO, initially Delhi
based, is now working from Pune and is active
in several other parts of India
...
Its activities include talks and audio-visuals in schools and
colleges, nature walks and outstation camps,
organising student participation in ongoing campaigns including street demonstrations, pushing for consumer awareness regarding organic
food, press statements, handling green alerts,
and meetings with the city’s administrators
...
Kalpavriksh was responsible for developing
India’s National Biodiversity Strategy and Action
Plan in 2003
...
Salim Ali’s dream that became a
reality only after his demise
...
Initially conceived as
being a wing of the Bombay Natural History
Society (BNHS) it later evolved as an independent organisation based at Coimbatore in 1990
...
Wildlife Institute of India (WII), Dehradun:
This Institution was established in 1982, as a
major training establishment for Forest Officials
and Research in Wildlife Management
...
The organisation
has over the years added an enormous amount
of information on India’s biological wealth
...
Its M
...
Program has trained excellent wildlife
scientists
...
It trains personnel in
ecodevelopment, wildlife biology, habitat management and Nature interpretation
...
However it closed down for several years after 1939
and was reopened in 1954
...
By 1955 the BSI had its headquarters in Calcutta with Circle Offices at
Coimbatore, Shillong, Pune and Dehra Dun
...
The BSI currently has nine regional
centres
...
The Multidisciplinary Nature of Environmental Studies
Chapter1
...
Its mandate was to do a
systematic survey of fauna in India
...
Its origins were collections based at
the Indian Museum at Calcutta, which was established in 1875
...
Today it
has over a million specimens! This makes it one
of the largest collections in Asia
...
It currently operates from 16 regional
centers
...
He designed the early
policies on wilderness conservation and wildlife
management
...
She wrote a wellknown book called ‘Silent Spring’ which eventually led to a change in Government policy and
public awareness
...
He wrote ‘Diversity of Life’ in 1993, which was awarded a
prize for the best book published on environmental issues
...
1
...
2 People in Environment
There have been a number of individuals who
have been instrumental in shaping the environmental history in our country
...
Salim
Ali’s name is synonymous with ornithology in
India and with the Bombay Natural History Society (BNHS)
...
His
autobiography, ‘Fall of a Sparrow’ should be
read by every nature enthusiast
...
Indira Gandhi as PM has
played a highly significant role in the preservation of India’s wildlife
...
India gained a name for itself by being a major
player in CITES and other International Environmental Treaties and Accords during her tenure
...
There are several internationally known environmental thinkers
...
Each of these thinkers
looked at the environment from a completely
different perspective
...
It brought about a new thinking of man’s
relationship with other species that was based
on evolution
...
Ralph Emerson
spoke of the dangers of commerce to our environment way back in the 1840s
...
He felt that most people did not
care for nature and would sell it off for a small
sum of money
...
In the 1890s he formed the
Sierra club, which is a major conservation NGO
in the USA
...
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S P Godrej was one of India’s greatest supporters of wildlife conservation and nature awareness programs
...
He was awarded the Padma Bhushan
in 1999
...
M S Swaminathan is
one of India’s foremost agricultural scientists and
has also been concerned with various aspects
of biodiversity conservation both of cultivars and
wild biodiversity
...
Madhav Gadgil is a wellknown ecologist in India
...
He has written
several articles, published papers in journals and
is the author of 6 books
...
Since 1984, he has filed several Public
Interest Litigations for supporting the cause of
environmental conservation
...
Anil Agarwal was a journalist who wrote the first report on the ‘State
of India’s Environment’ in 1982
...
Medha Patkar is known as one
of India’s champions who has supported the
cause of downtrodden tribal people whose environment is being affected by the dams on the
Narmada river
...
His fight to prevent the construction of the Tehri
Dam in a fragile earthquake prone setting is a
battle that he continues to wage
...
The Multidisciplinary Nature of Environmental Studies
Chapter1
...
1 INTRODUCTION
16
2
...
2
...
2
...
2
...
Forest Resources: Use and over-exploitation, deforestation, case studies
...
Water Resources: Use and over-utilisation of surface and ground water,
floods, drought, conflicts over water, dams – benefits and problems
...
30
Mineral Resources: Use and exploitation, environmental effects of extracting
and using mineral resources, case studies
...
Food Resources: World food problems, Changes in landuse by agriculture and
grazing, Effects of modern agriculture, Fertilizer/ pesticide problems,
Water logging and salinity
32
e
...
48
Land resources: Land as a resource, land degradation, man-induced land-slides,
soil erosion and desertification
...
3 ROLE OF AN INDIVIDUAL IN CONSERVATION OF NATURAL RESOURCES
2
...
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2
...
These natural resources include, air, water, soil, minerals, along with the climate and
solar energy, which form the non-living or ‘abiotic’ part of nature
...
Plants and animals can only survive as communities of different organisms, all
closely linked to each in their own habitat, and
requiring specific abiotic conditions
...
Interactions between the abiotic
aspects of nature and specific living organisms
together form ecosystems of various types
...
Others are linked to our food
less directly, such as pollinators and dispersers
of plants, soil animals like worms, which recycle
nutrients for plant growth, and fungi and termites that break up dead plant material so that
micro-organisms can act on the detritus to reform soil nutrients
...
As our ability to grow food and use domestic
animals grew, these ‘natural’ ecosystems were
developed into agricultural land
...
Later they began
to use wells to tap underground water sources
and to impound water and created irrigated land
by building dams
...
However we now realize that all this has led to
several undesirable changes in our environment
...
The over-intensive use of land
has been found to exhaust the capability of the
ecosystem to support the growing demands of
more and more people, all requiring more intensive use of resources
...
They create great quantities of solid waste
...
Changes in land and resource use:
During the last 100 years, a better
health care delivery system and an
improved nutritional status has led to
rapid population growth,
especially in the developing countries
...
Large
stretches of land such as forests, grasslands and
wetlands have been converted into intensive agriculture
...
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the urban sectors
...
The need for more water, more food,
more energy, more consumer goods, is not only
the result of a greater population, but also the
result of over-utilization of resources by people
from the more affluent societies, and the affluent sections of our own
...
Industrial development is aimed at meeting
growing demands for all consumer items
...
The growth of industrial complexes has led to a shift of people from
their traditional, sustainable, rural way of life to
urban centers that developed around industry
...
This has increased the disparity between what the surrounding land can produce and what the large
number of increasingly consumer-oriented
people in these areas of high population density consume
...
Rural agricultural systems are dependent on forests, wetlands, grasslands, rivers
and lakes
...
The magnitude of the shift of resources has been increasing in parallel with the growth of industry and
urbanisation, and has changed natural landscapes all over the world
...
The
result is a serious inequality in the distribution
of resources among human beings, which is both
unfair and unsustainable
...
•
Oxygen for wild fauna in natural ecosystems
and domestic animals used by man as food
...
The atmosphere forms a protective shell over
the earth
...
The stratosphere is
50 kilometers thick and contains a layer of
sulphates which is important for the formation
of rain
...
The atmosphere is not uniformly warmed
by the sun
...
It is a complex dynamic system
...
Most air pollutants have both global and
regional effects
...
To continue to support life, air must be kept clean
...
Air is also polluted by burning fossil fuels
...
The growing
number of scooters, motorcycles, cars, buses and
trucks which run on fossil fuel (petrol and diesel) is a major cause of air pollution in cities and
along highways
...
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Air pollution leads to acute and chronic respiratory diseases such as various lung infections,
asthma and even cancer
...
•
Water for washing and cooking
...
•
Food resources from the sea, including fish,
crustacea, sea weed, etc
...
•
Water flowing down from mountain ranges
harnessed to generate electricity in hydroelectric projects
...
A major part of the hydrosphere
is the marine ecosystem in the ocean, while only
a small part occurs in fresh water
...
Some of this fresh water lies in underground
aquifers
...
Once
land is denuded of vegetation, the rain erodes
the soil which is washed into the sea
...
•
Stone, sand and gravel, used for construction
...
•
Microscopic flora, small soil fauna and fungi
in soil, important living organisms of the
lithosphere, which break down plant litter
as well as animal wastes to provide nutrients for plants
...
•
Oil, coal and gas, extracted from underground sources
...
The lithosphere began as a hot ball of matter
which formed the earth about 4
...
About 3
...
The
crust of the earth is 6 or 7 kilometers thick and
lies under the continents
...
Of these constituents, 47%
is oxygen, 28% is silicon, 8% is aluminium, 5%
is iron, while sodium, magnesium, potassium
and calcium constitute 4% each
...
Rocks, when broken down,
form soil on which man is dependent for his
agriculture
...
Environmental Studies for Undergraduate Courses
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Chapter2
...
Water pollution thus threatens the health of communities
as all our lives depend on the availability of clean
water
...
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4) Biosphere
•
Food, from crops and domestic animals,
providing human metabolic requirements
...
•
Energy needs: Biomass fuel wood collected
from forests and plantations, along with
other forms of organic matter, used as a
source of energy
...
This is the relatively thin layer on the earth in
which life can exist
...
Within this framework, those characterised by broadly similar
geography and climate, as well as communities
of plant and animal life can be divided for convenience into different biogeographical realms
...
Within
these, smaller biogeographical units can be identified on the basis of structural differences and
functional aspects into distinctive recognizable
ecosystems, which give a distinctive character
to a landscape or waterscape
...
The simplest of these ecosystems to understand
is a pond
...
The structural features of a
pond include its size, depth and the quality of
its water
...
Functionally, a variety of cycles
such as the amount of water within the pond at
different times of the year, the quantity of nutrients flowing into the pond from the surrounding terrestrial ecosystem, all affect the ‘nature’
of the pond
...
Disturbing one of these spheres in our environment
affects all the others
...
For instance, the atmosphere,
hydrosphere and lithosphere are all connected
through the hydrological cycle
...
This becomes rain, which provides moisture for the lithosphere, on which life depends
...
Atmospheric movements in the form of wind, break down rocks
into soil
...
All living organisms
which exist on earth live only in the relatively
thin layer of the lithosphere and hydrosphere
that is present on the surface of land and in the
water
...
It is therefore essential to understand the interrelationships of the separate entities soil, water, air and living organisms, and to appreciate
the value of preserving intact ecosystems as a
whole
...
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Activity 1:
Observe a nearby pond in different seasons and document the seasonal
changes in it
...
Activity 2:
Take a simple object in daily use and
track its components back to each of its
spheres
...
2 RENEWABLE AND NON-RENEWABLE RESOURCES
Ecosystems act as resource producers and processors
...
A forest recycles its plant
material slowly by continuously returning its
dead material, leaves, branches, etc
...
Grasslands recycle material much faster than
forests as the grass dries up after the rains are
over every year
...
The sun also drives the water
cycle
...
Traditional agricultural ecosystems that depended on rainfall have been modified in recent times to produce more and more
food by the addition of extra chemicals and
To manufacture consumer products, industry
requires raw materials from nature, including
water, minerals and power
...
2
...
1 Natural resources and associated problems
The unequal consumption of natural resources: A major part of natural resources are
today consumed in the technologically advanced
or ‘developed’ world, usually termed ‘the North’
...
However, the consumption of resources
per capita (per individual) of the developed countries is up to 50 times greater than in most developing countries
...
Energy from fossil fuels is consumed in relatively
much greater quantities in developed countries
...
The USA for example with just 4% of
Environmental Studies for Undergraduate Courses
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Chapter2
...
Moreover modern agriculture creates a variety
of environmental problems, which ultimately
lead to the formation of unproductive land
...
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the world’s population consumes about 25%
of the world’s resources
...
Thus
countries that are highly dependent on non-vegetarian diets need much larger areas for
pastureland than those where the people are
mainly vegetarian
...
These forms of intensive landuse are frequently extended at the cost of ‘wild
lands’, our remaining forests, grasslands, wetlands and deserts
...
For instance, there are usually alternate sites at which
industrial complexes or dams can be built, but a
natural wilderness cannot be recreated artificially
...
Land as a resource is now under serious pressure due to an increasing ‘land hunger’ - to produce sufficient quantities of food for an exploding human population
...
Land and water resources are polluted by industrial waste and rural and urban sewage
...
Natural wetlands of
great value are being drained for agriculture and
other purposes
...
The most damaging change in landuse is demonstrated by the rapidity with which forests have
vanished during recent times, both in India and
in the rest of the world
...
These include processes
such as maintaining oxygen levels in the atmosphere, removal of carbon dioxide, control over
water regimes, and slowing down erosion and
also produce products such as food, fuel, timber, fodder, medicinal plants, etc
...
Natural Resources
Chapter2
...
There are clear indicators of sustainable lifestyles in human life
...
They are in fact renewable only within certain limits
...
Increased longevity
•
2
...
3 Renewable resources
An enhancement of income
...
However, water sources
can be overused or wasted to such an extent that they locally run dry
...
•
Forests, once destroyed take thousands of
years to regrow into fully developed natural ecosystems with their full complement
of species
...
•
Fish are today being over-harvested until the
catch has become a fraction of the original
resource and the fish are incapable of breeding successfully to replenish the population
...
•
When the population of a species of plant
or animal is reduced by human activities,
until it cannot reproduce fast enough to
maintain a viable number, the species becomes extinct
...
These three together are known as the ‘Human
development index’
...
•
A stabilized population
...
•
The careful long-term use of natural resources
...
2
...
2 Non-renewable resources
These are minerals that have been formed in
the lithosphere over millions of years and constitute a closed system
...
Non-renewable resources include fossil fuels
such as oil and coal, which if extracted at the
present rate, will soon be totally used up
...
Environmental Studies for Undergraduate Courses
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Chapter2
...
What is however not generally recognized is that thousands of extinctions of
small plants and animals are occurring every
year due to loss of their habitat
...
Activity 3: Utilisation of resources
The use of a resource begins with its collection, its processing into a useable product,
and transport through a delivery system,
to the consumer who uses it
...
Each step in resource use can affect the environment for better or worse
...
Think of a resource you use and track it
through these steps
...
The cotton in the clothes you are wearing
...
Today we have only about
12 percent
...
People who live in or near forests know the value
of forest resources first hand because their lives
and livelihoods depend directly on these resources
...
The water we use depends on the
existence of forests on the watersheds around
river valleys
...
We use many
medicines that are based on forest produce
...
Forests once extended over large tracts of our
country
...
As agriculture spread
the forests were left in patches which were controlled mostly by tribal people
...
Deforestation became a major
concern in British times when a large amount
of timber was extracted for building their ships
...
They however alienated local people
by creating Reserved and Protected Forests
which curtailed access to the resources
...
Another period of overutilisation and forest degradation occurred in the early period following
independence as people felt that now that the
British had gone they had a right to using our
forests in any way we pleased
...
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FOREST FUNCTIONS
Watershed protection:
• Reduce the rate of surface run-off of water
...
• Produces prolonged gradual run-off and thus prevent effects of drought
...
• Maintaining carbon dioxide levels for plant growth
...
Erosion control:
• Holding soil (by preventing rain from directly washing soil away)
...
Local use - Consumption of forest produce by local people who collect it for subsistence –
(Consumptive use)
• Food - gathering plants, fishing, hunting from the forest
...
Now that populations of most wildlife species have diminished, continued
hunting would lead to extinction
...
• Fuel wood and charcoal for cooking, heating
...
• Timber – household articles and construction
...
• Sericulture – for silk
...
• Medicinal plants - traditionally used medicines, investigating them as potential
source for new modern drugs
...
• Minor forest produce - (non-wood products): Fuelwood, fruit, gum, fiber, etc
...
• Major timber extraction - construction, industrial uses, paper pulp, etc
...
Environmental Studies for Undergraduate Courses
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Chapter2
...
Timber extraction continued to remain
the Forest Department’s main concern up to the
1970s
...
Deforestation: Where civilizations have looked
after forests by using forest resources cautiously,
they have prospered, where forests were destroyed, the people were gradually impoverished
...
Dams built for hydroelectric
power or irrigation have submerged forests and
have displaced tribal people whose lives are
closely knit to the forest
...
One of India’s serious environmental problems
is forest degradation due to timber extraction
and our dependence on fuelwood
...
We have not been able to plant enough
trees to support the need for timber and
fuelwood
...
Another resolution
in 1990 provided a formal structure for community participation though the formation of
Village Forest Committees
...
This stipulates that at least 25 per cent of
the income from the area must go to the community
...
km of forest under
JFM in 27 States in India
...
The share for village forest committees
CASE STUDY
Joint Forest Management
The need to include local communities in
Forest Management has become a growing
concern
...
An informal arrangement between local communities and the Forest Department began in
1972, in Midnapore District of West Bengal
...
Under JFM
schemes, Forest Protection Committees from
local community members are formed
...
ranges from 25 per cent in Kerala to 100 per
cent in Andhra Pradesh, 50 per cent in Gujarat,
Maharashtra, Orissa and Tripura
...
In many States non-timber forest
products (NTFPs) are available for people free
of cost
...
Timber extraction, mining and dams are invariably parts of the needs of a developing country
...
Unfortunately forests are located in areas where there are rich
mineral resources
...
Thus there is a constant conflict of interests be-
Natural Resources
Chapter2
...
What needs to be understood is that
long-term ecological gains cannot be sacrificed
for short-term economic gains that unfortunately lead to deforestation
...
This leads to
high levels of suffering for which there is rarely
a satisfactory answer
...
Wetlands are intermediate
forms between terrestrial and aquatic ecosystems and contain species of plants and animals
that are highly moisture dependent
...
The world depends on a limited
quantity of fresh water
...
Of this, 2% is in polar ice caps and only
1% is usable water in rivers, lakes and subsoil
aquifers
...
At a global level 70% of water is used for
agriculture about 25% for industry and only 5%
for domestic use
...
India uses 90%
for agriculture, 7% for industry and 3% for
domestic use
...
The world
population has passed the 6 billion mark
...
This
Local conflicts are already spreading to states
...
Karnataka and Tamil Nadu over the waters
of the Krishna
...
At the global level 31 countries
are already short of water and by 2025 there
will be 48 countries facing serious water shortages
...
This will lead to multiple
conflicts between countries over the sharing of
water
...
There
are 100 countries that share the waters of 13
large rivers and lakes
...
Examples are Ethopia, which is upstream on the
Nile and Egypt, which is downstream and highly
dependent on the Nile
...
India and Bangladesh already have a negotiated
agreement on the water use of the Ganges
...
Today in many areas this requirement
cannot be met
...
Most people use more water
than they really need
...
p65
places enormous demands on the world’s limited freshwater supply
...
Studies indicate that a person needs a minimum of
20 to 40 liters of water per day for drinking and
sanitation
...
26
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during a bath by using a shower or during washing of clothes
...
There are
many ways in which farmers can use less water
without reducing yields such as the use of drip
irrigation systems
...
Methods such
as the use of biomass as fertilizer and non toxic
pesticides such as neem products and using integrated pest management systems reduces the
agricultural pollution of surface and ground
water
...
In the longer term, as people become more conscious of using ‘green products’ made by
ecosensitive industries, the polluter’s products
may not be used
...
Public
awareness may increasingly put pressures on
industry to produce only eco-friendly products
which are already gaining in popularity
...
CASE STUDY
Global climate change: Changes in climate at
a global level caused by increasing air pollution
have now begun to affect our climate
...
In other
areas, they lead to long droughts
...
This has seriously
affected regional hydrological conditions
...
However, the havoc
raised by rivers overflowing their banks has become progressively more damaging, as people
have deforested catchments and intensified use
of river flood plains that once acted as safety
valves
...
Deforestation in the Himalayas causes floods
that year after year kill people, damage crops
and destroy homes in the Ganges and its tributaries and the Bramhaputra
...
As the forests are degraded, rainwater no longer percolates slowly into the subsoil but runs off down the mountainside bearing large amounts of topsoil
...
There, rivers swell, burst their banks and flood
waters spread to engulf peoples’ farms and
homes
...
This
has endangered fish, dolphins, crocodiles and
other flora and fauna of the region
...
This leads to periods
when there is a serious scarcity of water to drink,
use in farms, or provide for urban and industrial
use
...
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irregular periods of famine
...
India has ‘Drought Prone Areas Development Programs’, which are used in such
areas to buffer the effects of droughts
...
Drought has been a major problem in our country especially in arid regions
...
It varies in
frequency in different parts of our country
...
The scarcity of
water during drought years affects homes, agriculture and industry
...
Several measures can be taken to minimise the
serious impacts of a drought
...
In years when the monsoon is adequate, we use
up the good supply of water without trying to
conserve it and use the water judiciously
...
One of the factors that worsens the effect of
drought is deforestation
...
Forest cover permits
water to be held in the area permitting it to
seep into the ground
...
This
can be used in drought years if the stores have
been filled during a good monsoon
...
Irrigated areas increased from 40 million
ha
...
in 1950 and to
271 million ha
...
Dams support 30 to
40% of this area
...
They alter river flows, change nature’s
flood control mechanisms such as wetlands and
flood plains, and destroy the lives of local people
and the habitats of wild plant and animal species
...
Large
landholders on the canals get the lion’s share of
water, while poor, small farmers get less and
are seriously affected
...
A number of measures need to be taken
for the better management of the world’s water resources
...
•
Develop small catchment dams and protect
wetlands
...
p65
water table drops and vegetation suffers
...
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4/9/2004, 5:07 PM
•
Soil management, micro catchment development and afforestation permits recharging of underground aquifers thus reducing
the need for large dams
...
have built around 57% of the world’s large
dams
...
•
Fishing and travel by boat disrupted
...
Water conservation measures in agriculture
such as using drip irrigation
...
Effective rain water harvesting in urban
environments
...
Preventing loss in Municipal pipes
...
Preventing leakages from dams and canals
...
•
•
•
Pricing water at its real value makes people
use it more responsibly and efficiently and
reduces water wasting
...
Managing a river system is best done by leaving
its course as undisturbed as possible
...
Dams: Today there are more than 45,000 large
dams around the world, which play an important role in communities and economies that
harness these water resources for their economic
development
...
Hydropower, another contender for the
use of stored water, currently supplies 19% of
the world’s total electric power supply and is
used in over 150 countries
...
They have suffered disproportionately from the negative impacts of dams and often been excluded from
sharing the benefits
...
Conflicts over dams have heightened in the last
two decades because of their social and environmental impacts and failure to achieve targets for sticking to their costs as well as achieving promised benefits
...
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active role in debating the pros and cons of the
project and its alternatives
...
In India, a national assessment of dam
projects cleared in the 1980s and 90s shows
that in 90% of cases the project authorities
have not fulfilled the environmental conditions under which environmental clearance
was given by the GOI under the EPA of 1986
...
This dam in Gujarat on the Narmada has displaced thousands of tribal folk, whose lives
and livelihoods were linked to the river, the
forests and their agricultural lands
...
The
question is why should the local tribals be
made homeless, displaced and relocated to
benefit other people? Why should the less
fortunate be made to bear the costs of development for better off farmers? It is a question of social and economic equity as well as
the enormous environmental losses, including loss of the biological diversity of the inundated forests in the Narmada valley
...
Estimate your average daily
consumption
...
An ore is a mineral or combination of minerals from which a useful substance, such as a metal, can be extracted and
used to manufacture a useful product
...
Iron, aluminum, zinc,
manganese and copper are important raw materials for industrial use
...
Stone used for building material, such as
granite, marble, limestone, constitute another
category of minerals
...
The luster of gold, silver and
platinum is used for ornaments
...
Minerals and their ores need to be extracted
from the earth’s interior so that they can be
used
...
Mining
operations generally progress through four
stages:
(1) Prospecting: Searching for minerals
...
Environmental Studies for Undergraduate Courses
30
Chapter2
...
(4) Exploitation: Extracting the minerals from
the mines
...
Today, however, prospecting and exploration is done by teams of geologists, mining
engineers, geophysicists, and geochemists who
work together to discover new deposits
...
The method of mining has to be determined
depending on whether the ore or mineral deposit is nearer the surface or deep within the
earth
...
Mines are of two types – surface (open cut or
strip mines) or deep or shaft mines
...
The
method chosen for mining will ultimately depend on how maximum yield may be obtained
under existing conditions at a minimum cost,
with the least danger to the mining personnel
...
Thus ‘technology’ is dependent
on both the presence of resources and the energy necessary to make them ‘usable’
...
Surface mining is less hazardous than
underground mining
...
In all underground
mines, rock and roof falls, flooding, and inad-
CASE STUDY
Sariska Tiger Reserve, Rajasthan
The Forest Department has leased land for
mining in the Sariska Tiger Reserve area by
denotifying forest areas
...
Rajendra Singh, secretary of TBS, points out that as many as 70
mines operate in close proximity to the forest
...
Large explosions have occured in coal mines,
killing many miners
...
Mining poses several long-term occupational
hazards to the miners
...
Fumes generated by incomplete dynamite explosions are extremely poisonous
...
Radiation is a hazard in uranium
mines
...
The extraction of all
these products from the lithosphere has a variety of side effects
...
Public awareness of this
Natural Resources
Chapter2
...
irrigation
...
However many
of the technologies we have used to achieve
this are now being questioned
...
d) Food resources
•
Forests, grasslands and wetlands have been
converted to agricultural use, which has led
to serious ecological questions
...
•
There are great disparities in the availability
of nutritious food
...
Today our food comes almost entirely from agriculture, animal husbandry and fishing
...
The FAO defines sustainable agriculture as that
which conserves land, water and plant and animal genetic resources, does not degrade the
environment and is economically viable and socially acceptable
...
If this crop is hit by
a pest, the entire crop can be devastated, leaving the farmer with no income during the year
...
Many studies have shown that one can
use alternatives to inorganic fertilizers and pesticides
...
World food problems: In many developing
countries where populations are expanding rapidly, the production of food is unable to keep
pace with the growing demand
...
These countries are unable to produce more
food, or do not have the financial means to import it
...
In most rural communities they have
the least exposure to technical training and to
health workers trained in teaching/learning on
issues related to nutritional aspects
...
These disparities need to be corrected
...
Thus farm sizes are too small to support a family on farm produce alone
...
Environmental Studies for Undergraduate Courses
32
Chapter2
...
Today the world is
seeing a changing trend in dietary habits
...
As people
change from eating grain to meat, the world’s
demand for feed for livestock based on agriculture increases as well
...
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Poor environmental agricultural practices such
as slash and burn, shifting cultivation, or ‘rab’
(woodash) cultivation degrade forests
...
Loss of nutrients and overuse of agricultural chemicals are major factors
in land degradation
...
Salinization and water logging has affected a large
amount of agricultural land worldwide
...
Rice, wheat and corn are the staple foods
of two thirds of the world’s people
...
is lost
...
Food Security: It is estimated that 18 million
people worldwide, most of whom are children,
die each year due to starvation or malnutrition,
and many others suffer a variety of dietary deficiencies
...
If the world’s carrying capacity to produce
food cannot meet the needs of a growing population, anarchy and conflict will follow
...
It is also
linked to the availability of water for farming
...
Many of us waste a large
amount of food carelessly
...
A major concern is the support needed for small
farmers so that they remain farmers rather than
shifting to urban centers as unskilled industrial
workers
...
‘Dumping’ of underpriced foodstuffs produced in the
developed world, onto markets in undeveloped
countries undermines prices and forces farmers
there to adopt unsustainable practices to compete
...
This includes marine
and fresh water fish
...
In 1995 FAO reported that 44% of the world’s
fisheries are fully or heavily exploited, 16% are
already overexploited, 6% are depleted, and
only 3% are gradually recovering
...
Modern fishing technologies using mechanized
trawlers and small meshed nets lead directly to
overexploitation, which is not sustainable
...
The worst hit are the small traditional fishermen who are no match for organized trawlers
...
Of these only 15 varieties produce 90% of the
world’s food
...
India’s distinctive traditional varieties of
rice alone are said to have numbered between
30 and 50 thousand
...
Natural Resources
Chapter2
...
A cereal that has multiple
varieties growing in different locations does not
permit the rapid spread of a disease
...
As the
wilderness shrinks, these varieties are rapidly
disappearing
...
Ensuring long-term
food security may depend on conserving wild
relatives of crop plants in National Parks and
Wildlife Sanctuaries
...
The most economical way to prevent this is by
expanding the network and coverage of our
Protected Areas
...
Scientists now believe that the world will soon
need a second green revolution to meet our
future demands of food based on a new ethic
of land and water management that must be
based on values which include environmental
sensitivity, equity, biodiversity conservation of
cultivars and insitu preservation of wild relatives
of crop plants
...
Pollution of water
sources, land degradation and desertification
must be rapidly reversed
...
This includes working on new avenues to produce food, such as
using forests for their multiple non-wood forest
products, which can be used for food if harvested sustainably
...
This takes time, as people
must develop a taste for these new foods
...
With this technique, farmers have been able to improve the efficiency
of irrigation by 95%
...
In India, some traditional communities in
urban and semi urban towns used to grow
their own vegetables in backyards on wastewater from their own homes
...
Medicines, both traditional and modern, can be
harvested sustainably from forests
...
p65
techniques, especially on hill slopes, enhancing
the soil with organic matter, rotating crops and
managing watersheds at the micro level are a
key to agricultural production to meet future
needs
...
The world needs better and sustainable methods of food production which is an important aspect of landuse
management
...
Without care,
commercial exploitation can lead to early extinction of such plants
...
This crop grown in the Western Ghats now
has no market and is thus rarely grown
...
It is thus not as extensively cultivated as in the
past
...
Several crops
can be grown in urban settings, including vegetables and fruit which can be grown on waste
household water and fertilizers from
vermicomposting pits
...
Educating
women about nutrition, who are more closely
involved with feeding the family, is an important aspect of supporting the food needs of
many developing countries
...
e) Energy resources
Energy is defined by physicists as the capacity to do work
...
The sun is the primary energy source in our lives
...
The
sun’s rays power
the growth of
plants, which form
our food material,
give off oxygen
which we breathe in and take up carbon dioxide that we breathe out
...
Today’s fossil
fuels were once the forests that grew in prehistoric times due to the energy of the sun
...
In India,
manual labour is still extensively used to get work
done in agricultural systems, and domestic animals used to pull carts and ploughs
...
This comes from hydel power based on the
water cycle that is powered by the sun’s energy
that supports evaporation, or from thermal
power stations powered by fossil fuels
...
We use energy for household use, agriculture,
production of industrial goods and for running
transport
...
Industry
uses energy to
p o w e r
manufacturing units and the urban complexes
that support it
...
Natural Resources
Chapter2
...
All energy use creates
heat and contributes to atmospheric temperature
...
Nuclear energy plants have caused enormous losses to the
environment due to the leakage of nuclear material
...
At present almost 2 billion people worldwide
have no access to electricity at all
...
In addition, a large proportion of energy from electricity is wasted during transmission as well as at the user level
...
It is estimated that the currently used
methods of using renewable energy and non
renewable fossil fuel sources together will be
insufficient to meet foreseeable global demands
for power generation beyond the next 50 to
100 years
...
We all need to become responsible energy users
...
Growing energy needs: Energy has always
been closely linked to man’s economic growth
and development
...
This index however,
does not take into account the long-term ill effects on society of excessive energy utilisation
...
The world’s demand
for electricity has doubled over the last 22 years!
The world’s total primary energy consumption
in 2000 was 9096 million tons of oil
...
5 tons
of oil
...
By 2005
the Asia-Pacific region is expected to surpass
North America in energy consumption and by
2020 is expected to consume some 40% more
energy than North America
...
At the close of the 20th century, oil accounted for 39% of the world’s commercial energy consumption, followed by coal
(24%) and natural gas (24%), while nuclear
(7%) and hydro/renewables (6%) accounted for
the rest
...
In India, biomass (mainly wood and dung) accounts for almost 40% of primary energy supply
...
Environmental Studies for Undergraduate Courses
36
Chapter2
...
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Types of energy: There are three main types
of energy; those classified as non-renewable;
those that are said to be renewable; and
nuclear energy, which uses such small quantities of raw material (uranium) that supplies are
to all effect, limitless
...
Non renewable energy
To produce electricity from non-renewable resources the material must be ignited
...
The heat generated turns water to steam, which
moves through pipes, to turn the blades of a
turbine
...
Non-Renewable Energy Sources: These consist
of the mineral based hydrocarbon fuels coal, oil
and natural gas, that were formed from ancient
prehistoric forests
...
At the present rate of extraction there is
enough coal for a long time to come
...
When these fuels are
burnt, they produce waste products that are
released into the atmosphere as gases such as
carbon dioxide, oxides of sulphur, nitrogen, and
carbon monoxide, all causes of air pollution
...
Many of these gases also act like a green
house letting sunlight in and trapping the heat
inside
...
Warming the seas also leads to the death of
sensitive organisms such as coral
...
Most of our
natural gas is linked to oil and, because there is
no distribution system, it is just burnt off
...
The processes of oil and natural gas drilling, processing, transport and utilisation have serious environmental consequences, such as leaks in which
air and water are polluted and accidental fires
that may go on burning for days or weeks before the fire can be controlled
...
Oil
slicks are caused at sea from offshore oil wells,
cleaning of oil tankers and due to shipwrecks
...
Oil powered vehicles emit carbon dioxide, sulphur dioxide, nitrous oxide, carbon monoxide
and particulate matter which is a major cause
of air pollution especially in cities with heavy traffic density
...
Running petrol
vehicles with unleaded fuel has been achieved
by adding catalytic converters on all the new
cars, but unleaded fuel contains benzene and
butadene which are known to be carcinogenic
compounds
...
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smog problems due to traffic, has been able to
reduce this health hazard by changing a large
number of its vehicles to CNG, which contains
methane
...
At present 65 percent of the
world’s oil reserves are located in the Middle
East
...
CASE STUDY
Oil related disasters
During the Gulf War, oil installations burned
for weeks polluting the air with poisonous
gasses
...
The gases moved
to a height of 3km and spread as far as India
...
Renewable energy
Many coal-based power generation plants are
not fitted with devices such as electrostatic precipitators to reduce emissions of suspended particulate matter (SPM) which is a major contributor to air pollution
...
This kills
forest vegetation, and damages architectural
heritage sites, pollutes water and affects human
health
...
Large dumps are
required to dispose off this waste material, while
efforts have been made to use it for making
bricks
...
Renewable energy systems use resources that
are constantly replaced and are usually less polluting
...
We also get renewable energy from burning trees and even garbage as
fuel and processing other plants into biofuels
...
Your car’s gas tank
will use biofuel
...
Renewable energy
technologies will improve the efficiency and cost
of energy systems
...
CASE STUDY
The Exxon Valdez was wrecked in Prince William Sound in Alaska in 1989 and polluted
large parts of the surrounding seas
...
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4/9/2004, 5:07 PM
CASE STUDY
CASE STUDY
Nearly 50% of the world’s population is dependent on fuel wood as a source of energy
...
Rural
women, and even women from the lower
economic strata in towns, still have to spend
a large part of their lives collecting fuel wood
...
There have also been several efforts to grow fuelwood by involving
local people in these efforts
...
In 1882, the first Hydroelectric power dam
was built in Appleton, Wisconsin
...
Jamshedjee Tata, a great visionary who developed industry in India in the 1800s, wished
to have a clean source of energy to run cotton and textile mills in Bombay as he found
people were getting respiratory infections
due to coal driven mills
...
The four dams are the Andhra,
Shirowata, Valvan and Mulshi hydel dams
...
While the rivers
flowing eastwards from the Western Ghats
are dammed in the foothills near the Deccan
plateau, the water is tunneled through the
crest of the Ghats to drop several hundred
meters to the coastal belt
...
Hydroelectric Power
This uses water flowing down a natural gradient to turn turbines to generate electricity
known as ‘hydroelectric power’ by constructing
dams across rivers
...
The long
life of hydropower
plants, the renewable nature of the
energy source, very
low operating and
maintenance costs,
and absence of inflationary pressures as
in fossil fuels, are
some of its advantages
...
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Drawbacks: Although hydroelectric power has
led to economic progress around the world, it
has created serious ecological problems
...
These lands traditionally provided
a livelihood for local tribal people and farmers
...
•
Silting of the reservoirs (especially as a result of deforestation) reduces the life of the
hydroelectric power installations
...
These include
domestic requirements, growing agricultural
crops and for industry
...
•
The use of rivers for navigation and fisheries becomes difficult once the water is
dammed for generation of electricity
...
The opposition to many large hydroelectric
schemes is growing as most dam projects
have been unable to resettle people that
were affected and displaced
...
There is a great possibility of this
occurring around the Tehri dam in the Himalayan foothills
...
With large dams causing social problems, there
has been a trend to develop small hydroelectric
generation units
...
China has the largest number of these - 60,000, generating 13,250
megawatts, i
...
30% of China’s electricity
...
The development of small hydroelectric
power units could become a very important resource in India, which has steeply falling rivers
and the economic capability and technical resources to exploit them
...
If it were possible to harness this colossal
quantum of energy, humanity would need no
other source of energy
...
Environmental Studies for Undergraduate Courses
40
Chapter2
...
The gigantic Narmada River Project has affected the livelihoods of hundreds of extremely poor forest dwellers
...
The dam will also destroy the
livelihood of fishermen at the estuary
...
40
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Solar heating for homes: Modern housing that
uses air conditioning and/ or heating are extremely energy dependant
...
In
solar heated buildings, sunspaces are built on
the south side of the structure which act as large
heat absorbers
...
In energy efficient architecture the sun, water
and wind are used to heat a building when the
weather is cold and to cool it in summer
...
Thick
walls of stone or mud were used in traditional
architecture as an insulator
...
Deeply set glass windows in colonial homes, on
which direct sunlight could not reach, permitted the glass from creating a green house effect
...
Traditional bungalows had high roofs and ventilators that permitted hot air to rise and leave
the room
...
Large
overhangs over windows prevent the glass from
heating the room inside
...
Shady trees around the
house help reduce temperature
...
The solar energy collector heats the water, which then flows to a
well insulated storage tank
...
Small tubes run through the box, carrying the water or other fluid, such as antifreeze,
to be heated
...
The back and sides of the
box are insulated to hold in the heat
...
Solar water-heating systems cannot heat water
when the sun is not shining
...
About
80% of homes in Israel have solar hot water
heaters
...
A solar cooker is a metal box which is black
on the inside to absorb and retain heat
...
The box contains black
vessels in which the food to be cooked is placed
...
Although solar cookers reduce the
need for fuel wood and pollution from smoky
wood fires, they have not caught on well in rural areas as they are not suitable to traditional
cooking practices
...
Other Solar-Powered Devices: Solar desalination
systems (for converting saline or brackish water
into pure distilled water) have been developed
...
Photovoltaic energy: The solar technology
which has the greatest potential for use throughout the world is that of solar photo voltaic cells
which directly produce electricity from sunlight
using photovoltaic (PV) (also called solar) cells
...
PV cells require little maintenance, have no moving parts, and essentially
no environmental impact
...
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Photovoltaic Cells
CASE STUDIES
•
safely and silently
...
Solar cells are made up of two separate layers
of silicon, each of which contains an electric
charge
...
PV cells are wired together
to form a module
...
For more power,
PV modules are wired together into an array
...
Over the past
few years, extensive work has been done in
decreasing PV technology costs, increasing efficiency, and extending cell lifetimes
...
PV cells are commonly used today in calculators
and watches
...
Some electric utility companies are building PV
systems into their power supply networks
...
they do
not release pollutants or toxic material to the
air or water, there is no radioactive substance,
and no catastrophic accidents
...
Solar cells are made of silicon which, al-
•
The world’s first solar-powered hospital
is in Mali in Africa
...
Panels of
solar cells supply the power needed to
run vital equipment and keep medical
supplies cool in refrigerators
...
Only sunlight can
provide power for long periods of time
for a space station or long distance
spaceship
...
•
In recent years, the popularity of building integrated photovoltaics (BIPV’s) has
grown considerably
...
e
...
There are more than
3,000 BIPV systems in Germany and Japan has a program that will build 70,000
BIPV buildings
...
p65
In 1981, a plane called ‘The Solar Challenger’ flew from Paris to England in 5
hours, 20 minutes
...
Since 1987, every three years
there is a World Solar challenge for solar operated vehicles in Australia where
the vehicles cover 3000 kms
...
Mining creates environmental problems
...
Solar thermal electric power: Solar radiation
can produce high temperatures, which can generate electricity
...
According to a UNDP assessment, STE is about 20
years behind the wind energy market exploitation, but is expected to grow rapidly in the near
future
...
5 meters in diameter,
which focused the sun’s energy to produce
steam to generate electricity
...
Because plants and trees
depend on sunlight to grow, biomass energy is
a form of stored solar energy
...
There are three ways to use biomass
...
Liquid fuels, also called biofuels,
include two forms of alcohol: ethanol and
methanol
...
In the United States, this fuel is now being
produced from soybean oil
...
Organic municipal solid waste includes paper,
food wastes, and other organic non-fossil-fuel
derived materials such as textiles, natural rubber, and leather that are found in the waste of
urban areas
...
Waste material can be converted
into electricity by combustion boilers or steam
turbines
...
Note that like any fuel, biomass creates some
pollutants, including carbon dioxide, when
burned or converted into energy
...
Biomass is naturally low in sulphur and
therefore, when burned, generates low sulphur
dioxide emissions
...
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high nitrogen content of plan material), carbon
monoxide, and particulates
...
It is a mixture of gases which includes
methane, carbon dioxide, hydrogen sulphide
and water vapour
...
With a ton of food waste, one can
produce 85 Cu
...
Once used, the
residue is used as an agricultural fertilizer
...
London has a plant which makes 30 megawatts of
electricity a year from 420,000 tons of municipal waste which gives power to 50,000 families
...
Japan uses 85%
of its waste and France about 50%
...
The biogas plants
use cowdung, which is converted into a gas
which is used as a fuel
...
The reduction in kitchen
smoke by using biogas has reduced lung conditions in thousands of homes
...
Ethanol produced from sugarcane molasses is a good automobile fuel and is now used
in a third of the vehicles in Brazil
...
By 1996 there were already 2
...
However China
has 20 million households using biogas!
What you may throw out in your garbage
today could be used as fuel for someone
else
...
Garbage is
an inexpensive energy resource
...
This
helps cover the cost of turning garbage into
energy
...
Keep a record of all the garbage that you
and our family produce in a day
...
How long would it take you to gather
enough waste biomass to make a tankful
(0
...
m
...
m
...
Some 2000 years ago, windmills were developed
in China, Afghanistan and Persia to draw water
for irrigation and grinding grain
...
Today, Denmark and California
have large wind turbine cooperatives which sell
electricity to the government grid
...
At present, India is the third
largest wind energy producer in the world
...
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Activity 5:
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4/9/2004, 5:07 PM
The power in wind is a function of the wind
speed and therefore the average wind speed of
an area is an important determinant of economically feasible power
...
At a given turbine site, the power available 30 meters above ground is typically 60 percent greater than at 10 meters
...
These improvements have led to higher wind conversion
efficiencies and lower electricity production
costs
...
The principal problems are
bird kills, noise, effect on TV reception, and aesthetic objections to the sheer number of wind
turbines that are required to meet electricity
needs
...
The rest
of the area can also be used
for agricultural purposes or
for grazing
...
Tidal and Wave Power: The earth’s surface is
70% water
...
It is estimated that the solar energy absorbed by the tropical oceans in a week could
equal the entire oil reserves of the world – 1
trillion barrels of oil
...
From the 1970s several countries have
been experimenting with technology to harness
the kinetic energy of the ocean to generate electricity
...
In a one-way system the incoming tide is allowed to fill the basin through
a sluice, and the water so collected is used to
produce electricity during the low tide
...
Siting windmills offshore reduces their demand for land
and visual impact
...
Wind therefore cannot be
used as the sole resource for
Natural Resources
Chapter2
...
A tidal power station at the mouth of a
river blocks the flow of polluted water into the
sea, thereby creating health and pollution hazards in the estuary
...
Residual drift current could affect
spawning of some fish, whose larvae would be
carried away from spawning grounds
...
Wave power converts the motion of waves into
electrical or mechanical energy
...
Electricity can be generated at sea
and transmitted by cable to land
...
The largest
concentration of potential wave energy on earth
is located between latitudes 40 to 60 degrees
in both the northern and southern hemispheres,
where the winds blow most strongly
...
These plants are known as
Ocean Thermal Energy Conversion (OTEC)
...
Geothermal energy: is the energy stored
within the earth (“geo” for earth and “thermal” for heat)
...
The heat rising from the magma warms
underground pools of water known as geothermal reservoirs
...
With modern technology, wells are drilled
deep below the surface of the earth to tap into
geothermal reservoirs
...
In the 20th century geothermal energy has been
harnessed on a large scale for space heating,
industrial use and electricity production, especially in Iceland, Japan and New Zealand
...
However, water from geothermal reservoirs often contains minerals that are corrosive
and polluting
...
Nuclear Power
In 1938 two German scientists Otto Hahn and
Fritz Strassman demonstrated nuclear fission
...
As
the nucleus split, some mass was converted to
energy
...
The first large-scale
nuclear power plant in the world became operational in 1957 in Pennsylvania, US
...
Homi Bhabha was the father of Nuclear
Power development in India
...
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Energy
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Research Center in Mumbai studies and develops modern nuclear technology
...
These are located in Maharashtra (Tarapur), Rajasthan, Tamil
Nadu, Uttar Pradesh and Gujrat
...
There are deposits of
thorium in Kerala and Tamil Nadu
...
Energy released from 1kg of
Uranium 235 is equivalent to that produced by
burning 3,000 tons of coal
...
The
control rods absorb neutrons and thus adjust
the fission which releases energy due to the
chain reaction in a reactor unit
...
The drawback is that
the rods need to be changed periodically
...
The reaction releases very hot
waste water that damages aquatic ecosystems,
even though it is cooled by a water system before it is released
...
The cost of Nuclear
Power generation must include the high cost of
disposal of its waste and the decommissioning
of old plants
...
For environmental reasons, Sweden has
decided to become a Nuclear Free Country by
2010
...
While it does not pollute air or water routinely
like oil or biomass, a single accident can kill thousands of people, make many others seriously ill,
and destroy an area for decades by its radioactivity which leads to death, cancer and genetic
deformities
...
Management,
storage and disposal of radioactive wastes resulting from nuclear power generation are the
biggest expenses of the nuclear power industry
...
The radioactivity unleashed by such an
accident can affect mankind for generations
...
India needs to rapidly move into a policy to reduce energy needs and use cleaner energy production technologies
...
India must reduce its dependency on
imported oil
...
We could develop
thousands of mini dams to generate electricity
...
Fuel wood plantations need to be
enhanced and management through Joint Forestry Management (JFM) has a great promise
for the future
...
They also have a chimney to prevent air pollution and thus reduce respiratory problems
...
TERI in 1995 estimated that in
India 95% of rural people and 60% of urban
poor still depend on firewood, cattle dung and
crop residue for cooking and other domestic
purposes
...
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or liquid fuels ie
...
Biogas
digesters convert animal waste or agricultural
residues into gas
...
The commonly
used agri waste is dung of domestic animals and
rice husk, coconut shells, straw or weeds
...
Small hydrogeneration units are environmentfriendly
...
They can be placed in
several hill streams, on canals or rivers
...
However, this fails if the flow is seasonal
...
We can conserve energy by
preventing or reducing waste of energy and by
using resources more efficiently
...
If the
real cost was levied, people would not be able
to afford to waste it carelessly
...
Industries that
are known for generating pollution also
waste the most energy
...
Unplanned
and inefficient public transport systems, especially in cities, waste large amount of energy
...
In agriculture,
irrigation pumps to lift water are the most
energy intensive agricultural use
...
Indian industries use more energy than necessary
...
5 million kilocalories
...
3 million kilocalories and for Japan it is only 4
...
Cement industry: Over 2 million kilocalories
are used to produce one tonne of cement in
India
...
82 million kilocalories, in USA, 0
...
Vehicles: Lighter materials should be used
for cars
...
These lighter
materials can reduce the weight by 15 %
and increase the fuel economy by 6 to 8%
...
Lighting: An 18-watt modern, compact fluorescent lamp, can replace a standard 75-watt
incandescent lamp
...
Many traditional farming societies had ways of preserving
areas from which they used resources
...
In
the ‘sacred groves’ of the Western Ghats, requests to the spirit of the Grove for permission
to cut a tree, or extract a resource, were accompanied by simple rituals
...
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balanced on a rock gave
or withheld permission
...
Changes in land use
If land is utilized carefully
it can be considered a
renewable resource
...
If
forests are depleted, or
grasslands overgrazed,
the land becomes unproductive and wasteland is formed
...
Land is also converted into a non-renewable resource when
highly toxic industrial and nuclear wastes are
dumped on it
...
While mankind has learnt to
adapt his lifestyle to various ecosystems world
over, he cannot live comfortably for instance on
polar ice caps, on under the sea, or in space in
the foreseeable future
...
Equally importantly, man needs to protect
wilderness area in forests, grasslands, wetlands,
mountains, coasts, etc
...
Thus a rational use of land needs careful planning
...
These
Protected Areas are important aspects of good
landuse planning
...
Every
year, between 5 to 7 million hectares of land
worldwide is added to the existing degraded
farmland
...
Over irrigating farmland leads to
salinisation, as evaporation of water brings the
salts to the surface of the soil on which crops
cannot grow
...
The use of
more and more chemical fertilizers poisons the
soil so that eventually the land becomes unproductive
...
This is a serious loss and has long term ill effects
on human civilisation
...
Soils of various types support a wide variety of crops
...
The roots of the trees in the
forest hold the soil
...
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rapid soil erosion
...
The process is more evident in areas
where deforestation has led to erosion on steep
hill slopes as in the Himalayas and in the Western Ghats
...
To prevent the loss of
millions of tons of valuable soil every year, it is
essential to preserve what remains of our natural forest cover
...
The linkage between the
existence of forests and the presence of soil is
greater than the forest’s physical soil binding
CASE STUDY
Selenium – Punjab
In 1981-82, farmers from Hoshirapur and
Nawanshehar Districts approached scientists
of the Punjab Agricultural University (PAU),
Ludhiana, as wheat crops had turned white
...
Se is a naturally occurring trace element, essential for
animal and human health, but the gap between requirement and excess is narrow
...
5 microgrammes (ug) of
Se per kg or more are injurious to health
...
31 ug/kg to 4
...
Rice cultivation
requires the presence of standing water
...
The water then evaporates
leaving the Se behind
...
The soil is enriched by the leaflitter of the forest
...
Further losses of our soil wealth will impoverish our country and reduce its capacity to
grow enough food in future
...
But, in the last few decades, it has become increasingly evident that the global ecosystem has
the capacity to sustain only a limited level of
utilization
...
At a critical point, increasing pressure destabilizes their natural balance
...
And
no natural resource is limitless
...
The two most damaging factors leading to the
current rapid depletion of all forms of natural
resources are increasing ‘consumerism’ on the
part of the affluent sections of society, and rapid
population growth
...
As individuals we need to decide;
•
What will we leave to our children? (Are
we thinking of short-term or long-term
gain?)
•
Is my material gain someone else’s loss?
Greed for material goods has become a way of
life for a majority of people in the developed
world
...
In nations
such as ours, which are both developing rapidly, and suffering from a population explosion,
both factors are responsible for environmental
degradation
...
p65
2
...
What can you do to save electricity?
•
Turn off lights and fans as soon as you leave
the room
...
A 40watt tube light gives as much light as a 100
watt bulb
...
Dust on
tubes and bulbs decreases lighting levels by
20 to 30 percent
...
•
A pressure cooker can save up to 75 percent of energy required for cooking
...
•
Keeping the vessel covered with a lid during cooking, helps to cook faster, thus saving energy
...
It is at the local level where people
subsist by the sale of locally collected resources,
that the disparity is greatest
...
They
must be adequately compensated for the removal of the sources to distant regions and thus
develop a greater stake in protecting natural
resources
...
This
primarily comes from caring for our Mother
Earth in all respects
...
Think
of the beauty of a wilderness, a natural forest
in all its magnificence, the expanse of a green
grassland, the clean water of a lake that supports so much life, the crystal clear water of a
hill stream, or the magnificent power of the
oceans, and we cannot help but support the
conservation of nature’s wealth
...
2
...
Our
environment provides us with a variety of goods
and services necessary for our day-to-day lives,
but the soil, water, climate and solar energy
which form the ‘abiotic’ support that we derive
from nature, are in themselves not distributed
evenly throughout the world or within countries
...
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UNIT 3:
Ecosystems
3
...
1
...
1
...
1
...
2 STRUCTURE AND FUNCTIONS OF AN ECOSYSTEM
56
3
...
4 ENERGY FLOW IN THE ECOSYSTEM
3
...
1 The water cycle
3
...
2 The Carbon cycle
3
...
3 The Oxygen cycle
3
...
4 The Nitrogen cycle
3
...
5 The energy cycle
3
...
6 Integration of cycles in nature
58
58
59
60
60
61
62
3
...
6 FOOD CHAINS, FOOD WEBS AND ECOLOGICAL PYRAMIDS
3
...
1 The food chains
3
...
2 The food webs
3
...
3 The ecological pyramids
62
62
63
63
3
...
7
...
7
...
7
...
7
...
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3
...
The
nature of the ecosystem is based on its geographical features such as hills, mountains,
plains, rivers, lakes, coastal areas or islands
...
The geographical, climatic
and soil characteristics form its non-living (abiotic) component
...
The living part of the
ecosystem is referred to as its biotic component
...
These form the two major habitat conditions for the Earth’s living organisms
...
They interact
with their non-living environment, and with each
other at different points in time for a large number of reasons
...
At a global level the thin skin of the earth
on the land, the sea and the air, forms the biosphere
...
Eurasia called the
palaeartic realm; South and South-East Asia (of
which India forms a major part) is the Oriental
realm; North America is the Nearctic realm;
South America forms the Neotropical realm;
Africa the Ethiopian realm; and Australia the
Australian realm
...
There are several distinctive
geographical regions in India- the Himalayas, the
Gangetic Plains, the Highlands of Central India,
At an even more local level, each area has several structurally and functionally identifiable ecosystems such as different types of forests, grasslands, river catchments, mangrove swamps in
deltas, seashores, islands, etc
...
Here too each of these forms a habitat for specific plants and animals
...
Thus ecosystems have both non-living and living components that are typical to an area giving it its own
special characteristics that are easily observed
...
Some ecosystems are fairly robust and are less
affected by a certain level of human disturbance
...
Mountain ecosystems are extremely fragile as degradation of
forest cover leads to severe erosion of soil and
changes in river courses
...
Evergreen forests and coral reefs are also
examples of species rich fragile ecosystems
which must be protected against a variety of
human activities that lead to their degradation
...
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...
These geographically distinctive areas
have plants and animals that have been adapted
to live in each of these regions
...
1
...
Man modified
ecosystems include agricultural land and urban
or industrial land use patterns
...
Field observations must
be made in both urban and natural surroundings
...
?
What you should see are its different characteristics
...
A pond has different types of vegetation from the periphery
to its center
...
•
What is the composition of its plant and
animal species?
List the well-known plants and animals you
can see
...
Wild mammals will not
be seen in large numbers, cattle would be
common
...
In fact there are so many that they cannot
be easily counted
...
Observe and document the
components of the ecosystem which consists of its non-living or abiotic features such
as air, water, climate and soil
...
Both these aspects of the ecosystem interact with each other through several functional aspects to form Nature’s ecosystems
...
All these chains
are joined together to form a ‘web of life’
on which man depends
...
3
...
2 Ecosystem degradation
Ecosystems are the basis of life itself! The natural ecosystems in the wilderness provide a variety of products and are regions in which a number of vital ecological processes are present,
without which human civilization would not be
able to exist
...
Some species if eliminated seriously affect the ecosystem
...
Extinction
occurs due to changes in land use
...
Pollution from industry and
waste from urban settings can also lead to extinction of several species
...
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and waste a very large proportion of resources
and energy
...
Each
of us in our daily lives use a variety of resources
...
Our insensitivity to using resources carefully has produced
societies that nature can no longer sustain
...
The key to this issue is the need for an ‘equitable’ distribution of all types of natural resources
...
3
...
Ecosystems and man: Every region of our earth
has different ecosystems based on its climatic
conditions and geographical feature
...
2) Organic compounds – Protein, Carbohydrates, Lipids – link abiotic to biotic
aspects
...
1
...
Most traditional societies used their environment
sustainably
...
In recent times
the proportion of ‘rich’ people in affluent societies, grew rapidly
...
Whereas in the past many resources such as timber and fuel wood from the
forest were extracted sustainably, this pattern
has drastically changed during the last century
...
Similarly the building of large
irrigation projects led to wealth in those areas
that had canals, while those who hand to remain dependent on a constant supply of water
from the river itself, found it difficult to survive
...
6) Micro consumers – Saprotrophs, absorbers – fungi
...
2) Food chains
...
4) Nutrient cycles-biogeochemical cycles
...
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...
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Since each ecosystem has a non-living and a living part that are linked to each other, one needs
to look around us and observe this closely
...
Plants are the ‘producers in the ecosystem as
producers’
producers
they manufacture their food by using energy
from the sun
...
In the sea these include tiny
algal forms to large seaweed
...
The living organisms in an ecosystem
are inseparable from their habitat
...
In a forest,
these are the insects, amphibia, reptiles, birds
and mammals
...
They graze on grass or feed on the
foliage from trees
...
In the semiarid areas, there are species such as
the chinkara or Indian gazelle
...
The plants convert energy from sunlight
into organic matter for their growth
...
The living component of the animal world ranges from
microscopic animals, to small insects and the
larger animals such as fish, amphibia, reptiles,
birds and mammals
...
8
million species of plants and animals that inhabit
the earth
...
3 PRODUCERS, CONSUMERS AND DECOMPOSERS
Every living organism is in some way dependent
on other organisms
...
Thus there are different
tropic levels in the ecosystem
...
Herbivores
Nectarivores
Frugivores
Gramnivores
are small fish that live on algae and other plants
...
In our forests,
the carnivorous animals are tigers, leopards, jackals, foxes
and small wild cats
...
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the sea, carnivorous fish live on other fish and
marine animals
...
is not widely distributed, it becomes extinct for
all time
...
4 ENERGY FLOW IN THE ECOSYSTEM
Decomposers or detrivores are a group of organisms consisting of small animals like worms,
insects, bacteria and fungi, which break down
dead organic material into smaller particles and
finally into simpler substances that are used by
plants as nutrition
...
Most ecosystems are highly complex and consist of an extremely large number of individuals
Detrivores
of a wide variety of species
...
Some species of plants and animals are extremely rare
and may occur only at a few locations
...
When human activities alter the balance in these
ecosystems, the “perturbation” leads to the
disappearance of these uncommon species
...
These linked processes can be depicted as the various cycles
...
During photosynthesis carbon dioxide is taken up by plants and
oxygen is released
...
The water cycle depends
on the rainfall, which is necessary
for plants and animals to live
...
Our own lives are closely
linked to the proper functioning
of these cycles of life
...
3
...
1 The Water Cycle
When it rains, the water runs along the ground
and flows into rivers or falls directly into the sea
...
This is stored underground
throughout the rest of the year
...
The water is transpired
from the leaves as water vapour and returned
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...
These are the water cycle, the carbon cycle, the oxygen cycle,
the nitrogen cycle and the energy cycle
...
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3
...
2 The Carbon cycle
Water Cycle
to the atmosphere
...
Winds blow
the clouds for long distances and when the
clouds rise higher, the vapour condenses and
changes into droplets, which fall on the land as
rain
...
This is
leading to prolonged
drought periods extending
over years in countries
such as Africa, while causing floods in countries such
as the US
...
The carbon, which occurs in
organic compounds, is included in both the abiotic and
biotic parts of the ecosystem
...
In the atmosphere, carbon
occurs as carbon dioxide
(CO2)
...
The
plants combine carbon dioxide with water, which is absorbed by their roots from the
soil
...
This process is known as
photosynthesis
...
In
this process, plants release
oxygen into the atmosphere on which animals
depend for their respiration
...
All of mankind thus depends on
Carbon Cycle
Ecosystems
Chapter3
...
It also
keeps the CO2 at acceptable levels
...
Both plants and animals release carbon
dioxide during respiration
...
When plants and animals die they return their
carbon to the soil
...
Oxygen Cycle
>
>
3
...
4 The Nitrogen Cycle
Carnivorous animals feed on herbivorous animals that live on plants
...
These small
‘soil animals’ break the waste material into
smaller bits on which microscopic bacteria and
fungi can act
...
Thus nutrients are recycled
back from animals to plants
...
Thus
the nitrogen cycle on which
life is dependent is completed
...
The nitrates are a part of the plant’s
metabolism, which help in
forming new plant proteins
...
The nitrogen is then transferred to carnivorous animals when they
feed on the herbivores
...
4
...
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>
>
Oxygen is taken up by plants and animals from the air during respiration
...
This
links the Oxygen Cycle to the Carbon
Cycle
...
Thus plant life plays an
important role in our lives which we
frequently do not appreciate
...
60
4/9/2004, 5:08 PM
closely interlinked to soil animals, fungi and even
bacteria in the soil
...
But we need to understand
that it is the unseen small animals, plants and
microscopic forms of life that are of great value
for the functioning of the ecosystem
...
4
...
Energy from sunlight is
converted by plants themselves into growing
new plant material which includes leaves, flowers, fruit, branches, trunks and roots of plants
...
The plants are
used by herbivorous animals as food, which
gives them energy
...
Energy is also used for
activities such as looking for food, finding shelter, breeding and bringing up young ones
...
Thus the different plant
and animal species are linked to one another
through food chains Each food chain has three
chains
...
However as each plant or animal
can be linked to several other plants or
animals through many different linkages, these inter-linked chains can be
depicted as a complex food web This
web
...
The energy in the ecosystem can be depicted in the form of a food pyramid or
pyramid
...
ers The pyramid has a narrower middle
section that depicts the number and biomass of herbivorous animals which are
animals,
called ‘first order consumers The apex
consumers’
...
ers Man is one of the animals at the
apex of the pyramid
...
When plants and animals die, this material is returned to the soil after being
broken down into simpler substances by
decomposers such as insects, worms,
bacteria and fungi so that plants can
absorb the nutrients through their roots
...
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Animals excrete waste products after digesting
food, which goes back to the soil
...
3
...
6 Integration of cycles in Nature
These cycles are a part of global life processes
...
These cycles
are however linked to those of adjacent ecosystems
...
This
is related to the geographical features of the
area, the climate and the chemical composition
of the soil
...
If mankind disturbs
these cycles beyond the limits that nature can
sustain, they will eventually break down and lead
to a degraded earth on which man will not be
able to survive
...
5 ECOLOGICAL SUCCESSION
Ecological succession is a process through which
ecosystems tend to change over a period of time
...
Other successional events may take
much longer periods of time extending to several decades
...
One can predict that an opened up area will
gradually be converted into a grassland, a
shrubland and finally a woodland and a forest if
permitted to do so without human interference
...
Developmental stages in the
ecosystem thus consist of a pioneer stage, a
series of changes known as serel stages, and
finally a climax stage
...
6 FOOD CHAINS, FOOD WEBS AND ECOLOGICAL PYRAMIDS
The transfer of energy from the source in plants
through a series of organisms by eating and
being eaten constitutes food chains
...
These food chains are not isolated sequences, but are interconnected with
each other
...
Each step of the food web is
called a trophic level
...
These trophic levels together form the ecological pyramid
...
6
...
When herbivorous animals feed on plants,
energy is transferred from plants to animals
...
The latter form the ‘detritus’ food
chain
...
Each chain usually has only four to five
such links
...
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The most frequent example of successional changes occur
in a pond ecosystem where it fluctuates from a
dry terrestrial habitat to the early colonisation
stage by small aquatic species after the monsoon, which gradually passes through to a mature aquatic ecosystem, and then reverts back
to its dry stage in summer where its aquatic life
remains dormant
...
6
...
This forms a food web
...
3
...
3 The ecological pyramids
In an ecosystem, green plants – the producers,
utilize energy directly from sunlight and convert
it into matter
...
The herbivorous animals
that eat plants are at the second trophic level
and are called primary consumers
...
Only a few animals form the third trophic level
consisting of carnivores at the apex of the food
pyramid
...
Much of the energy is used
up in activities of each living organism
...
7 INTRODUCTION, TYPES, CHARACTERISTIC FEATURES, STRUCTURE AND FUNCTIONS
Types of Ecosystems
Terrestrial Ecosystems
Aquatic Ecosystems
Forest
Pond
Grassland
Lake
Semi arid areas
Wetland
Deserts
River
Mountains
Delta
Islands
Marine
Ecosystems
Chapter3
...
What is the nature of the ecosystem? What
is its structure and its functions?
2
...
How are these ecosystems degraded?
4
...
•
Consumptive Use Value - Non-market
value of fruit, fodder, firewood, etc
...
]
•
Productive Use Value - Commercial
value of timber, fish, medicinal plants,
etc
...
Indirect Values:
These are uses that do not have easy ways to
quantify them in terms of a clearly definable
price
...
•
Existence value - ethical and emotional
aspects of the existence of wildlife and
nature
...
Where
the land is intensively used, these have been
gradually modified over several thousand years
into agricultural and pastoral regions
...
Though this
has increased production of food and provides the raw material for ‘consumer’ goods
that we use, the overuse and misuse of land
and natural ecosystems has led to a serious
degradation of our environment
...
Similarly, improper use of resources can destroy the services that the natural ecosystems provide
...
When our human population
was small, most ecosystems could supply all our
needs
...
sustainably’
...
This has resulted in an ‘unsusunsustainable use’ of natural resources
...
Human
well being itself is then seriously affected
...
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...
7
...
Natural vegetation looks vastly different from a
group of planted trees, which are in orderly
rows
...
The landscapes that make up
various types of forests look very different from
each other
...
Each forest type forms
a habitat for a specific community of animals
that are adapted to live in it
...
Forests on
mountains and hills differ from those along
river valleys
...
Forests also vary in their plant communities in response to the type of soil
...
For instance coniferous trees occur in the
Himalayas
...
Thorn trees grow in arid areas
...
Wild sheep and goats live
high up in the Himalayas
...
Evergreen forests of the
Western Ghats and North East India are
most rich in plant and animal species
...
Plants include the trees, shrubs, climbers,
grasses, and herbs in the forest
...
The animals include species of mammals, birds,
reptiles, amphibians, fish, insects and other invertebrates and a variety of microscopic animals
...
Man is a part
of these forest ecosystems and the local people
depend directly on the forest for several natural
resources that act as their life support systems
...
Thus they use
forest produce indirectly from the market
...
Forests in India can
be broadly divided into Coniferous forests and
Broadleaved forests
...
They can also be classified according to the most
abundant species of trees such as Sal or Teak
forests
...
Coniferous forests grow in the Himalayan mountain region, where the temperatures are low
...
They
Ecosystems
Chapter3
...
Some even get two
monsoons, such as in Southern India
...
There is no dry leafless phase as in a
deciduous forest
...
The trees overlap with each
other to form a continuous canopy
...
Only a few shade
loving plants can grow in the ground
layer in areas where some light filters down from the closed canopy
...
The barks of the trees are covered
in moss
...
Coniferous forest
Evergreen forest
Broadleaved forest
have cones instead of seeds and are
called gymnosperms
...
Broadleaved forests have large
leaves of various shapes
...
These forests grow in
areas where the monsoon lasts for sevEnvironmental Studies for Undergraduate Courses
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Some of
these trees have small leaves,
while other species have thick,
waxy leaves to reduce water
losses during transpiration
...
Many of these plants
have thorns, which reduce water loss and protect them from
herbivores
...
These plants are able to grow
Deciduous forests are found in regions
with a moderate amount of seasonal
rainfall that lasts for only a few months
...
The deciduous
trees shed their leaves during the winter and hot summer months
...
Thus
there are periods of leaf fall and canopy
regrowth
...
Mangrove
Thorn forests are found in the semi- arid
regions of India
...
Thorny plants are
Ecosystems
Chapter3
...
Himalayan Broadleaved
Maple, oak
Snow leopard, Hangul,
Himalayan brown bear,
Musk deer, Himalayan
Wolf
...
Pigmy Hog, Rhino,
Liontailed macaque
Deciduous – Dry
Teak, Ain,
Terminalia
Tiger, Chital, Barking deer,
Babblers, Flycatchers, Hornbills
...
Wolf, Bustard, Florican,
Bustards,
Mangrove Delta
Forests
Avicenia
Crocodile, shorebirds – sandpipers,
plovers, fish, crustacea
...
in a mix of saline and fresh water
...
The mangrove
trees have breathing roots that emerge from
the mudbanks
...
Over-exploitation for fuel wood
or timber, and conversion to monoculture plantations for timber or other products, impoverishes local people as the economic benefit goes
to people who live elsewhere
...
Eventually the forest is completely degraded
...
It is well-known that under the canopy of a natural forest, it is cooler than outside the forest
...
People depend on fuelwood to
cook food, collect fodder for domestic animals,
cut building material for housing, collect
medicinal plants that have been known for
generations for several ailments and use a variety of non timer forest products such as fiber,
cane, gum, to make household articles
...
For instance a soft wood is used for the yok of a
bullock cart while a very hard wood is used for
its axil
...
p65
During the monsoon, the forest retains moisture and slowly releases it through perennial
streams during the rest of the year
...
The loss
of forest cover in the catchments of a river thus
leads to irreversible changes such as excessive
soil erosion, large run-off of surface water during monsoons leading to flash floods, and a
shortage of water once the monsoons are over
...
New industrial
products are being produced from the wild
plants of the forest
...
Forest Products
Direct uses of forest products
Fruits – mango, jamun, awla
Roots – Dioscoria
Medicine – Gloriosa, Foxglove
Fuelwood – many species of trees and shrubs
Small timber for building huts and houses
nomic value as they are collected, sold and marketed
...
Other people get them
indirectly from the market
...
Urban people use these forest resources indirectly as all their food and other goods come
from agricultural areas that are dependent on
the neighbouring forests
...
Forest cover reduces surface runoff of rainwater and allows
ground water to be stored
...
Once soil is lost by erosion, it can
take thousands of years to reform
...
It is cooler and more
moist under the shade of the trees in the forest
...
The wild relatives of our crop plants and fruit
trees have special characteristics in their genes
which are used to develop new crops and newer
varieties of fruit
...
If timber is felled beyond a certain
limit the forest cannot regenerate
...
The more sensitive species cannot survive
under these changed conditions
...
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forest resources is an unsustainable way of misusing our limited forest resources
...
This
leads to forest degradation and finally changes
the ecosystem into wasteland
...
Developmental activities such as rapid population growth together with, urbanisation,
industrialisation and the increasing use of consumer goods, leads to over utilisation of forest
produce
...
It is estimated that
India’s forest cover has decreased from about
33% to 11% in the last century
...
Forests are also lost by
mining and building dams
...
As the forest is fragmented into
small patches its wild plant and animal species
become extinct
...
Extinction is forever
...
Agricultural people do not get enough
fuelwood, small timber, etc
...
Urban people who depend on food from agricultural areas, which in
turn depend on neighbouring forest ecosystems
have to pay a higher price for food as human
population grows
...
As their numbers decrease they are unable to effectively pol-
The rain that falls on deforested land flows directly into nearby rivers
...
People thus do not
get a sufficient quantity of water throughout
the year
...
Thus agriculture is seriously affected
in such areas
...
Wild animals lose their habitat
...
Residual forests must be protected from being destroyed
any further if all the diverse species of plants
and animals are to be kept for future generations
...
This can be done by using alternate sources of energy instead of fuelwood
...
Afforestation needs to be done continuously from
which fuelwood and timber can be judiciously
used
...
3
...
2 Grassland ecosystems
A wide range of landscapes in which the vegetation is mainly formed by grasses and small
annual plants are adapted to India’s various climatic conditions
...
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This leads
to a decrease in agricultural yields
...
The low rainfall prevents the growth of a large
number of trees and shrubs, but is sufficient to
support the growth of grass cover during the
monsoon
...
In the
next monsoon the grass cover grows back from
the root stock and the seeds of the previous
year
...
A variety of grasses, herbs, and several species
of insects, birds and mammals have evolved so
that they are adapted to these wide-open grass
covered areas
...
Man began to use these grasslands as pastures to feed his livestock when he began to
domesticate animals and became a pastoralist
in ancient times
...
In the Himalayan mountains there are the high cold Himalayan pastures
...
There are semi-arid grasslands in Western India, parts of Central India,
and in the Deccan Plateau
...
The grasslands at a lower level form
patches along with coniferous or broadleaved
forests
...
The animals migrate up
Himalayan Pastures
into the high altitude grasslands in summer and
move down into the forest in winter when the
snow covers the grassland
...
Himalayan hill slopes are covered with
thousands of colourful flowering plants
...
The Terai consists of patches of tall grasslands
interspersed with a Sal forest ecosystem
...
The Sal forest
patches cover the elevated regions and the Himalayan foothills
...
This ecosystem extends as a belt south of the Himalayan
foothills
...
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Semiarid grassland
patches of forest that occur along the streams
and in depressions
...
The grasses are the major producers of biomass
in these regions
...
Some grass and herb species are more sensitive
to excessive grazing and are suppressed if the
area is over grazed
...
Thus overused or frequently burnt grasslands are degraded and are poor in plant species diversity
...
Several
mammals such as the wolf, the blackbuck, the
chinkara, and birds such as the bustards and
floricans are adapted to these arid conditions
...
It is teaming with insect
life on which the insectivorous birds feed
...
This forms a patchwork of grassland on the
slopes and forest habitats along the streams and
lowlying areas
...
Certain grassland types form when clearings are made in different forest types
...
Grasslands have
diverse species of insects that pollinate crops
...
All these carnivorous animals help to
control insect pests in adjoining agricultural
lands
...
Overutilization and changes in landuse of the
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Farmers who keep cattle or goats,
as well as shepherds who keep sheep, are highly
dependent on grasslands
...
Fodder is collected and stored to feed cattle when
there is no grass left for them to graze in summer
...
The thorny bushes and branches of
the few trees that are seen in grasslands are
used as a major source of fuelwood
...
The grassland
cover in the country in terms of permanent pastures now covers only 3
...
A
major threat to natural grasslands is the conversion of grasslands into irrigated farmlands
...
After continuous irrigation such land
becomes saline and useless in a few years
...
This
provides short-term economic gains but result
in long-term economic and ecological losses
...
Increasing this pressure by increasing the number of domestic animals reduces the ‘naturalness’ of the grassland
ecosystem leading to its degradation
...
Cattle, sheep and goat grazing, and lighting repeated fires affects grasslands
adversely
...
Thus
some of the grassland patches which are in a
less disturbed state and have retained their special plants and animals need to be urgently protected
...
When animals overgraze the
area, the grasses are converted into flat stubs
with very little green matter
...
They are thus unable
to regenerate
...
If
this is done too frequently the grasslands begin
to deteriorate
...
The land is degraded, as there is no
grass to hold the soil in place
...
Why are our grassland species vanishing?
Most people feel that it is only our forests and
its wildlife that is disappearing
...
Many of the grassland species have disappeared
from several parts of India in which they were
found 50 or 60 years ago
...
The Wolf is now highly threatened
...
Birds such as the beautiful Great Indian Bustards
are vanishing
...
If these animals and
birds are killed or their habitat is reduced further, their extinction will rapidly follow
...
Local people will not
be able to support their livestock herds
...
The genes of wild grasses are extremely
useful for developing new crop varieties
...
It is possible that genes from
wild herbivores such as wild sheep, goats and
antelopes may be used for developing new
strains of domestic animals
...
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How can grassland ecosystems be conserved?
Grasslands should not be overgrazed and areas
of the grasslands should be closed for grazing
...
A part of the grassland in an area must be closed
every year so that a rotational grazing pattern is
established
...
In hilly areas soil and water management in each micro-catchment helps grasslands to return to a natural highly productive
ecosystem
...
Their management should focus on preserving all their unique species of
plants and animals
...
The open
grassland is the habitat of its specialised fauna
...
What should we do?
• There is a need to preserve the few natural
grassland areas that still survive by creating
National Parks and Wildlife Sanctuaries in
all the different types of grasslands
...
They must be carefully protected
in the few National Parks and Wildlife Sanctuaries that have natural grassland habitats
as well as outside these Protected Areas
...
3
...
3 Desert ecosystem
Desert and semi arid lands are highly specialised
and sensitive ecosystems that are easily destroyed by human activities
...
What is a desert or a semi-arid ecosystem?
Deserts and semi arid areas are located in Western India and the Deccan Plateau
...
There are
also cold deserts such as in Ladakh, which are
located in the high plateaus of the Himalayas
...
This has sand
dunes
...
In most areas of the Thar the rainfall is scanty
and sporadic
...
In the adjoining semi arid tract
the vegetation consists of a few shrubs and
thorny trees such as kher and babul
...
In the summers they
are similar to a desert landscape
...
If
we are all concerned about our disappearing grasslands and their wonderful wildlife,
the Government will be motivated to protect them
...
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these are low-lying areas near the sea, they get
converted to salt marshes during the monsoons
...
The Great Rann is famous,
as it is the only known breeding colony of the
Greater and Lesser Flamingos in our country
...
Desert and semi arid regions have a number of
highly specialized insects and reptiles
...
Some of the commoner birds include partridges, quails and
sandgrouse
...
Areas that have a little moisture, such as along
the watercourses, have been used for growing
crops such as jowar, and bajra
...
These
can be used for genetic engineering and developing arid land crops for the future
...
Conversion of these lands
through extensive irrigation systems has
changed several of the natural characteristics
of this region
...
The region
becomes highly unproductive as it becomes saline
...
Thus human activities destroy
the naturalness of this unique ecosystem
...
How can desert ecosystems be conserved?
Desert ecosystems are extremely sensitive
...
Desert
people have traditionally protected their meagre water resources
...
The tradition began when the ruler of their
region ordered his army to cut down trees for
his own use
...
There is an urgent need to protect residual
patches of this ecosystem within National Parks
and Wildlife Sanctuaries in desert and semi arid
areas
...
In Kutch, areas of the little Rann,
which is the only home of the Wild Ass, will be
destroyed by the spread of salt works
...
There is a sharp reduction in the habitat available for its specialised species bringing
them to the verge of extinction
...
3
...
4 Aquatic ecosystems
The aquatic ecosystems constitute the marine
environments of the seas and the fresh water
systems in lakes, rivers, ponds and wetlands
...
They provide goods
that people collect for food such as fish and
Ecosystems
Chapter3
...
Natural aquatic systems such as rivers and seas break down chemical and organic
wastes created by man
...
Beyond a
certain limit, pollution destroys this natural function
...
Over-fishing leads to a fall in the
fish catch
...
When
wetlands are drained, their connected rivers tend
to cause floods
...
Water is an important factor in all our ecosystems
...
There is very little fresh water on earth, which is a key resource for people
all over the world
...
These species are adapted to live in
different types of aquatic habitats
...
Aquatic ecosystems may be classified as being
stagnant ecosystems, or running water ecosystems
...
The aquatic ecosystems are
classified into freshwater brackish and marine
freshwater,
ecosystems, which are based on the salinity levels
...
Ponds, tanks and
lakes are ecosystems where water does not flow
...
They have expanses of shallow water
with aquatic vegetation, which forms an ideal
habitat for fish, crustacea and water birds
...
Coral reefs are very rich in species and
Types of Aquatic ecosystems
Fresh water ecosystems
Flowing water
Streams
Still water
Rivers
Brackish water
Ponds,
wetlands,
lakes
Deltas
Saline water
Coastal
shallows,
Coral reefs
Deep ocean
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...
The richest coral reefs in India are around the
Andaman and Nicobar islands and in the gulf of
Kutch
...
Brackish water ecosystems in river deltas are
covered by mangrove forests and are among
the world’s most productive ecosystems in terms
of biomass production
...
As the pond fills in the monsoon a large number of food chains are formed
...
These are in turn eaten by birds such
as kingfishers, herons and birds of prey
...
They act on
the detritus, which is broken down into nutrients which aquatic plants can absorb, thus completing the nutrient cycle in the pond
...
Animals such as frogs, snails and worms remain dormant in the mud, awaiting the next monsoon
...
There are differences in a pond that is temporary and has water only in the monsoon, and a
larger tank or lake that is an aquatic ecosystem
throughout the year
...
Lake ecosystem
When a pond begins to fill during the rains, its
life forms such as the algae and microscopic
animals, aquatic insects, snails, and worms come
out of the floor of the pond where they have
remained dormant in the dry phase
...
The vegetation in the
Pond
A lake ecosystem functions like a giant permanent pond
...
This is transferred to the microscopic animals,
which feed on the algae
...
The small animals such as
snails are used as food by small carnivorous fish, which in turn are eaten by larger
carnivorous fish
...
Energy cycles through the lake ecosystem
from the sunlight that penetrates the water surface to the plants
...
Animals excrete waste
products, which settle on the bottom of
the lake
...
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mals that live in the mud in the floor of the lake
...
During this process plants use Carbon from CO2 for their
growth and in the process release Oxygen
...
Stream and River ecosystems
Streams and rivers are flowing water ecosystems
in which all the living forms are specially adapted
to different rates of flow
...
Other species of plants and animals
such as water beetles and skaters can live only
in slower moving water
...
They need crystal clear
water to be able to breed
...
As deforestation occurs in the hills the water in
the streams that once flowed throughout the
year become seasonal
...
in this ecosystem vary from microscopic algae
to large seaweeds
...
The shallow areas near Kutch and around the
Andaman and Nicobar Islands are some of the
most incredible coral reefs in the world
...
Fish, crustacea,
starfish, jellyfish and the polyps that deposit the
coral are a few of the thousands of species that
form this incredible world under the shallow sea
...
There are
many different types of coastal ecosystems
which are highly dependent on the tide
...
In the past, fishing was done at a sustainable
level
...
Now with intensive fishing by using
giant nets and mechanised boats, fish catch in
the Indian Ocean has dropped significantly
...
The stream or river can have a sandy, rocky or
muddy bed, each type having its own species of
plants and animals
...
The Indian Ocean, the Arabian Sea and the Bay
of Bengal constitute the marine ecosystems
around peninsular India
...
Both
these are different ecosystems
...
In many areas the fish catch has decreased during the last decade or two
...
p65
Beaches can be sandy, rocky, shell covered or
muddy
...
There are different
crustacea such as crabs that make holes in the
sand
...
We need clean water to drink and for other
domestic uses
...
Fisherfolk use the aquatic ecosystems to earn a
livelihood
...
They also
collect edible plants
...
Over fishing leads to a
serious decline in the catch and a long-term loss
of income for fisherfolk
...
Modern man impounds water in dams to be able
to store it throughout the year
...
However this leads to problems
for tribal people who have lived there before
the dams were built as they are displaced to
build large dams
...
The poor tribal folk become even
poorer as the natural resources they depend on
are taken away as their lands are submerged
under the water of the dam
...
A large proportion of this energy is used
by urban people, by agriculturists in irrigated
farmlands and in enormous quantities for industry
...
While water from dams
used for irrigation has lead to economic prosperity in some areas, in semiarid areas that are
artificially irrigated the high level of evaporation
leads to severe salinisation as salts are brought
up into the surface layers of the soil
...
What are the threats to aquatic ecosystems?
Water pollution occurs from sewage and poorly
managed solid waste in urban areas when it
enters the aquatic ecosystem of lakes and rivers
...
Fish and
crustacea cannot breathe and are killed
...
Gradually the natural flora
and fauna of the aquatic ecosystem is destroyed
...
Pesticides used in adjacent fields
pollute water and kills off its aquatic animals
...
Contamination by heavy metals and
other toxic chemicals affects the health of people
who live near these areas as they depend on
this water
...
A survey conducted by the
Assam Remote Sensing Application Center
(ARSAC), Guwahati, and the Space Research
Center, Ahemadabad, has revealed that
1367 out of 3513 wetlands in Assam are
under severe threat due to invasion of
aquatic weeds and several developmental
activities
...
Though the wetlands of Assam have the capacity of producing 5,000 tones of fish per
hectare per year, around 20,000 tones of
fish have to be imported to meet local demands
...
Ecosystems
Chapter3
...
It does not
make sense to allow water to be polluted and
then try to clean it up
...
Thus dams across rivers decrease the population of species that require running water, while
favouring those that need standing water
...
These sanctuaries in
aquatic ecosystems protect a variety of forms
of life as well as rare fish which are now highly
endangered such as the Mahseer
...
As the proportion of
the earth’s surface that is naturally covered by
wetlands is very small compared to forests or
grasslands, the wetland ecosystems are very
highly threatened
...
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UNIT 4:
Biodiversity
4
...
1
...
1
...
1
...
2 BIOGEOGRAPHIC CLASSIFICATION OF INDIA
84
4
...
3
...
3
...
3
...
3
...
3
...
3
...
4 BIODIVERSITY AT GLOBAL, NATIONAL AND LOCAL LEVELS
88
4
...
6 HOTSPOTS OF BIODIVERSITY
90
4
...
8 ENDANGERED AND ENDEMIC SPECIES OF INDIA
4
...
1 Common Plant species
4
...
2 Common Animal species
94
94
99
4
...
9
...
9
...
1 INTRODUCTION
The great variety of life on earth has provided
for man’s needs over thousands of years
...
Those that used
this “bounty of nature” carefully and sustainably
survived
...
What is biodiversity?
Biological diversity deals with the degree of
nature’s variety in the biosphere
...
4
...
1 Genetic diversity
Science has attempted to classify and categorize the variability in nature for over a century
...
This information has helped in utilizing the
earth’s biological wealth for the benefit of humanity and has been integral to the process of
‘development’
...
However this has also produced the
modern consumerist society, which has had a
negative effect on the diversity of biological resources upon which it is based
...
This
can only happen if we manage biodiversity as a
precious resource and prevent the extinction of
species
...
82
Each member of any animal or plant species differs widely from other individuals in its genetic
makeup because of the large number of combinations possible in the genes that give every
individual specific characteristics
...
This genetic variability is essential for
a healthy breeding population of a species
...
Eventually this can lead
to the extinction of the species
...
Today the variety of nature’s bounty is being further
harnessed by using wild relatives of crop plants
to create new varieties of more productive crops
and to breed better domestic animals
...
4
...
2 Species diversity
The number of species of plants and animals
that are present in a region constitutes its species diversity
...
Some areas are more rich in species than others
...
A natural forest ecosystem provides
a large number of non-wood products that local people depend on such as fruit, fuel wood,
fodder, fiber, gum, resin and medicines
...
In the long-term the economic sustainable returns from non-wood forest products is said to
be greater than the returns from felling a forest
for its timber
...
Modern intensive agricultural ecosystems have a relatively lower diversity of crops
than traditional agropastoral farming systems
where multiple crops were planted
...
8 million species on earth
...
Areas that are rich in species
diversity are called ‘hotspots’ of diversity
...
productivity eventually decreases and they are
then said to be degraded
...
4
...
3 Ecosystem diversity
Most species appear to have a life span extending over several million years
...
Food chains, prey-predator
relationships, parasitism (complete dependence
on another species), commensalism (a partnership beneficial to both species), etc
...
Behavioural patterns of the
different species comprising a community of species links them to each other through their
breeding biology, feeding patterns, migrations,
etc
...
The Earth’s ancient history has seen
periods of mega extinctions, which have been
followed by periods of formation of new species
...
Ecosystem diversity can
be described for a specific geographical region,
or a political entity such as a country, a State or
a taluka
...
, as well as aquatic ecosystems
such as rivers, lakes, and the sea
...
An ecosystem is referred to as ‘natural’ when it
is relatively undisturbed by human activities, or
‘modified’ when it is changed to other types of
uses, such as farmland or urban areas
...
If
natural ecosystems are overused or misused their
Biodiversity
Evolution and the Genesis of Biodiversity:
The origins of life on earth some three and a
half billion years ago are obscure
...
Alternative possibilities such as life beginning in a muddy ooze,
or of life having been seeded from outer space
have also been suggested
...
Unicellular unspecialized forms gradually evolved
into complex multi-cellular plants and animals
...
Thus the abiotic changes in nature such as climatic and atmospheric upheavals, repeated glaciations, continental drift and the formation of
geographical barriers, segregated different communities of plants and animals and gradually
lead to the formation of new species over millions of years
...
This however took millions of years, as
evolution is a very slow process
...
During the recent past however, extinctions due to the activities of modern man have
begun to take place so rapidly that nature has
had no time to evolve new species
...
4
...
The diversity of life at all three organisational
levels, genetic, species and ecosystem, is thus
being rapidly modified by modern man
...
9
...
5
...
6
...
7
...
The Western Ghats in Maharashtra,
Karnataka and Kerala
...
The long western and eastern coastal belt
with sandy beaches, forests and mangroves
...
3 VALUE OF BIODIVERSITY
4
...
Each of these regions contains a variety of ecosystems such as forests, grasslands,
lakes, rivers, wetlands, mountains and hills,
which have specific plant and animal species
...
The cold mountainous snow covered Trans
Himalayan region of Ladakh
...
The Himalayan ranges and valleys of Kashmir, Himachal Pradesh, Uttarakhand, Assam
and other North Eastern States
...
The Terai, the lowland where the Himalayan
rivers flow into the plains
...
Production of oxygen, reducing carbon
dioxide, maintaining the water cycle, protecting soil are important services
...
Forests are
the main mechanism for the conversion of carbon dioxide into carbon and oxygen
...
Global warming is melting ice caps, resulting in a rise in the sea level which will submerge the low lying areas in the world
...
Biological diversity is also essential for preserving ecological processes, such as fixing and recycling of nutrients, soil formation, circulation
and cleansing of air and water, global life support (plants absorb CO2, give out O2), maintainEnvironmental Studies for Undergraduate Courses
ing the water balance within ecosystems, watershed protection, maintaining stream and river
flows throughout the year, erosion control and
local flood reduction
...
This is most obvious in the tribal communities
who gather resources from the forest, or
fisherfolk who catch fish in marine or freshwater ecosystems
...
Urban communities generally use the greatest amount of
goods and services, which are all indirectly drawn
from natural ecosystems
...
This
diversity of living organisms which is present in
the wilderness, as well as in our crops and livestock, plays a major role in human ‘development’
...
4
...
1 Consumptive use value
The direct utilisation of timber, food, fuelwood,
fodder by local communities
...
They know the qualities
and different uses of wood from different species of trees, and collect a large number of local
fruits, roots and plant material that they use as
food, construction material or medicines
...
Biodiversity
Man and the Web of Life
The Biodiversity of an area influences every
aspect of the lives of people who inhabit it
...
Even people
living in urban areas are dependent on the
ecological services provided by the wilderness in the PAs
...
It is linked with every service that nature provides us
...
While it is well known that plant life removes
carbon dioxide and releases the oxygen we
breathe, it is less obvious that fungi, small
soil invertebrates and even microbes are essential for plants to grow
...
The wilderness is an outcome of a long evolutionary process that has created an
unimaginably large diversity of living species,
their genetic differences and the various ecosystems on earth in which all living creatures
live
...
Think
about this and we cannot but want to protect out earth’s unique biodiversity
...
85
4
...
2 Productive use value
Marketable goods
...
development
...
This is called biological prospecting
...
3
...
To the pharmacist, biological diversity is the raw material from which
new drugs can be identified from plant or animal products
...
For the agricultural scientist the
biodiversity in the wild relatives of crop plants is
the basis for developing better crops
...
Originally this was
done by selecting or pollinating crops artificially
to get a more productive or disease resistant
strain
...
New
crop varieties (cultivars) are being developed
using the genetic material found in wild relatives of crop plants through biotechnology
...
Thus
these wild species are the building blocks for
the betterment of human life and their loss is a
great economic loss to mankind
...
While traditional societies which had a small
population and required less resources had preserved their biodiversity as a life supporting resource, modern man has rapidly depleted it even
to the extent of leading to the irrecoverable loss
due to extinction of several species
...
The biodiversity has to a great extent
been preserved by traditional societies that valued it as a resource and appreciated that its
depletion would be a great loss to their society
...
‘Ecosystem people’
value biodiversity as a part of their livelihood as
well as through cultural and religious sentiments
...
In recent years farmers have begun to receive economic incentives to grow cash crops for national
or international markets, rather than to supply
local needs
...
Preservation of biodiversity has now become
essential for industrial growth and economic
86
Environmental Studies for Undergraduate Courses
Commonly used modern drugs derived from plant sources:
DRUG
PLANT SOURCE
USE
Atropine
Belladonna
Anticholinergic: reduces intestinal pain in diarrhoea
...
Caffeine
Tea, Coffee
Stimulant of the central nervous system
...
Cocaine
Cocoa
Analgesic and local anesthetic: reduces pain and
prevents pain during surgery
...
Morphine
Opium poppy
Analgesic: controls pain
...
Digitoxin
Common foxglove
Cardiac stimulant used in heart diseases
...
L-Dopa
Velvet bean
Controls Parkinson’s Disease which leads to jerky
movements of the hands
Ergotamine
Smut-of-rye or ergot
Control of haemorrhage and migraine headaches
...
Gossypol
Cotton
Male contraceptive
...
Menthol
Mint
Rubefacient: increases local blood supply and reduces
pain on local application
...
Papain
Papaya
Dissolves excess protein and mucus, during digestion
...
Quinine
Yellow cinochona
Antimalarial
...
Scopolamine
Thorn apple
Sedative
...
Vinblastine,
vincristine
Rosy periwinkle
(Vinca rosea) (Sadaphali)
Anticancer agent: Controls cancer in children
...
Wilson
(Norton Paperback
...
3
...
All forms of life have the right
to exist on earth
...
Don’t plants and
animals have an equal right to live and exist on
our planet which is like an inhabited spaceship?
We do not know if life as we know it exists elsewhere in the universe
...
Indian civilization has over several generations preserved
nature through local traditions
...
We have in our country a
large number of sacred groves or ‘deorais’ preserved by tribal people in several States
...
4
...
5 Aesthetic value
Knowledge and an appreciation of the presence
of biodiversity for its own sake is another reason to preserve it
...
Biodiversity is a beautiful and wonderful aspect of nature
...
Watch a spider weave its complex
web
...
It is magnificent
and fascinating
...
Valmiki begins
his epic story with a couplet on the unfortunate
88
killing of a crane by a hunter
...
4
...
6 Option value
Keeping future possibilities open for their use is
called option value
...
To continue to improve cultivars
and domestic livestock, we need to return to
wild relatives of crop plants and animals
...
4
...
8 million species known
and documented by scientists in the world
...
5 to 20 billion! Thus the majority of
species are yet to be discovered
...
In contrast, the majority of the countries capable of
exploiting biodiversity are Northern nations, in
the economically developed world
...
Thus the developed world has come to support
the concept that biodiversity must be considered to be a ‘global resource’
...
India’s sovereignty over its biological
diversity cannot be compromised without a revolutionary change in world thinking about sharing of all types of natural resources
...
The species found in these countries,
however, are different from our own
...
While few of the
other ‘megadiversity nations’ have developed
the technology to exploit their species for biotechnology and genetic engineering, India is capable of doing so
...
International agreements such as the World
Heritage Convention attempt to protect and
support such areas
...
These include
Manas on the border between Bhutan and India, Kaziranga in Assam, Bharatpur in U
...
,
Nandadevi in the Himalayas, and the Sunderbans
in the Ganges delta in West Bengal
...
4
...
A split in the single giant continent
around 70 million years ago, led to the formation of northern and southern continents, with
India a part of Gondwanaland - the southern
landmass, together with Africa, Australia and
the Antarctic
...
As the intervening shallow Tethis Sea closed down, plants and
animals that had evolved both in Europe and in
Biodiversity
the Far East migrated into India before the
Himalayas had formed
...
Thus India’s special geographical position between three distinctive centres of biological evolution and radiation of species is responsible for
our rich and varied biodiversity
...
India has 350 different mammals (rated eight highest in the world),
1,200 species of birds (eighth in the world), 453
species of reptiles (fifth in the world) and 45,000
plant species, of which most are angiosperms,
(fifteenth in the world)
...
India has 50,000 known
species of insects, including 13,000 butterflies
and moths
...
It is estimated that 18% of Indian plants are
endemic to the country and found nowhere
else in the world
...
Among amphibians found
in India, 62% are unique to this country
...
High endemism has also been recorded for various groups of insects, marine
worms, centipedes, mayflies and fresh water
sponges
...
This is a result of several thousand years
during which civilizations have grown and flourished in the Indian subcontinent
...
The highest diversity of cultivars is concentrated in the high rainfall areas of the Western Ghats, Eastern Ghats, Northern Himalayas
and the North-Eastern hills
...
India has 27
indigenous breeds of cattle, 40 breeds of sheep,
22 breeds of goats and 8 breeds of buffaloes
...
6 HOTSPOTS OF BIODIVERSITY
The earth’s biodiversity is distributed in specific
ecological regions
...
Of these, 200
are said to be the richest, rarest and most distinctive natural areas
...
It has been estimated that 50,000 endemic
plants which comprise 20% of global plant life,
probably occur in only 18 ‘hot spots’ in the
world
...
The rate at which the extinction of species is
occurring throughout our country remains ob-
Global species diversity
Group
No
...
, 1986)
(Reven et al
...
, 1982)
Total: 1,435,662 SPECIES
From ‘Conserving the World’s Biological Diversity WRI, IUCN, CI, WWF-US, The World Bank
...
It is likely to be extremely high as our wilderness areas are shrinking rapidly
...
The Andaman and Nicobar Islands are
extremely rich in species and many subspecies
of different animals and birds have evolved
...
e
...
The Andaman
and Nicobar Islands alone have as many as 2200
species of flowering plants and 120 species of
ferns
...
The
Northeast States have 1,500 endemic plant species
...
Coral reefs in Indian waters surround the
Andaman and Nicobar Islands, Lakshadweep
Islands, the Gulf areas of Gujarat and Tamil
Nadu
...
7 THREATS TO BIODIVERSITY: HABITAT
LOSS, POACHING OF WILDLIFE, MAN-WILDLIFE CONFLICTS
Man has begun to overuse or misuse most of
these natural ecosystems
...
Mangroves have been cleared for fuelwood and
prawn farming, which has led to a decrease in
the habitat essential for breeding of marine fish
...
These changes have grave economic implications in the longer term
...
The Sanctuary was initiated in 1983, over
674 sq km forming a part of the 1334 sq km
Ranthambore Tiger Reserve
...
The primary occupation of the predominant
Meena and Gujjar communities is pastoralism and subsistence agriculture
...
Other pressures were from exploitation of timber and
fuelwood and mining
...
The Forest Department supported the villagers in the formation of Forest Protection
Committees and Van Suraksha Samitis
...
Illegal
felling was checked
...
The
Forest Protection Committees (FPCs) were
also successful in stopping the mining in the
Sanctuary
...
The people not only protect their
forests but also use their resources judiciously
...
Scientists have estimated that human activities are likely to eliminate approximately 10 million species by the year 2050
...
There are about 1
...
The number of
species however is likely to be greater by a factor of at least 10
...
Unfortunately at the present
rate of extinction about 25% of the worlds’ species will undergo extinction fairly rapidly
...
Much of this mega extinction spasm is
related to human population growth, industrialization and changes in land-use patterns
...
The loss of wild habitats due to rapid
human population growth and short term economic development are major contributors to
the rapid global destruction of biodiversity
...
Encroachments have been legalized repeatedly
...
Grasslands that were once sustainably
used by a relatively smaller number of human
beings and their cattle are either changed to
other forms of use or degraded by overgrazing
...
Habitat loss also results from man’s
introduction of species from one area into another, disturbing the balance in existing communities
...
92
CASE STUDY:
Kokkare Bellure – Karnataka: Co-existence (Man and Wildlife)
The pelican, which is an endangered species
breeds in large numbers at Kokkare Bellur
which is one of the ten known breeding sites
in India
...
In December
every year, hundreds of spot billed pelicans,
painted storks, ibis and other birds migrate
to this area to establish breeding colonies
on the tall tamarind trees in the center of
the village
...
The villagers
collect a rich supply of the natural fertilizer
that collects below the nests – the guano
...
The owners of the trees inhabited by the
birds dig deep pits under the trees, into which
the guano falls
...
They have
now planted trees around their homes to
encourage nesting
...
Such plantations
do not support the same biological diversity as
a multi-storied natural forest, which has a closed
canopy and a rich understorey of vegetation
...
Foraging cattle retard the regeneration of the forest as seedlings are constantly
trampled
...
This is a major factor to consider in evaluating
the quality of the ecosystem
...
Without alternate
sources of fodder this pressure cannot be decreased
...
Common
examples in India are lantana bushes, Eupatorium shrubs and ‘congress’ grass
...
These weeds spread at the expense of
the diverse range of indigenous undergrowth
species
...
In our country a variety of traditional farming
techniques have evolved over several centuries
...
When human population in
these areas was low, these were sustainable
Biodiversity
methods of agriculture
...
These methods are now unsustainable and are leading to a
loss of forest biodiversity
...
Turtles
are being massacred off the coast of Orissa
...
Poaching: Specific threats to certain animals are
related to large economic benefits
...
Bears are killed for
their gall bladders
...
A variety of wild
plants with real or at times dubious medicinal
value are being over harvested
...
Collection of garden plants includes
orchids, ferns and moss
...
We rarely see how they are
controlling our environment unless we study
nature
...
Man has no
right to do so
...
It is morally wrong to
allow man’s actions to lead to the extinction
of species
...
8 ENDANGERED AND ENDEMIC SPECIES
OF INDIA
Many plants are threatened due to overharvesting as ingredients in medicinal products
...
To protect endangered species India has created
the Wildlife Protection Act
...
Of the well-known species, there are several
which are endangered by human activity
...
Other species are found only
in India and are thus endemic or restricted to
our country
...
We know so little about the species diversity of
our country
...
Most of us are only aware
of the plight of a few glamorous large mammals, but we need to appreciate the threat to
the less known species of plants and animals
...
Several plant and animal species in the country
are now found in only one or a few Protected
Areas
...
The less well-known
major mammals restricted to a single area include the Indian wild ass, the Hangul or
Kashmir stag, the Golden langur, the pygmy
hog and a host of others
...
During the recent past,
vultures which were common a decade ago,
have suddenly disappeared and are now
highly threatened
...
Many
invertebrates are also threatened, including a
large number of species that inhabit our coral
reefs
...
Apart from major trees,
shrubs and climbers that are extremely habitat
specific and thus endangered, there are thousands of small herbs which are greatly threatened by habitat loss
...
94
4
...
1 Common Plant species
Teak: This tree is from the Southwest parts of
peninsular India
...
It yields a much sought after timber
used for making excellent furniture
...
As the stocks were
diminishing, the British selected areas which they
called Reserved Forests where teak was planted
for the Government’s use
...
The teak tree is identified by its large leaves,
which grow to more than 40 or 50cms long and
20cms wide
...
In the
winter, the trees shed all their leaves
...
Most natural teak forests have various other species of plants and
have a large number of wild animals
...
Environmental Studies for Undergraduate Courses
Sal: This is a common species of several types
of forests of the Northeastern region of India,
extending into Madhya Pradesh and Orissa
...
Sal wood is
hard and durable
...
The
sal forests are rich in wild mammals, birds, reptiles and insect life
...
Mango: This has become one of our most popular horticultural species with different varieties
grown all over the country
...
The mango tree is an evergreen species and gets
small flowers that are pollinated by insects
...
berries on which the larvae feed and grow
...
Ficus species are thus known as ‘keystone’ species in the
ecosystem and support a major part of the food
web in several ecosystems
...
Neem: This species is known as Azadirachta Indica
...
It has small yellow fruit
...
It is used extensively
as an environmentally friendly insecticide
...
Neem
Mango
Ficus sp
...
They are all ecologically of great importance as many different species of insects, birds
and mammals live on ficus berries
...
They are pollinated by a
specific wasp which lays its eggs inside the
Ficus
Biodiversity
Tamarind: One of the best known Indian trees,
it grows to a large size and is known to live for
over 200 years
...
The pulp in the fresh fruit is either
green or red
...
The tree is
commonly cultivated as a shade tree and for its
edible sour fruit which contains high concentrations of vitamin C
...
It is valued for its
timber as well as for fuelwood
...
It grows sparsely in tracts of
grassland and around farms
...
It remains green throughout
the year even under the driest conditions and is
browsed by wild animals and cattle
...
Its main characteristic
is its long sharp, straight thorns which prevent
excessive browsing of its older branches
...
Z
...
jujuba are
the most frequent species
...
The tree fruits extensively and
is eaten by a variety of birds and mammals
...
Jamun: This tree is an evergreen species which
has a tasty purple fruit
...
It grows in many parts of India and
has several varieties with fruit of different sizes
...
The
leaves are elliptical and leathery and its young
leaves are extensively used for making ‘bidis’
...
Tendu leaf collection necessitates burning undergrowth and slashing the branches of the trees
to get at the leaves
...
Jackfruit: A tree that is planted around many
villages and has huge fruit growing from its
branches
...
The fruit
when unripe is cooked
...
Flame of the Forest (Butea monosperma):
This tree grows in many parts of India
...
The flowers are
full of nectar which attracts monkeys and many
nectar dependent birds
...
There are around 50 Indian species
...
It
96
Coral Tree (Erythrina): A common deciduous
tree that is leafless in February when it gets
bright scarlet flowers that are used for their
nectar by many birds such as mynas, crows and
sunbirds, that act as its major pollinators
...
This tree can also
be propagated by cutting and planting its young
Environmental Studies for Undergraduate Courses
Erythrina
Pine
branches
...
Amla: This deciduous medium sized tree is
known for its sour, green-yellow fruit which is
rich in vitamin C
...
It is frequently
referred to as the Indian ‘olive’, to which it has
no similarity either in appearance or taste
...
It grows to an enormous
height with a wide girth
...
Quercus (Oak) is a large tree and is economically an important genus which includes many
trees known for their beautiful shape and their
changing seasonal colours
...
The fruit
is a large, hard, solitary characteristic nut (acorn)
...
It is a famous wood
for high quality furniture
...
Pine: There are 5 species of true pines that are
found in India in the Himalayan region
...
Pine resin
is used to make turpentine, rosin, tar and pitch
...
Pine leaves are thin and needle-like
...
Dispersal of pollen is aided by each
grain having two wings
...
Cycads along with
conifers make up the gymnosperms
...
There are five species found
in India, mostly in high rainfall areas
...
It
mostly grows in coastal plains
...
It produces the
familiar coconut, filled with liquid and a soft
white edible, initially jelly like material that hardens when the fruit ripens
...
It is extensively cultivated along the
coastal regions and islands of India
...
Orchids: This is the largest group of flowering
plants in the world with over 18,000 known
species
...
These plants are terrestrial or epiphytic
herbs
...
It grows in shallow poor quality soil
...
Orchid
and great variations in structure
...
This colourful petal
attracts pollinators
...
Orchids are however seen in several ecological conditions except extremes such as very
cold or very hot and dry ecosystems
...
The leaf winds around the struggling
insect which is then slowly digested
...
Its leaves are circular flat and covered with a waxy
coating which protects it from
water
...
The
fruit is a spongy cone with multiple round seeds
...
The rhizome, stalks of the leaves and
seeds are considered delicacies
...
The flower has been a traditional motif in Indian art
...
Grasses: Grasses form the second largest group
of flowering plants in the world
...
The economically important grasses include sugarcane, bamboo and cereals like rice, wheat, millets, maize,
etc
...
Bamboo: This is a group of large grasslike species that grow as a clump to great heights in
many forests of India
...
The young shoots are
used as food
...
Bamboos flower after more than two decades
...
The flowering produces
thousands of seeds which results in the slow
98
Environmental Studies for Undergraduate Courses
regrowth of the bamboo
...
Wild relatives of crop plants: All our present
day cultivated varieties of rice, which are grown
for food, come from wild varieties of rice, many
of which have originated in India, China and
Indonesia
...
Although wild varieties are not used
as food crops, they are important as they contain genes, which can be used to develop disease or pest resistance in crops
...
The rare Hangul deer is found only in Kashmir
...
The Barasingha, or
swamp deer, has wide hoofs that enable this
beautiful animal to live in boggy areas of the
Terai
...
The
tiny barking deer lives in many forest areas all
over India
...
Its call sounds
like the bark of a dog
...
8
...
Sambar live in small family parties especially in
hilly forested areas and feed mainly on shrubs
and leaves of low branches
...
Chital or spotted deer live in
large herds in forest clearings where they graze
on the grass
...
Each antler has three branches called tines
...
It lives in large herds
...
The
chinkara, also known as the Indian gazelle, is
a smaller animal and is pale brown in colour it
has beautiful curved horns
...
The nilgai is the largest of the dryland herbi99
vores
...
Nilgai have white
markings on the legs and head
...
Nilgiri Tahr
four times a month
...
In the recent past it has been extensively killed for the supposed medicinal properties of its bones that are used in Chinese
medicine
...
Indian
wild ass
A very special rare species is the Indian wild
ass, endemic to the Little Rann of Kutch
...
A single species, the Nilgiri tahr is found
in the Nilgiri and Annamalai hills in south India
...
The wild buffalo is now also restricted to the
Terai
...
It is threatened by
habitat loss and poaching for ivory
...
The best known predator of our forests is the
tiger
...
It preys on herbivores
such as sambar or chital or less frequently on
domestic animals
...
Its beautiful ring like markings camouflage it so perfectly that its prey cannot see
its stealthy approach
...
The most typical predator of the
HImalayas is the snow leopard, which is very
rare and poached for its beautiful skin which is
pale grey with dark grey ring-like markings
...
Another
threatened predator is the Himalayan wolf
...
Thus shepherds constantly
find ways to kill the wolves
...
There are several
species of Hornbills that
live on fruit
...
Frugivores such as parakeets, barbets and bulbuls live on fruit and are
often seen eating Ficus
fruits such as those of banyan and peepal
...
Our other common monkey is the rhesus macaque, which is
smaller and has a shorter tail than the bonnet
...
It is black
in colour, has long hair, a grey mane and a tassel at the end of its tail that looks like a lion’s
tail
...
The rare
golden langur, is golden yellow in colour and
lives along the banks of the Manas River in
Assam
...
The rare black nilgiri
langur lives in the southern Western Ghats,
Nilgiris and Annamalais
...
They include various species of flycatchers, bee-eaters, and others
...
The female is brown and does not
have the long tail feathers
...
There are over 1200 bird species found in India
in different habitats
...
Some Himalayan species however can also
Grasslands support many species of birds
...
The lizards include the
common garden lizard,
Fan throated
l i z a r d ,
Chamelion,
Skink, Common Monitor and Water Monitor
...
Indian snakes include the Rock Python,
Russell’s viper and the Vine snake
...
The Star tortoise
and
Travancore tortoise are now rare
...
Many turtles are becoming increasingly rare due
to poaching of adults and eggs
...
The
gharial is endemic to
India and is highly
threatened
...
Another rare
group of threatened birds
are the floricans
...
There are several species of
aquatic birds such as waders,
gulls and terns, which live
along the seashore and go out
Stilt
fishing many kilometers to the
sea
...
Aquatic birds in
freshwater are those with long legs and are
known as waders such as stilts and sandpipers
...
There are many species of
spectacular large birds associated with water or
marshy areas
...
Many aquatic species
are migrants
...
102
Amphibia:
Most of the amphibians found in India are frogs
and toads
...
These amphibians are mostly found in the hotspots in the
Northeast and the Western Ghats
...
Invertebrates:
Snail
Invertebrates include a variety of taxa that inhabit
both terrestrial and aquatic
ecosystems
...
Coral is formed by
Crab
colonies of polyp like
animals
...
There are more than a million insect species on earth
that are known to science
...
India is rich in its butterfly and moth species
...
The other species that are endangered include the marine
turtles, which are reptiles, and whales that are
mammals
...
Fish are
also now seriously affected by pollution
...
Mechanized
boats with giant, small-meshed nets are a major cause of depleting this resource
...
Many species of marine animals such as the
whales, sharks and dolphins that live in the
Indian Ocean are now threatened by extinction
due to fishing in the deep sea
...
net
Project Tiger: Project Tiger was launched
by the Government of India with the support of WWF-International in 1973 and was
the first such initiative aimed at protecting
this key species and all its habitats
...
By 2001 the
number of Tiger Reserves increased to 27,
covering an area of 37761 sq km
...
The Project tiger recognized the fact that tigers cannot be protected in isolation, and that to protect the
tiger, its habitat needed to be protected
...
3) The Book of Indian Birds, Salim Ali, BNHS
...
9 CONSERVATION OF BIODIVERSITY: INSITU AND EX-SITU
4
...
1 In-situ conservation
Biodiversity at all its levels, genetic species and
as intact ecosystems, can be best preserved insitu by setting aside an adequate representation of wilderness as ‘Protected Areas’
...
Such a network would preserve the total diversity of life
of a region
...
The objective of these areas should be expanded
to the preservation of relatively intact natural
ecosystems, where biological diversity – from
microscopic unicellular plants and animals, to
the giant trees and major mammals – can all be
preserved
...
This led to the near
extinction of crocodiles in the wild in the
1960s in India
...
It is perhaps one of the most successful ex situ conservation breeding projects
in the country
...
Thousands of crocodiles of all three species
have been bred and restocked in 20 natural
water bodies
...
It is being
implemented in 12 States
...
However species cannot be protected individually as they are all inter dependent on each other
...
The biologist’s view point deals with areas that
are relatively species rich, or those where rare,
threatened or endangered species are found,
or those with ‘endemic’ species which are not
found elsewhere
...
Such areas must
be given an added importance as their
biodiversity is a special feature of the region
...
They utilize open grasslands after the rains when
the young grass shoots are highly nutritious
...
A Protected Area that is meant to protect elephants
must therefore be large enough and include diverse habitat types to support a complete
complement of inter linked species
...
They include a variety of ecosystems and habitats
...
Biodiversity
The Great Himalayan National Park is the
largest sanctuary in this ecosystem and is one
of the last homes of the beautiful snow leopard
...
There are several Sanctuaries in the Terai region,
Kaziranga National Park is the most famous
which has elephant, wild buffalo, gaur, wild
boar, swamp deer, and hog deer, in large numbers, as well as tiger and leopard
...
The Manas Sanctuary, in addition to the above Terai species, also includes
the rare golden langur and the very rare pygmy
hog, the smallest wild boar in the world
...
In the sal forests of Madhya Pradesh, there are
several Protected Areas
...
It is the only Protected Area in
which a sub species of the Barasingha is found
...
Thousands of ducks,
geese, herons, and other wading birds can be
seen here
...
During the last 20 years, the 30 or 40
Siberian cranes have dwindled to only 2 or 3
...
In the Thar desert, the wild life is protected in
the Desert National Park
...
The Great Indian Bustard lives in these arid lands
...
Since then many tigers have been
killed by poachers
...
In Gujarat, the Gir Sanctuary protects the last
population of the majestic Asiatic lion
...
The Sanctuaries of the Western Ghats and associated hill ranges protect some of the most
diverse forest types in the country
...
These regions are also
rich in highly endemic plant life
...
in Karnataka, and Eraviculum,
Perambiculum, Periyar, Silent Valley, in
Kerala
...
Examples include
Bandipur, Madhumalai, Wynad and Bhadra
...
Now very few of
these magnificent animals are left in these
jungles
...
The Sunderbans protect
the largest mangrove delta in India
...
Over a hundred Protected Areas have been created in the Andaman and Nicobar Islands to
preserve their very special island ecosystems
...
This was the largest nesting
site for the Olive Ridleys in the world
...
Marine biologists believe
that only one out of every 1000 eggs actually matures into an adult
...
Shrinking nesting sites, construction of
roads and buildings close to these rookeries, and other infrastructure development
projects hamper nesting
...
After its ‘discovery’ in 1974, the beach was
notified as a Sanctuary (the Bhitarkanaika
Sanctuary) and was closed for hunting
...
This
Act prohibits trawling within 10 km of the
coastline throughout the state and makes it
mandatory for all trawlers to use Turtle Excluder Devices (TEDs)
...
Apart form these initiatives, Operation
Kachhapa is being coordinated by the Wildlife Protection Society of India, Delhi and
Wildlife Society of Orissa with many local
NGOs as partners
...
Environmental Studies for Undergraduate Courses
The need for an Integrated Protected Area
System (IPAS): Protected Areas, to be effective, must be established in every biogeographic
region
...
Protected Areas must also be integrated with each
other by establishing corridors between adjacent areas wherever possible so that wildlife can
move between them
...
The need to provide a greater amount of
land for agricultural and other needs has become an increasing cause of concern in land and
resource management
...
Having said this, there is an urgent need to add
to our Protected Areas to preserve our very rich
biological diversity
...
The residual areas that have high levels of species richness, endemism or endangered plants
and animals must be notified as National Parks
and Wildlife Sanctuaries
...
The International Union for Conservation of
Nature and Natural Resources states that it is
essential to include at least 10% of all ecosystems as Protected Areas if biodiversity is to be
conserved in the long-term
...
However much of this includes
plantations of sal or teak, which were developed for timber in the past and are thus relatively poor in diversity and have a low level of
‘naturalness’
...
Some are overgrazed wastelands
in areas that were once flourishing grasslands
...
Only a
few wetlands have been made into Sanctuaries
...
A major strategy to reduce impacts on the
biodiversity of the PAs should be to provide a
sustainable source of resources for local people
living around them
...
These resources must be provided by developing them in buffer areas
...
Management
must ensure that local people derive a direct
economic benefit from the presence of the PA
...
A carefully designed management plan which
incorporates an ‘ecodevelopment’ component
aimed at providing a source of fuel wood, fodder and alternate income generation for local
people, is an important aspect of PA management
...
As it is not practical to
notify more PAs without affecting the lives of
people, alternate strategies such as Community
Reserves or Community Conserved Areas need
to be created
...
A Community Conserved Area must have specific conservation goals that can be achieved without
compromising the area’s utilitarian potential
...
4
...
2 Ex-situ conservation
Conservation of a species is best done by protecting its habitat along with all the other species that live in it in nature
...
However, there
are situations in which an endangered species
is so close to extinction that unless alternate
methods are instituted, the species may be rapidly driven to extinction
...
e
...
These breeding programs for rare
plants and animals are however more expensive than managing a Protected Area
...
This is
even more expensive
...
Breeding from the same stock can lead to poorly
adapted progeny or even inability to get enough
offspring
...
There may also be a need to assist breeding artificially
...
In India, successful ex situ conservation programs
have been done for all our three species of crocodiles
...
Another
recent success has been the breeding of the very
rare pygmy hog in Gauhati zoo
...
However the most important step of a successful breeding program is the reintroduction of a
species into its original wild habitat
...
Conservation of cultivars and livestock
breeds: There were an estimated thirty thousand varieties of rice grown in India till about 50
years ago
...
The new varieties which are now being
cultivated everywhere have been developed
using germ plasm of these original types of rice
...
Several varieties have been preserved in gene banks
...
Encouraging farmers to continue to grow several traditional varieties is thus an important
concern for the future of mankind
...
Environmental Studies for Undergraduate Courses
CASE STUDY
Beej Bachao Andolan (Save the Seeds
Movement)
This movement began in the Himalayan foothills
...
The movement has
successfully conserved hundreds of local rice
varieties, rajma, pulses, millets, vegetables,
spices and herbs
...
This has also been
supported by local women’s groups who felt
these varieties were better than those provided by the green revolution
...
In the past, domestic animals were selected and
bred for their ability to adapt to local conditions
...
India has 27 breeds of cattle, 40 breeds of sheep,
22 breeds of goats, and 8 breeds of buffaloes
...
Biodiversity
109
UNIT 5:
Pollution
5
...
2 CAUSES, EFFECTS AND CONTROL MEASURES OF:
113
5
...
1 Air Pollution
113
5
...
2 Water Pollution
123
5
...
3 Soil Pollution
131
5
...
4 Marine Pollution
135
5
...
5 Noise Pollution
140
5
...
6 Thermal Pollution
142
5
...
7 Nuclear hazards
143
5
...
4 ROLE OF INDIVIDUALS IN POLLUTION PREVENTION
150
5
...
6 DISASTER MANAGEMENT: FLOODS, EARTHQUAKES, CYCLONES, LANDSLIDES
156
Pollution
Chapter5
...
This quotation appeared in Rachael Carson’s
book entitled Silent Spring
...
This occurs
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1 DEFINITION
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when only short-term economic gains are made
at the cost of the long-term ecological benefits
for humanity
...
During the last few decades
we have contaminated our air, water and land
on which life itself depends with a variety of
waste products
...
The nature and concentration of a pollutant
determines the severity of detrimental effects
on human health
...
Thus even a small concentration of pollutants in the air becomes more significant in comparison to the similar levels present in food
...
From an ecological perspective pollutants can
be classified as follows:
Degradable or non-persistent pollutants: These
can be rapidly broken down by natural processes
...
Slowly degradable or persistent pollutants: Pollutants that remain in the environment for many
years in an unchanged condition and take decades or longer to degrade
...
Non-degradable pollutants: These cannot be
degraded by natural processes
...
Eg:
toxic elements like lead or mercury
...
2 CAUSES, EFFECTS AND CONTROL MEASURES OF POLLUTION
5
...
1 Air Pollution
History of air pollution: The origin of air pollution on the earth can be traced from the times
when man started using firewood as a means
of cooking and heating
...
With the discovery and increasing use of coal, air pollution
became more pronounced especially in urban
areas
...
In
the year 1300 another Act banning the use of
coal was passed
...
In spite of this air
pollution became a serious problem in London
during the industrial revolution due to the use
of coal in industries
...
In Europe, around the middle of the 19th century, a black form of the Peppered moth was
noticed in industrial areas
...
However the peppered pattern was easily spotted and picked up by birds
on the smoke blackened bark of trees in the
industrial area, while the black form remained
well camouflaged
...
With
the spread of industrialization, it has been observed that the black forms are not only see in
Peppered moth, but also in many other moths
...
Pollution
Chapter5
...
The severe air quality problems due to the formation of photochemical
smog from the combustion residues of diesel
and petrol engines were felt for the first time in
Los Angeles
...
The Air Pollution Control Act in India was passed
in 1981 and the Motor Vehicle Act for controlling the air pollution, very recently
...
The greatest industrial disaster leading to serious air pollution took place in Bhopal where
extremely poisonous methyl isocyanide gas was
accidentally released from the Union Carbide’s
pesticide manufacturing plant on the night of
December 3rd 1984
...
Temperature declines with altitude in the troposphere
...
This boundary
where this temperature reversal occurs is called
the tropopause
...
The stratosphere extends from 17 to 48 kilometers above
the earth’s surface
...
The volume of water vapour here is about 1000 times
less while the volume of ozone is about 1000
times greater
...
This layer does not have clouds and hence
airplanes fly in this layer as it creates less turbulence
...
This
point is called the stratopause and it marks the
end of the stratosphere and the beginning of
the atmosphere’s next layer, the mesosphere
...
The general structure of the
atmosphere has several important features that
have relevance to environmental problems
...
The innermost layer the troposphere extends 17
kilometers above sea level at the equator and
about 8 kilometers over the poles
...
The fragility of this layer is obvious from the fact
that if the earth were an apple this particular
layer would be no thicker than an apple’s skin
...
Air may get polluted by natuEnvironmental Studies for Undergraduate Courses
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...
Above this is a layer where ionization of the
gases is a major phenomenon, thus increasing
the temperature
...
Only the lower troposphere is routinely involved in our weather and hence air
pollution
...
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ral causes such as volcanoes, which release ash,
dust, sulphur and other gases, or by forest fires
that are occasionally naturally caused by lightning
...
Pollutants that are emitted directly from identifiable sources are produced both by natural
events (for example, dust storms and volcanic
eruptions) and human activities (emission from
vehicles, industries, etc
...
There are five primary pollutants that together contribute about 90 percent
of the global air pollution
...
Pollutants that are produced in the atmosphere
when certain chemical reactions take place
among the primary pollutants are called secondary pollutants
...
Carbon monoxide is a colourless, odorless and
toxic gas produced when organic materials such
as natural gas, coal or wood are incompletely
burnt
...
The number of vehicles has been increasing over the years all over
the world
...
Carbon monoxide is however not a persistent pollutant
...
Therefore the air can be cleared of its carbon monoxide if no new carbon monoxide is introduced
into the atmosphere
...
Nitrogen oxides are found in vehicular exhausts
...
Hydrocarbons are a group of compounds consisting of carbon and hydrogen atoms
...
Hydrocarbons are washed out of the air when
it rains and run into surface water
...
Using higher oxygen concentrations in the fuel-air mixture and using
valves to prevent the escape of gases, fitting of
catalytic converters in automobiles, are some of
the modifications that can reduce the release
of hydrocarbons into the atmosphere
...
The effects of
particulates range from soot to the carcinogenic
(cancer causing) effects of asbestos, dust particles and ash from industrial plants that are dispersed into the atmosphere
...
Lead is a major air pollutant that remains largely
unmonitored and is emitted by vehicles
...
Leaded petrol is the
primary source of airborne lead emissions in Indian cities
...
Both indoor and outdoor air pollution are equally
harmful
...
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Types of particulates
Term
Meaning
Examples
Aerosol
General term for particles suspended in air
Sprays from pressurized cans
Mist
Aerosol consisting of liquid droplets
Sulfuric acid mist
Dust
Aerosol consisting of solid particles that are blown into
the air or are produced from larger particles by grinding
them down
Dust storm
Smoke
Aerosol consisting of solid particles or a mixture of solid
and liquid particles produced by chemical reaction such
as fires
Cigarette smoke, smoke
from burning garbage
Fume
Generally means the same as smoke but often applies
specifically to aerosols produced by condensation of hot
vapors of metals
...
What happens to pollutants in the atmosphere?
Once pollutants enter the troposphere they are
transported downwind, diluted by the large volume of air, transformed through either physical
or chemical changes or are removed from the
atmosphere by rain during which they are attached to water vapour that subsequently forms
rain or snow that falls to the earth’s surface
...
This dilutes the pollutants
to acceptable levels
...
An hour or two before sunset after a
sunny day, the ground starts to lose heat and
the air near the ground begins to cool rapidly
...
This in
turn induces condensation of fog
...
The
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This warmer air is less dense than the cold air
above it, so it rises
...
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cold air being dense cannot rise and is trapped
by the warm air above
...
The topographic features resemble a closed chemical reactor in which the pollutants are trapped
...
When the morning sun warms the ground
the air near the ground also warms up and rises
within an hour or two
...
In cold regions this situation
can persist for several days
...
other industrial establishments
...
Due to a sudden adverse
meteorological condition air pollutants like
smoke and sulphur oxides started to build-up in
the atmosphere
...
Within two days
of the formation of this smog, people started
suffering from acute pulmonary disorders which
caused irritation of bronchi, cough, nasal discharges, sore throat, vomiting and burning sensations in the eyes
...
Meteorological conditions
The velocity of the wind affects the dispersal of
pollutants
...
When wind velocity is low
mixing takes place and the concentration of
pollutants remains high
...
The city
used large quantities of sulphur containing coal
for domestic heating that released smoke, along
with smoke from thermal power plants and
Pollution
Chapter5
...
These chemicals descend on
the earth’s surface in two forms: wet (as acidic
rain, snow, fog and cloud vapour) and dry (as
acidic particles)
...
Acid deposition has many harmful effects especially when the pH falls below 5
...
5 for aquatic systems
...
It also damages statues, buildings, metals and car finishes
...
The nitric acid and the nitrate salts in acid
deposition can lead to excessive soil nitrogen
levels
...
Effects of air pollution on living organisms
Our respiratory system has a number of mechanisms that help in protecting us from air pollution
...
The sticky mucus in the lining of the
upper respiratory tract captures smaller particles
and dissolves some gaseous pollutants
...
Prolonged smoking or
exposure to air pollutants can overload or breakdown these natural defenses causing or contributing to diseases such as lung cancer,
asthma, chronic bronchitis and emphysema
...
Exposure to
air containing even 0
...
As carbon monoxide remains attached to hemoglobin in blood for a
long time, it accumulates and reduces the oxygen carrying capacity of blood
...
Carbon monoxide in heavy traffic causes headaches, drowsiness and blurred vision
...
Chronic exposure causes a condition similar to
bronchitis
...
The acids can become attached to
particles which when inhaled are very corrosive
to the lung
...
Suspended particles aggravate bronchitis and
asthma
...
Many volatile organic compounds such as (benzene and formaldehyde) and toxic particulates
(such as lead, cadmium) can cause mutations,
reproductive problems or cancer
...
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...
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centration can produce dramatic effects on life
on earth
...
Chronic
exposure of the leaves to air pollutants can break
down the waxy coating that helps prevent excessive water loss and leads to damage from
diseases, pests, drought and frost
...
At a higher concentration of sulphur
dioxide majority of the flower buds become stiff
and hard
...
Prolonged exposure to high levels of several air
pollutants from smelters, coal burning power
plants and industrial units as well as from cars
and trucks can damage trees and other plants
...
Air pollutants break down
exterior paint on cars and houses
...
Effects of air pollution on the stratosphere
The upper stratosphere consists of considerable
amounts of ozone, which works as an effective
screen for ultraviolet light
...
Though the ozone is
present upto 60 kms its greatest density remains
in the region between 20 to 25 kms
...
In the
most dense ozone layer there will be only one
ozone molecule in 100,000 gas molecules
...
This is recorded
in Dobson Units (DU), a measure of the thickness of the ozone layer by an equivalent layer
of pure ozone gas at normal temperature and
pressure at sea level
...
Ozone is a form of oxygen with three atoms
instead of two
...
The ozone thus formed is constantly broken down by naturally occurring processes that maintain its balance in the ozone
layer
...
Though it was known earlier that ozone
shows fluctuations in its concentrations which
may be accompanied sometimes with a little
ozone depletion, it was only in 1985 that the
large scale destruction of the ozone also called
the Ozone Hole came into limelight when some
British researchers published measurements
about the ozone layer
...
These CFCs (chloro-flurocarbons) are extremely stable, non-flammable,
non-toxic and harmless to handle
...
Many cans, which give out foams
and sprays, use CFCs
...
) CFCs are also used in making foams
for mattresses and cushions, disposable
Styrofoam cups, glasses, packaging material for
insulation, cold storage etc
...
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bility also gives them a long life span in the atmosphere
...
They
are more dangerous to the ozone layer than
CFCs
...
The CFCs and the halons migrate into the upper atmosphere after they are released
...
This is a slow process and
can take as long as five to fifteen years
...
This attacks the ozone molecule
resulting in its splitting into an oxygen molecule
and an oxygen atom
...
The presence of the ice crystals
makes the Cl-O bonding easier
...
India has signed the Montreal Protocol in 1992,
which aims to control the production and consumption of Ozone Depleting Substances
...
Effects on human health: Sunburn, cataract,
aging of the skin and skin cancer are caused by
Food production: Ultra violet radiation affects
the ability of plants to capture light energy during the process of photosynthesis
...
This is seen especially in legumes and cabbage
...
In zooplanktons (microscopic
animals) the breeding period is shortened by
changes in radiation
...
Effect on materials: Increased UV radiation
damages paints and fabrics, causing them to
fade faster
...
Observations of the earth have shown
beyond doubt that atmospheric constituents
such as water vapour, carbon dioxide, methane,
nitrogen oxides and Chloro Fluro Carbons trap
heat in the form of infra-red radiation near the
earth’s surface
...
The phenomenon is similar to
what happens in a greenhouse
...
These objects
radiate heat in the form of terrestrial radiation,
which does not pass out through the glass
...
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It weakens the
immune system by suppressing the resistance
of the whole body to certain infections like
measles, chicken pox and other viral diseases
that elicit rash and parasitic diseases such as
malaria introduced through the skin
...
•
With a warmer earth the polar ice caps will
melt causing a rise in ocean levels and flooding of coastal areas
...
If the sea level
rises by 3m
...
ane are trapped beneath the frozen soil of
Alaska
...
Control measures for air pollution
•
The rise in temperature will bring about a
fall in agricultural produce
...
A previously productive agricultural area will suffer severe droughts while rains will fall in
locations that were once deserts
...
•
In the polar regions temperature rises
caused by global warming would have disastrous effects
...
One of the effective means of controlling air
pollution is to have proper equipment in
place
...
Providing a greater height to the stacks can
help in facilitating the discharge of pollutants
as far away from the ground as possible
...
Substitution of raw material that causes more
Pollution
Chapter5
...
Air pollution in India
The World health Organization (WHO) which
rates only mega cities of the world has rated
Delhi the fourth most polluted city ion the world
...
Our
country has several pollution hotspots
...
The report has ranked 29 cities according to Respirable Particulate Matter (RSPM) levels recorded
during the year 2000
...
Nitrogen dioxide levels in most major cities are
generally close to the acceptable annual standard of 60 mg/m3
...
The CPCB indicates vehicles as one of
the predominant sources of air pollution
...
Rapid urbanization of smaller cities especially
those situated near the big commercial centers
have an enormous increase in traffic load especially in the most polluted segment such as two
and three wheelers and diesel vehicles combined
with poor quality fuel contribute to the deteriorating air quality in a big way
...
Being exposed to sulphur
dioxide and suspended particulate matter, the
Taj had contracted ‘marble cancer’, a fungal
growth that corroded its surface giving it a yellowish tinge
...
Shri
MC Mehta an environmental lawyer filed a public interest litigation in 1984 expressing concern
over the havoc the polluting units in Agra were
wreaking on the Taj Mahal
...
It also made it mandatory for these units to either switch over to ecofriendly fuels like natural gas or shift out of the
area
...
When air
quality monitoring began in India in the late
1960s planners focused only on a few pollutants namely sulphur dioxide, nitrogen oxides and
suspended particulate matter
...
The threat from
other air toxins such as benzene, ozone, other
small particulates is not known as these are not
monitored at all
...
The Central Pollution Control Board
(CPCB) initiated its own national Ambient Air
Quality Monitoring (NAAQM) program in 1985
...
p65
It is alarming to note that residential locations
in India are fast outpacing industrial locations in
air pollution implying that vehicular fumes are
responsible for this trend
...
Absence of any local initiatives for
action and delay in air pollution control measures will only make the situation worse
...
Experts feel that the
present air quality-monitoring network cannot
capture the true profile of urban air pollution
due to the lack of adequate monitoring stations
...
Air quality management as a well-defined program has yet to emerge in India
...
This would
also need an integrated approach with strict air
pollution control laws
...
The Act provided for
prevention, control and abatement of air pollution
...
But this Act was not
strong enough to play a precautionary or a corrective role
...
This Act for the first
time conferred enforcement agencies with necessary punitive powers to restrict any activity that
can harm the environment
...
Following this
amendment the exhaust emission rules for vehicle owners were notified in 1990 and the mass
emission standards for vehicle manufacturers
were enforced in 1991 for the first time
...
Putting a greater emphasis on pollution prevention rather than control
•
Reducing the use of fossil fuels
•
Improving the quality of vehicular fuel
•
Increasing the use of renewable energy
5
...
2 Water Pollution
Our liquid planet glows like a soft blue sapphire in the hard-edged darkness of space
...
It is because of water
...
Without water there would be no life
...
It flows from our taps when they
are turned on
...
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our gardens
...
Although 71% of the earth’s surface is covered
by water only a tiny fraction of this water is available to us as fresh water
...
The
remaining 3% is fresh water
...
997% is
locked in ice caps or glaciers
...
003%
of the earth’ total volume of water is easily available to us as soil moisture, groundwater, water
vapour and water in lakes, streams, rivers and
wetlands
...
003 litres (one-half teaspoon)
...
The
future wars in our world may well be fought
over water
...
As freshwater becomes more scarce access to water resources will be a major factor in
determining the economic growth of several
countries around the world
...
Water that percolates into the ground and fills the
pores in soil and rock is called groundwater
...
Most aquifers are replenished naturally by rainfall that percolates downward through the soil and rock
...
If the withdrawal rate
of an aquifer exceeds its natural recharge rate,
the water table is lowered
...
When the quality or composition of water
changes directly or indirectly as a result of
man’s activities such that it becomes unfit
for any purpose it is said to be polluted
...
Eg
...
When a source of pollution cannot be readily
identified, such as agricultural runoff, acid rain,
etc, they are said to be non-point sources of
pollution
...
p65
India receives most of her rainfall during the
months of June to September due to the seasonal winds and the temperature differences
between the land and the sea
...
They blow into India from the surrounding oceans during the summer season and blow
out from the subcontinent to the oceans during
the winter
...
In some
years the commencement of the rains may be
delayed considerably over the entire country or
a part of it
...
They may be heavier than usual over
one part than over another
...
However in India even
areas that receive adequate rainfall during the
monsoon suffer from water shortages in the post
monsoon period due to lack of storage facilities
...
These are disease-causing agents
(pathogens) which include bacteria, viruses, protozoa and parasitic worms that enter water from
domestic sewage and untreated human and
animal wastes
...
These
bacteria normally grow in the large intestine of
humans where they are responsible for some
food digestion and for the production of vitamin K
...
Large amounts of human waste in
water, increases the number of these bacteria
which cause gastrointestinal diseases
...
Thus
the greater the amount of wastes in the water
the greater are the chances of contracting diseases from them
...
These are organic
wastes that can be decomposed by aerobic (oxygen requiring) bacteria
...
In the process this degrades water quality
...
The amount of BOD in the water is an indicator of the level of pollution
...
This causes fish
and other forms of oxygen dependent aquatic
life to die
...
Their anaerobic respiration produces
chemicals that have a foul odour and an unpleasant taste that is harmful to human health
...
These are water soluble nitrates and
phosphates that cause excessive growth of algae and other aquatic plants
...
They may interfere with the use of the water by clogging
water intake pipes, changing the taste and
odour of water and cause a buildup of organic
matter
...
Pollution
Chapter5
...
The chemicals in fertilizers and
pesticides pollute soil and water
...
Pesticides which enter water bodies are introduced
into the aquatic food chain
...
These plants are eaten by the herbivorous fish which are in turn eaten by the carnivorous fish which are in turn eaten by the water
birds
...
A fourth class of water pollutants is water
soluble inorganic chemicals which are acids,
salts and compounds of toxic metals such as
mercury and lead
...
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One of the effects of accumulation of high levels of pesticides such as DDT is that birds lay
eggs with shells that are much thinner than
normal
...
Birds of
prey such as hawks, eagles and other fish eating birds are affected by such pollution
...
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fish and other aquatic life, reduce crop yields
and accelerate corrosion of equipment that use
this water
...
These are harmful
to aquatic life and human health
...
Sediment of suspended matter is another
class of water pollutants
...
This occurs when soil is eroded
from the land
...
This reduces the photosynthetic
activity of aquatic plants and algae disrupting
the ecological balance of the aquatic bodies
...
Excessive
sediments that settle down destroys feeding and
spawning grounds of fish, clogs and fills lakes,
artificial reservoirs etc
...
These can
be concentrated in various tissues and organs
as they pass through food chains and food webs
...
Hot water let out by power plants and industries that use large volumes of water to cool the
plant result in rise in temperature of the local
water bodies
...
Power plants heat water to convert it
into steam, to drive the turbines that generate
electricity
...
This condensation is
done by taking water from a water body to absorb the heat
...
The warm water not
only decreases the solubility of oxygen but
changes the breeding cycles of various aquatic
organisms
...
Leakage from underground tanks
CASE STUDY
One of the worst oil spill disasters that have
occurred is that of the Exxon Valdez
...
It hit submerged rocks, creating an environmental disaster
...
Exxon
spent $ 2
...
billion directly on the clean-up
operations
...
Thus it did more
harm than good
...
This $8
...
5 million to fit the tanker
with a double hull-one inside the other
...
The spill highlighted the need for marine pollution prevention
...
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is another source of pollution
...
•
Leakage from underground storage tanks
containing gasoline and other hazardous
substances
Though accidents such as the Exxon Valdez get
worldwide attention, much more oil is released
as a result of small, regular releases from other
less visible sources
...
Oil tankers often use sea water as ballast to
stabilize the ship after they have discharged their
oil
...
•
Leachate from landfills
•
Poorly designed and inadequately maintained septic tanks
•
Mining wastes
Groundwater pollution: While oil spills are
highly visible and often get a lot of media attention, a much greater threat to human life
comes from our groundwater being polluted
which is used for drinking and irrigation
...
Groundwater flows are slow
and not turbulent hence the contaminants are
not effectively diluted and dispersed as compared to surface water
...
Hence it is extremely essential to prevent
the pollution of groundwater in the first place
...
in
the rural sector
There are two theories that have been put forth
to explain this unusually high content of arsenic
in groundwater
...
According to the first hypothesis, arsenic probably originates in the Himalayan headwaters of
the Ganga and the Brahmaputra rivers and has
been lying undisturbed beneath the surface of
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The School of
Environmental Sciences, Jadhavpur University,
West Bengal has been involved in the task of
surveying the magnitude of the arsenic problem in West Bengal for the last fourteen years
...
11, No
...
Since all the patients
were from the district of 24-Parganas, Saha
along with others began to look for the cause
and found it to be arsenic toxicity
...
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the region’s deltas for thousands of years in the
thick layers of fine alluvial mud across the banks
of these rivers
...
6 million years)
...
Researchers from the UK based
British Geological Survey (BGS) suggested that
their position close to where the river Ganga
enters Bangladesh (geologically) may be the primary source of arsenic in the Bengal alluvium
...
The mud in
these areas is thicker, wider and flatter than almost anywhere else on earth
...
Other researchers feel that the excess amount
of arsenic in groundwater can be contributed
to by the high rate of groundwater extraction
...
In this hypothesis arsenic is
assumed to be present in certain minerals (pyrites) that are deposited within the aquifer sediments
...
During the subsequent recharge period, iron hydroxide releases arsenic into groundwater
...
The first is the intensive irrigation
development in West Bengal using deep tube
wells and shallow tube wells
...
The
other argument that supports the pyrite oxidation theory is that prior to irrigation develop-
ment and drinking water supply schemes based
on groundwater there were no reported cases
of arsenic poisoning
...
Initially the skin begins to darken
(called diffuse melanosis) which later leads to
spotted melanosis when darkened sports begin
to appear on the chest, back and limbs
...
In the
middle stage of arsenicosis the skin in parts becomes hard and fibrous
...
This can lead to the formation
of gangrene and cancer
...
The state of India’s rivers
India has always had a tradition of worshipping
rivers
...
However a large
majority of the Indian population including those
who worship the rivers do not think twice before polluting a river
...
Every single river in
India be it the Ganga, Yamuna, Cauvery or the
Krishna have their own share of problems due
to pollution
...
What flows in the river is
water from small nalas, and streams that carry
with them sewage and industrial effluents
...
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lutants and the rivers turn into stinking sewers
...
Sewage and municipal
effluents account for 75% of the pollution load
in rivers while the remaining 25% is from industrial effluents and non-point pollution
sources
...
The plan has been criticized for,
overspending and slow progress
...
Thus the Yamuna Action Plan
(YAP), Gomti Action Plan and the Damodar Action plan were added
...
Under this all the rivers in India
were taken up for clean-up operations
...
The biggest drawback of these river cleaning programs was that they failed to pin responsibilities as to who would pay for running the
treatment facilities in the long run
...
Moreover the
problem of river pollution due to agricultural runoff has not been addressed in these programs
...
The approved cost for the plan is Rs
...
08 crores covering 18 rivers in 10 states including 46 towns
...
Under this
plan the major activities include treating the
pollution load from sewer systems of towns and
cities, setting up of Sewage treatment plants,
electric crematoria, low cost sanitation facilities,
Control measures for preventing water
pollution
While the foremost necessity is prevention, setting up effluent treatment plants and treating
waste through these can reduce the pollution
load in the recipient water
...
A few years ago a
new technology called the Root Zone Process
has been developed by Thermax
...
The reeds, which are essentially wetland plants
have the capacity to absorb oxygen from the
surrounding air through their stomatal openings
...
These micro-organisms oxidize impurities
in the wastewaters, so that the water which finally comes out is clean
...
p65
riverfront development, afforestation and solid
waste management
...
2
...
We may
enhance the soil by helping its processes along,
but we can never recreate what we destroy
...
(Environmental historian Donald Worster
reminds us that fertilizers are not a substitute
for fertile soil)
...
Several factors contribute to the formation of soil from the parent
material
...
Climate and
time are also important in the development of
soils
...
Under ideal climatic
conditions soft parent material may develop into
a centimeter of soil within 15 years
...
Mature soils are arranged in a series of zones
called soil horizons
...
A cross sectional view of the
horizons in a soil is called a soil profile
...
Normally it is brown or black
...
It is usually darker and looser than the
deeper layers
...
As long as these layers are anchored by vegetation soil stores water and releases it in a trickle throughout the
year instead of in a force like a flood
...
The B horizon often called the subsoil contains
less organic material and fewer organisms than
the A horizon
...
This parent material does not
contain any organic materials
...
Soils vary in their content of clay (very fine particles), silt (fine particles), sand (medium size
particles) and gravel (coarse to very coarse particles)
...
Soils with approximately equal mixtures
of clay, sand, silt and humus are called loams
...
While erosion is a natural process often
caused by wind and flowing water it is greatly
accelerated by human activities such as farming, construction, overgrazing by livestock, burning of grass cover and deforestation
...
The topsoil,
which is washed away, also contributes to water pollution clogging lakes, increasing turbidity
of the water and also leads to loss of aquatic
Pollution
Chapter5
...
For one inch of topsoil to be formed it normally requires 200-1000 years depending upon
the climate and soil type
...
Thus it is essential that proper soil conservation
measures are used to minimize the loss of top
soil
...
Today both water and
soil are conserved through integrated treatment
methods
...
•
Area treatment which involves treating the
land
•
Drainage line treatment which involves
treating the natural water courses (nalas)
Continuous contour trenches can be used to
enhance infiltration of water reduce the runoff and check soil erosion
...
They
are most effective on gentle slopes and in areas
of low to medium rainfall
...
In areas of steep slopes where the bunds are
not possible, continuous contour benches (CCBs)
made of stones are used for the same purpose
...
In this narrow
trenches with bunds on the downstream side
are built along contours in the upper reaches of
the catchment to collect run-off and to conserve
moisture from the trees or tree crops
...
Some of the ways in which this can be achieved
are:
Live check dams which barriers created by
planting grass, shrubs and trees across the gullies can be used for this purpose
...
Area Treatment
Purpose
Treatment Measure
Effect
Reduces the impact of
rain drops on the soil
Develop vegetative cover on the
non arable land
Minimum disturbance and
displacement of soil particles
Infiltration of water
where it falls
Apply water infiltration measures on
the area
In situ soil and moisture conservation
Minimum surface run off
Store surplus rain water by constructing
bunds, ponds in the area
Increased soil moisture in the area,
facilitate ground water recharge
Ridge to valley sequencing Treat the upper catchment first and then Economically viable, less risk
proceed towards the outlet
of damage and longer life of
structures of the lower catchments
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Reduce run-off velocity,
pass cleaner water to the
downstream side
Crate temporary barriers in nalas
Delayed flow and
increased groundwater
recharge
Minimum sedimentation
in the storage basins
Use various methods to treat the catchments
Low construction cost
Use local material and skills for constructing
the structures
An Earthen checkbund is constructed out of
local soil across the stream to check soil erosion
and flow of water
...
A Gabion structure with ferrocement impervious barrier has a one inch thick impervious
wall of ferrocement at the center of the structure which goes below the ground level upto
the hard strata
...
An Underground bandhara is an underground structure across a nalla bed to function as a barrier to check the ground water
movement
...
The use of chemical fertilizes has increased significantly over the last few decades
Structures are locally
maintained
and is expected to rise even higher
...
The three primary soil
nutrients often in short supply are potassium,
phosphorus and nitrogen compounds
...
Certain other elements like boron, zinc and manganese are necessary in extremely small amounts
and are known as micronutrients
...
If the same crop is grown
again depleted levels of thee nutrients can result in decreased yields
...
In addition to fertilizers
a large amount of pesticides (chemicals used to
kill or control populations of unwanted fungi,
animals or plants often called pests) are also used
to ensure a good yield
...
Insecticides are used to control insect populations while
fungicides are used to control unwanted fungal
growth
...
Pollution
Chapter5
...
They
may be persistent or non-persistent
...
However as they do not break down easily they tend to accumulate in the soil and in the
bodies of animals in the food chain
...
During the
first ten years of its use (1942-1952) DDT is estimated to have saved about five million lives
primarily because of its use to control disease
carrying mosquitoes
...
DDT in temperate regions of the world
has a half life (the amount of time required for
half of the chemical to decompose) of 10 to 15
years
...
The half-life of DDT varies according to
the soil type, temperature, kind of soil organisms present and other factors
...
The use of DDT has been banned in
some countries
...
Persistent pesticides become attached to small soil particles which are easily
moved by wind and water to different parts thus
affecting soils elsewhere
...
When an affected animal is eaten by another carnivore these pesticides are further concentrated in the body of
the carnivore
...
This process especially in the
Other problems associated with insecticides is
the ability of insect populations to become resistant to them thus rendering them useless in a
couple of generations
...
They kill the predator as well as the parasitic insects that control
the pests
...
The
short term and the long-term health effects to
the persons using the pesticide and the public
that consumes the food grown by using the
pesticides are also major concerns
...
Thus the question that comes to mind is that if
pesticides have so many drawbacks then why
are they used so extensively and what are the
substitutes for them? There are three main reasons for the use of pesticides
...
The second reason for its extensive use
is base on an economic consideration
...
Thirdly current
health problems especially in developing countries due to mosquitoes are impossible to control without insecticides
...
Thus several different
approaches that have slightly varying and overlapping goals have been developed
...
p65
case of insecticides like DDT have been proved
to be disastrous
...
DDT interferes
with the production of normal eggshells in birds
making them fragile
...
Sustainable agriculture advocates the use of
methods to produce adequate safe food in an
economically viable manner while maintaining
the state of the ecosystem
...
A wide variety of techniques
can be used to reduce this negative impact of
agriculture
...
Introduction of organic matter into the soil also makes compaction less likely
...
There have been arguments both for
and against organic farming
...
However supporters for organic farming feel
that of the hidden costs of soil erosion and pollution are taken into account it is a viable approach
...
Another way to reduce these impacts is through
the use of integrated pest management
...
IPM promotes the use of
biopesticides
...
Microbial pesticides are micro-organisms such as bacteria, fungus, virus or protozoa
that fight pests through a variety of ways
...
Biochemical pesticides contain
several chemicals that affect the reproductive
and digestive mechanisms of the pests
...
Although they are available in
the market they are yet to become market
favourites
...
However this has its own set of ill effects
...
The accumulation of these salts is
called salinization, which can stunt plant growth,
lower yields and eventually kill the crop and render the land useless for agriculture
...
This practice however increases the cost
of crop production and also wastes enormous
amounts of water
...
Another problem with irrigation is water logging
...
However if the drainage is poor this water accumulates underground gradually raising the
water table
...
Thus in the long run it is better for us to adopt
sustainable farming practices so as to prevent
the degradation of soil
...
2
...
While the causes of ma-
Pollution
Chapter5
...
•
Pesticides and fertilizers from agriculture
which are washed off the land by rain, enter water courses and eventually reach the
sea
...
Petroleum and oils washed off from the
roads normally enter the sewage system but
stormwater overflows carry these materials
into rivers and eventually into the seas
...
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Ships carry many toxic substances such as
oil, liquefied natural gas, pesticides, industrial chemicals, etc
...
Ship accidents and accidental spillages at
sea therefore can be very damaging to the
marine environment
...
This dredged material that may contain heavy metals and other contaminants
are often dumped out to sea
...
Very often municipal waste and sewage from residences and hotels in coastal
towns are directly discharged into the sea
...
Wastes, which directly or indirectly affect the
oxygen concentration, play an important role in
determining the quality of the water
...
Using the oxygen
present in the water these wastes are broken
down into stable inorganic compounds
...
When
the oxygen concentration falls below 1
...
This results in end
products such as hydrogen sulphide, ammonia
and methane, which are toxic to many organisms
...
This makes the water foul smelling
...
This
will reduce the biological oxygen demand (BOD)
of the final product before it is discharged to
the receiving waters
...
Primary treatment: These treatment plants use
physical processes such as screening and sedimentation to remove pollutants that will settle,
float or, that are too large to pass through simple
screening devices
...
A screen consists of parallel bars spaced 2 to
7cms apart followed by a wire mesh with smaller
openings
...
After screening
the wastewater passes into a grit chamber
...
From
the grit chamber the sewage passes into a primary settling tank (also called as sedimentation
tank) where the flow speed is reduced sufficiently to allow most of the suspended solids to
settle out by gravity
...
Primary treatment normally removes about 35 percent of the BOD and
60 percent of the suspended solids
...
There are three commonly used approaches: trickling filters, activated sludge process and oxidation ponds
...
A trickling filter consists of a rotating distribution arm that sprays liquid wastewater over a
circular bed of ‘fist size’ rocks or other coarse
materials
...
The individual rocks in the
bed are covered with a layer of slime, which
consists of bacteria, fungi, algae, etc
...
This slime periodically slides off individual rocks
and is collected at the bottom of the filter along
with the treated wastewater and is then passed
on to the secondary settling tank where it is removed
...
The water then goes into a sedimentation tank
Pollution
Chapter5
...
This sludge is then broken down in an
anaerobic digester where methane-forming
bacteria slowly convert the organic matter into
carbon dioxide, methane and other stable end
products
...
The digested sludge, which is
still liquid, is normally pumped out onto sludge
drying beds where evaporation and seepage
remove the water
...
Activated sludge
tanks use less land area than trickling filters with
equivalent performance
...
Thus although the operating costs are a little
higher due to the expenses incurred on energy
for running pumps and blowers they are preferred over trickling filters
...
They are easy to build and manage and accommodate large fluctuations in flow
and can provide treatment at a much lower cost
...
Advanced sewage treatment: This involves a
series of chemical and physical process that removes specific pollutants left in the water after
primary and secondary treatment
...
These contribute to
eutrophication
...
Advanced treatment plants are very
expensive to build and operate and hence are
rarely used
...
After a tanker has unloaded its cargo of
oil it has to take on seawater as ballast for the
return journey
...
During the unloading of the cargo a certain amount of oil remains clinging to the walls
of the container and this may amount to 800
tonnes in a 200,000 tonne tanker
...
When a fresh cargo of oil is to be loaded, these
compartments are cleaned with water, which
discharges the dirty ballast along with the oil
into the sea
...
In the load-on-top
system, the compartments are cleaned by high
pressure jets of water
...
The water underneath that contains only a
little oil is then discharged into the sea and the
oil is transferred to a slop tank
...
In the second method called ‘crude oil washing’, the clingage is removed by jets of crude oil
while the cargo is being unloaded
...
Thus with the introduction of these new
methods of deballasting, the amount of oil entering the sea has been considerably reduced
...
During this
period when the cargo compartments are to
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...
There are several sources though
which the oil can reach the sea
...
Bilge and fuel oils
As ballast tanks take up valuable space, additional ballast is sometimes carried in empty fuel
tanks
...
Individually the quantity of oil
released may be small but it becomes a considerable amount when all the shipping operations
are taken into consideration
...
Sometimes this can result in major
disasters such as that of the Exxon Valdez described in the section on water pollution
...
Even after it is passed through oil
separators the water that is discharged contains
some oil, which adds to marine pollution
...
They are dumped on the seabed beneath the platform thus heavily contaminating the water
...
Control measures for oil pollution: Cleaning
oil from surface waters and contaminated
beaches is a time consuming labour intensive
process
...
A variety of slick-lickers in
which a continuous belt of absorbent material
dips through the oil slick and is passed through
rollers to extract the oil have been designed
...
Effects of marine pollution: Apart from causing eutrophication a large amount of organic
wastes can also result in the development of
red tides
...
Many
important commercially important marine species are also killed due to clogging of gills or
other structures
...
The rate of spreading and the
thickness of the film depends on the sea temperature and the nature of the oil
...
Salt marshes, mangrove swamps are likely to
trap oil and the plants, which form the basis for
these ecosystems thus suffer
...
If liquid oil contaminates a bird’s plumage its
water repellent properties are lost
...
This
air layer is necessary as it provides buoyancy and
thermal insulation
...
Even if this does not happen loss of
thermal insulation results in exhaustion of food
reserves in an attempt to maintain body temperature often followed by death
...
Drill cuttings dumped on the seabed create anoxic conditions and result in the production of
toxic sulphides in the bottom sediment thus
eliminating the benthic fauna
...
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Fish and shellfish production facilities can also
be affected by oil slicks
...
This reduces the market value of seafood
...
2
...
There are several sources of noise pollution that
contribute to both indoor and outdoor noise
pollution
...
A study conducted by
researchers from the New Delhi based National
Physical Laboratory show that noise generated
by firecrackers (presently available in the market) is much higher than the prescribed levels
...
Noise is undesirable and unwanted sound
...
What may be considered as
music to one person may be noise to another
...
Sound
is measured in a unit called the ‘Decibel’
...
There are however some very harmful
effects caused by exposure to high sound levels
...
Decibel levels of common sounds
Effects of noise pollution on physical health
dB
Environmental Condition
0
Threshold of hearing
10
Rustle of leaves
20
Broadcasting studio
30
Bedroom at night
40
Library
50
Quiet office
60
Conversational speech (at 1m)
70
Average radio
74
Light traffic noise
90
Subway train
100
Symphony orchestra
110
Rock band
120
Aircraft takeoff
146
Threshold of pain
Below a sound level of 80 dBA haring loss does
not occur at all
...
About 50 percent of the people exposed
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...
People suffering from this condition are unable to detect
weak sounds
...
In
Maharashtra people living in close vicinity of
Ganesh mandals that play blaring music for ten
days of the Ganesh festival are usually known
to suffer from this phenomenon
...
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to 95 dBA sound levels at work will develop
NIPTS and most people exposed to more than
105 dBA will experience permanent hearing loss
to some degree
...
The degree of hearing loss depends on the duration as well as the intensity of the noise
...
However in factories with noisy machinery workers are subjected to high sound
levels for several hours a day
...
In
addition to hearing losses excessive sound levels can cause harmful effects on the circulatory
system by raising blood pressure and altering
pulse rates
...
Beyond this ‘safe’
time continuing exposure over a period of a year
will lead to hearing loss
...
Lack of concentration and mental fatigue are
significant health effects of noise
...
4 hours
93
2 hours
Effects of noise pollution on mental health:
90
96
1 hour
99
Thus noise is just more than a mere nuisance or
annoyance
...
It is thus important to ensure mitigation or control of noise pollution
...
It can also lead to lowered worker efficiency and productivity and
higher accident rates on the job
...
In general, the best
control method is to reduce noise levels at the
source
...
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Source reduction can be done by effectively
muffling vehicles and machinery to reduce the
noise
...
Isolating machines and their enclosures from the
floor using special spring mounts or absorbent
mounts and pads and using flexible couplings
for interior pipelines also contribute to reducing
noise pollution at the source
...
Noise levels at
construction sites can be controlled using proper
construction planning and scheduling techniques
...
Most of the vehicular noise
comes from movement of the vehicle tires on
the pavement and wind resistance
...
Traffic volume and speed also have significant effects on the overall sound
...
A smooth flow of traffic
also causes less noise than does a stop-and-go
traffic pattern
...
Establishing lower speed limits for highways that
pass through residential areas, limiting traffic
volume and providing alternative routes for truck
traffic are effective noise control measures
...
Planting of trees around houses can also
act as effective noise barriers
...
Highly absorptive interior finish material for walls, ceilings and floors
can decrease indoor noise levels significantly
...
2
...
It
occurs when an industry removes water from a
source, uses the water for cooling purposes and
then returns the heated water to its source
...
For efficient functioning of the steam turbines,
the steam is condensed into water after it leaves
the turbines
...
This heated water, which is at least 15oC higher
than the normal is discharged back into the
water body
...
This changes the ecological balance
of the river
...
However sudden changes in temperature caused by periodic plant shutdowns
both planned and unintentional can change result in death of these fish that are acclimatized
to living in warmer waters
...
p65
distance from the noise source
...
Municipal land-use ordinances pertaining to the
location of airports make use of the attenuating effect of distance on sound levels
...
Specially
designed earmuffs can reduce the sound level
reaching the eardrum by as much as 40 dBA
...
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and most sponges, mollusks and crustaceans are
eliminated at temperatures above 370C
...
Control measures: Thermal pollution can be
controlled by passing the heated water through
a cooling pond or a cooling tower after it leaves
the condenser
...
There are several ways in which
thermal pollution can be reduced
...
Hot water
is pumped into one end of the pond and cooler
water is removed from the other end
...
A second method is to use a cooling
tower
...
Here most of the heat transfer
occurs through evaporation
...
Cool air enters the
tower through the water inlet that encircles the
base of the tower and rises upwards causing
evaporative cooling
...
The waste heat is dissipated
into the atmosphere about 100 m above the
base of the tower
...
The disadvantage
in both these methods is however that large
amounts of water are lost by evaporation
...
2
...
We routinely use X-rays to examine bones for
fractures, treat cancer with radiation and diagnose diseases with the help of radioactive iso-
topes
...
However on the other
hand it is impossible to forget the destruction
that nuclear bombs caused the cities of
Hiroshima and Nagasaki
...
Nuclear fission is the splitting of the nucleus of
the atom
...
The first controlled fission
of an atom was carried out in Germany in 1938
...
The world’s first electricity generating reactor was constructed in the
United States in 1951 and the Soviet Union built
its first reactor in 1954
...
Eisenhower in his ‘Atoms for
Peace’ speech made the following prediction:
‘Nuclear reactors will produce electricity so
cheaply that it will not be necessary to meter it
...
Atoms will provide a safe,
clean and dependable source of electricity
...
Several serious accidents have caused worldwide concern
about safety and disposal of radioactive wastes
...
Low-grade uranium ore, which contains 0
...
After it is mined
the ore goes through a milling process where it
is crushed and treated with a solvent to concentrate the uranium and produces yellow cake
a material containing 70 to 90 percent uranium
oxide
...
7 percent of fissionable U-235, which is not
Pollution
Chapter5
...
Hence
it is necessary to increase the amount of U-235
by enrichment though it is a difficult and expensive process
...
7 to 3 percent
...
These pellets are sealed in metal
fuel rods about 4 meters in length which is then
loaded into the reactor
...
After
about three years, a fuel rod does not have
enough radioactive material to sustain a chain
reaction and hence the spent fuel rods must be
replaced by new ones
...
These rods are a major source of radioactive
waste material produced by a nuclear reactor
...
However the cost of producing fuel rods by reprocessing was found to be greater than the
cost of producing fuel rods from ore
...
At each step in the cycle there
is a danger of exposure and poses several health
and environmental concerns
...
Chernobyl is a small city in Ukraine near the
border with Belarus north of Kiev
...
00 am
April 25, 1986 a test to measure the amount of
electricity that the still spinning turbine would
produce if steam were shut off was being conducted at the Chernobyl Nuclear Power Station4
...
00am, the operators shut off most of the
emergency warning signals and turned on all
the eight pumps to provide adequate cooling
for the reactor following the completion of the
test
...
In spite of the warning the operators blocked the automatic reactor shutdown
and began the test
...
The operators activated the emergency system designed
to put the control rods back into the reactor
and stop the fission
...
The core had already been deformed and the
rods would not fit properly thus the reaction
could not be stopped
...
5 seconds the energy level of the reactor increased two thousand times
...
The lack of cooling water allowed the
reactor to explode
...
This resulted in the
world’s worst nuclear accident and it took ten
days to bring the runaway reaction under control
...
p65
became available
...
But the test was delayed
because of a demand for electricity and a new
shift of workers came on duty
...
This presented an
immediate need to rapidly increase the power
and many of the control rods were withdrawn
...
The gas absorbed the
neutrons and slowed the rate of power increase
...
This was a
second serious safety violation
...
116,000 people were evacuated of which
24,000 had received high doses of radiation
...
In 1996 ten years after
the accident it was clear that one of the longterm effects was the increased frequency of
thyroid cancer in children
...
Radiation can also cause mutations which are
changes in the genetic makeup of the cells
...
Mutations can also occur in the tissues
of the body ad may manifest themselves as abnormal tissue growths known as cancer
...
5
...
Around 320 B
...
in
Athens, the first known law forbidding this practice was established and a system of waste removal began to evolve in several eastern
Mediterranean cities
...
As populations increased,
efforts were made to transport the wastes out
further thus creating city dumps
...
The favoured
means of disposal was to dump solid wastes
outside the city or village limits
...
Waste is also
burnt to reduce its volume
...
are now attempting to solve these problems
...
Dumping and burning wastes is not an
acceptable practice today from either an environmental or a health perspective
...
The
method of collection, processing, resource recovery and the final disposal should mesh with
one another to achieve a common objective
...
These different classifications are
necessary to address the complex challenges of
solid waste management in an effective manner
...
Sources of MSW
include private homes, commercial establishments and institutions as well as industrial facilities
...
Municipal solid waste contains a wide variety of
materials
...
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minum foil, metal items, wood pieces, etc
...
Control measures of urban and industrial
wastes: An integrated waste management
strategy includes three main components:
1
...
Recycling
3
...
This can be done by using less material when making a product, reuse
of products on site, designing products or packaging to reduce their quantity
...
Recycling is reusing some components of the
waste that may have some economic value
...
Some materials such as aluminum and steel
can be recycled many times
...
Mining of new aluminum is expensive and hence recycled aluminum has a strong market and plays a significant
role in the aluminum industry
...
Crushed
glass (cullet) reduces the energy required to
manufacture new glass by 50 percent
...
However even if recycling
is a viable alternative, it presents several problems
...
Plastics are difficult to recycle because of the different types of
polymer resins used in their production
...
A modern sanitary landfill is a depression
in an impermeable soil layer that is lined with
an impermeable membrane
...
•
The waste material is spread out and compacted with appropriate heavy machinery
...
The problem with older landfills are associated
with groundwater pollution
...
Today it is essential to have
suitable bottom liners and leachate collection
systems along with the installation of monitoring systems to detect groundwater pollution
...
p65
ent plastics cannot be recycled together
...
Similarly in recycled paper the fibers are weakened and it is difficult to control
the colour of the recycled product
...
It very
often costs less to transport raw paper pulp than
scrap paper
...
The processes of pulping,
deinking and screening wastepaper are generally more expensive than making paper from
virgin wood or cellulose fibers
...
However as technology improves the cost
will come down
...
At first the waste decomposes aerobically until the oxygen that was present in the
freshly placed fill is used up by the aerobic microorganisms
...
The movement of
gas can be controlled by providing impermeable
barriers in the landfill
...
Even though landfilling is an economic alternative for solid waste disposal, it has become increasingly difficult to find suitable landfilling sites
that are within economic hauling distance and
very often citizens do not want landfills in their
vicinity
...
Incineration is the process of burning municipal solid waste in a properly designed furnace
under suitable temperature and operating conditions
...
This chemical reaction called oxidation
results in the release of heat
...
Incineration can
reduce the municipal solid waste by about 90
percent in volume and 75 percent in weight
...
Fly ash consists of finely divided
particulate matter, including cinders, mineral
dust and soot
...
The
possible presence of heavy metals in incinerator
ash can be harmful
...
Thus extensive air pollution control equipment
and high-level technical supervision and skilled
employees for proper operation and maintenance is required
...
Vermi – Composting
Nature has perfect solutions for managing the
waste it creates, if left undisturbed
...
We can mimic the same methods that are
present in nature
...
These organisms in the soil use the organic material as food, which provides them with nutrients for their growth and activities
...
This process recycles
nutrients in nature
...
Pollution
Chapter5
...
•
Line it with straw or dried leaves and
grass
...
•
Introduce a culture of worms that is now
produced commercially
...
•
Water the pit once or twice a week to
keep it moist
...
•
In about 45 days the waste will be decomposed by the action of the microorganisms
...
Characteristics of hazardous wastes
A waste is classified as a hazardous waste if it
exhibits any of the four primary characteristics
based on the physical or chemical properties of
toxicity, reactivity, ignitability and corrosivity
...
Some may have an acute or immediate effect
on humans or animals causing death or violent
illness
...
Acute toxicity is readily apparent because organisms respond to the toxin
shortly after being exposed
...
Certain toxic
wastes are known to be carcinogenic, causing
cancer and others may be mutagenic causing
biological changes in the children of exposed
people and animals
...
For example, gunpowder, nitroglycerine, etc
...
Hazardous wastes are those that can cause harm
to humans or the environment
...
For example, gasoline,
paint thinners, and alcohol
...
For
example, acids and bases
...
p65
stantial present or potential hazard to human
health or the environment when improperly
treated, stored, transported or disposed of
...
shortening their life span
...
Radioactive waste is basically an output from
the nuclear power plants and can persist in the
environment for thousands of years before it
decays appreciably
...
Mercury is used in the production of chlorine
...
Industrial processes such as the production of chlorine and plastics are responsible for
most of the environmental damage resulting
from mercury
...
In the food web mercury
becomes more concentrated as it is taken up by
various organisms
...
In addition, fish take
up mercury through their gills and by eating
Environmental problems and health risks
caused by hazardous wastes
...
Once
groundwater is polluted with hazardous wastes
it is very often not possible to reverse the damage
...
They form residues
in the soil which are washed into streams which
then carry them forwards
...
Exposure can occur through ingestion,
inhalation and skin contact resulting in acute or
chronic poisoning
...
The
IPM system uses a wide variety of plants and
insects to create a more natural process
...
Lead, mercury and arsenic are hazardous substances which are often referred to as heavy
metals
...
It is used in batteries,
fuel, pesticides, paints, pipes and other places
where resistance to corrosion is required
...
Lead can affect red blood cells
by reducing their ability to carry oxygen and
Minamata-An important lesson about
mercury
A case of human mercury poisoning which
occurred about forty years ago in the
Minamata bay in Japan taught the world an
important lesson about the dangers of mercury poisoning
...
The
left over mercury was dumped into the Bay
along with other wastes from the plant
...
This organic mercury then entered into the tissues of fish
which were in turn consumed by the people
living in the area
...
Mothers who had
eaten the contaminated fish gave birth to
infants who showed signs of mercury poisoning
...
Pollution
Chapter5
...
Generally older the fish greater is the mercury concentration in its body
...
It is a cumulative poison ( it builds up in the body
over long periods of time) and is known to cause
brain damage
...
When used incorrectly or inappropriately they can become health hazards
...
Rainwater can wash PCBs out
of disposal areas in dumps and landfills thus
contaminating water
...
They cause long term
exposure problems to both humans and wildlife
...
They cause reproductive failure in birds and mammals
...
Usually people are
only exposed to high levels of vinyl chloride if
they work with it or near it but exposure can
also occur from vinyl chloride gas leaks
...
Vinyl chloride can also cause birth
defects
...
Polyvinyl chloride use can be lowered by reducing our use of plastics
...
We may not realize it but many household
chemicals can be quite toxic to humans as well
Today the most common methods for disposing off hazardous wastes are land disposal and
incineration
...
In countries like Europe and Japan where land is not readily available and is
expensive, incineration is the preferred method
for disposal
...
Hazardous waste management must move beyond
burying and burning
...
Although toxic
wastes cannot be entirely eliminated, technologies are available for minimizing, recycling and
treating wastes
...
It is
essential for us to understand the ill effects of
chemical substances so that we can make informed decisions about its use
...
5
...
If we are to respond to these problems we have
to recognize that each of us is individually responsible for the quality of the environment we
live in
...
Several
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...
Most of the dangerous substances
in our homes are found in various kinds of cleaners, solvents and products used in automotive
care
...
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With the help of solar energy, natural processes
developed over billions of years can indefinitely
renew the topsoil, water, air, forests, grasslands
and wildlife on which all forms of life depend,
but only as long as we do not use these potentially renewable resources faster than they are
replenished
...
Natural processes also provide services of flood prevention, erosion control at no
costs at all
...
•
Try to plant trees wherever you can and
more importantly take care of them
...
•
Reduce the use of wood and paper products wherever possible
...
Try to recycle paper products and
use recycled paper wherever possible
...
•
people may feel that environmental problems
can be solved with quick technological fixes
...
Decisions and actions taken by individuals to a very
large extent determine the quality of life for
everyone
...
Do not buy furniture, doors, window frames
made from tropical hardwoods such as teak
and mahogany
...
•
Help in restoring a degraded area near your
home or join in an afforestation program
...
Some insect species
help to keep a check on the populations of
pest species
...
This will automatically help to reduce the use of pesticides
...
This
reduces air pollution
...
•
Don’t use aerosol spray products and commercial room air fresheners
...
Concepts that help individuals contribute towards a better quality of our environment and
human life
...
•
Each individual must try to answer four basic questions:
Where do the things that I consume
come from?
What do I know about the place where
I live?
How am I connected to the earth and
other living things?
What is my purpose and responsibility
as a human being?
Pollution
Chapter5
...
•
Start individual or community composting
or vemicomposting plants in your neighborhood and motivate people to join in
...
Such products end up in landfills that
could pollute ground water
...
Take care to
put trash into dustbins or bring it back home
with you where it can be appropriately disposed
...
•
You must realize that you cannot do everything and have solutions for every problem
in the world
...
Focusing your
energy on a particular issue will help you
get better results
...
Organize small local community meetings
to discuss positive approaches of pollution
prevention
...
Understand the natural and cultural
assets
...
•
Use rechargeable batteries
...
Use your own cloth bag
instead
...
•
Don’t use throwaway paper and plastic
plates and cups when reusable versions are
available
...
You might have to take a little trouble
to locate such dealers
...
You cannot improve your world by not voting
...
•
It is important that you do not get discouraged at the first sign of trouble
...
But take positive
actions wherever you can to make the world
a better place to live in
...
You may disagree with a particular position but be re-
•
•
Try to lobby and push for setting up garbage separation and recycling programs in
your localities
...
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...
•
Take care to put into practice what you
preach
...
5
...
Fluorisis is not a localized problem
...
Each of these regions are distinct in terms of
rainfall, soil type, groundwater recharge regime,
climatic conditions and hydrology
...
Experts claim that a fluoride belt
stretches across the Middle East across Pakistan
and India and then into Southeast Asia and the
South of China
...
When
the bedrock weathers the fluoride leaches into
water and the soil
...
This is related to the over extraction of
groundwater which has resulted in the tapping
of aquifers with high fluoride concentrations
...
Encouraged by state subsidies on diesel and electricity, people invested in diesel and
submersible pumps in a bid to extract groundwater through borewells
...
Fluoride mainly enters the human body through
drinking water where 96 to 99 percent of it
combines with the bones as it has an affinity for
calcium phosphate in the bones
...
Dental fluorosis is characterized by discoloured, blackened,
mottled or chalky white teeth
...
Non-skeletal fluorosis leads to
gastro-intestinal problems and neurological disorders
...
Once fluoride is detected in water, the only solution is to deflouridate it
...
However the type
of technology to be selected depends upon the
fluoride levels in the water and the volume of
water to be deflouridated
...
Deflouridation plants and household water treatment kits are stop-gap solutions
...
Between July and December 2002, the
Pollution Monitoring Laboratory of the New
Delhi based Center for Science and Environment
(CSE) analysed 17 brands of bottled water both
packaged drinking water and packaged natural
mineral water commonly sold in areas that fall
within the national capital region of Delhi
...
Among organochlorines, gammahexachlorocyclohexane (lindane) and DDT were
Pollution
Chapter5
...
All these were present above permissible limits specified by the European Economic
Community, which is the norm, used all over
Europe
...
This can be
traced to several facts
...
Currently the manufacturing
plants of most brands are situated in the dirtiest
industrial estates or in the midst of agricultural
fields
...
The raw water samples collected from the plants
also reveled the presence of pesticide residues
...
This is
despite the fact that all bottled water plants use
a range of purification methods
...
These plants use the membrane technology
where the water is filtered using membranes
with ultra-small pores to remove fine suspended
solids and all bacteria and protozoa and even
viruses
...
Most industries also use an activated
charcoal adsorption process, which is effective
in removing organic pesticides but not heavy
metals
...
Thus even though manufacturers
claim to use these process the presence of pesticide residues points to the fact that either
manufacturers do not use the treatment process effectively or only treat a part of the raw
water
...
This is because the main ingredient in a cold drink or a carbonated nonalcoholic beverage is water and there are no
standards specified for water to be used in these
beverages in India
...
The BIS (Bureau
of Indian Standards) certification mark became
mandatory for bottled water from March 29,
2001
...
Following the
report published by CSE in Down to Earth, Vol
11, no
...
0001mg
...
0005 mg/lit that the analysis shall be conducted by using internationally
established test methods meeting the residue
limits specified herein
...
A case study of river pollution in India
Almost all the rivers in India are polluted
...
This is a case study of the river Damodar as
reported in Down to Earth
...
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The low concentration of pesticide residues in
bottled water do not cause acute or immediate
effect
...
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Damodar river originates near Chandwa village
in the Chhotanagpur hills in Bihar’s Palamau
district
...
Indian industry depends heavily on this region as
60 percent of the coal consumed in our country
comes from the Chhotanagpur belt
...
In addition various industries such as the steel, cement, fertilizer and
explosive plants are also located here
...
Both its water and its sand
are infested by coal dust and waste from these
industries
...
The states of Bihar and
West Bengal depend almost entirely on this area
for their power requirements
...
Mining
As underground mines cannot keep pace with
the rising demand, 60 percent of the coal extracted from the area comes from open cast
mines which are responsible for serious land
degradation
...
Industries
The industries in the area do not have proper
effluent treatment plants
...
About 20
percent of the coal handled goes out in the form
of slurry which is deposited in the ponds outside
...
Due to inadequate
retrieval methods very often the water discharges into the river from the pond carries high
amounts of fine coal particles and oil thus polluting the river
...
The volatile components in the
coal are removed, leaving hot, non-volatile coke
in the oven which is washed with huge quantities of water
...
Flyash from the thermal power plants
Only one of the thermal power plants has an
electrostatic precipitator to collect the fly ash
while the other just make do with mechanical
dust collectors
...
The bottom
ash from the boilers is mixed with water to form
a slurry which is then drained into ash ponds
...
The slurry is
therefore directly discharged into the river
...
On April 2, 1990 about
200,000 litres of furnace oil spilled into the river
from the Bokaro Steel Plant
...
For a week
after the incident five million people drank contaminated water in which the oil levels were 40
to 80 times higher than the permissible value of
0
...
The Damodar Action Plan an end-of-the pipe
pollution treatment scheme seeks to tackle effluents
...
This would need strong Government initiative
and also a mass movement by people
...
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5
...
Among the
36 states and Union territories in the country,
22 are prone to disasters
...
About 50 to 60 percent of India is vulnerable to
seismic activity of varying intensities
...
Among all the disasters that occur in the country, floods are the most frequently occurring
natural disasters, due to the irregularities of the
Indian monsoon
...
As a result there is a very heavy discharge from the
rivers during this period causing widespread
floods
...
Major floods are mainly caused in the
Ganga-Brahmaputra-Meghna basin which carries 60 percent of the total river flow of our country
...
The Indian Ocean
is one of the six major cyclone prone regions of
the world
...
The eastern coastline is more
prone to cyclones as it is hit by about 80 percent of the total cyclones generated in the region
...
Natural occurrences
such as floods, earthquakes, cyclones, etc
...
They are a part of the environment that we live in
...
Thus though
traditionally disaster management consisted primarily of reactive mechanisms, the past few
years have witnessed a gradual shift towards a
more proactive, mitigation based approach
...
Sixteen percent of the country’s total
area is drought prone
...
Most of the drought prone areas identified by
the Government lie in the arid and semi-arid
areas of the country
...
The impact of
Disaster management is a multidisciplinary area
in which a wide range of issues that range from
forecasting, warning, evacuation, search and
rescue, relief, reconstruction and rehabilitation
are included
...
These roles and activities span
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After
the initial trauma and the occurrence of the
natural disaster is over and reconstruction and
rehabilitation is done by people, NGOs and the
Government, its memories are relegated to history
...
Since their activities are complementary as well as supplementary to each other there
is a critical need for coordinating these activities
...
Coordination between Government agencies and NGOs needs
to be built up so that overlap of activities may
be avoided and linkages between the Government and communities are established
...
Although
they are more accurate than before and can help
in prediction it is not enough to ensure communities are safe from disasters
...
Mitigation means lessening the negative impact
of the natural hazards
...
While the preparatory, response and the recovery phases of emergency management relate
to specific events, mitigation activities have the
potential to produce repetitive benefits over
time
...
•
Pre-disaster mitigation can help in ensuring
faster recovery from the impacts of disasters
...
•
Hazard reduction methods must take into
account the various hazards faced by the
affected community and their desires and
priorities
...
The main elements of a mitigation strategy are
as follows:
Risk assessment and Vulnerability analysis
This involves identification of hot spot areas of
prime concern, collection of information on past
natural hazards, information of the natural ecosystems and information on the population and
infrastructure
...
The assessment of risk and vulnerabilities will
need to be revised periodically
...
The use of Geographical Information Systems (GIS) a computer program can be a valuable tool in this process as the primary data can
be easily updated and the corresponding assessments can be made
...
Thus space technologies such as remote sensing, satellite communications and Global Positioning Systems have a very important role to
play
...
Similarly Government organizations
the National Building Research Organization, the
Meteorological Department, Irrigation Department, etc
...
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collaboration with educational institutions or
Universities
...
A combination of scientific knowledge and expertise with
the community based mitigation measures
would not only enhance the database but would
also form the basis of a successful mitigation
strategy
...
This
enables sharing of information and methodology
...
Thus a training program that is designed after assessment of gaps in knowledge,
skills and attitude with respect to the various
tasks that need to be undertaken is a vital component
...
There is
a need to emphasize on proactive and pre-disaster measures rather than post disaster response
...
The National Disaster Management
Center (NDMC) can perform such a task
...
Landuse planning and regulations
Long term disaster reduction efforts should aim
at promoting appropriate land-use in the disaster prone areas
...
Hazard resistant design and construction
In areas that are prone to disasters protection
can be enhanced by careful selection of sites
and the way the buildings are built
...
Structural and Constructional reinforcement of
existing buildings
It is also possible to reduce the vulnerability of
existing buildings through minor adaptations or
alterations thereby ensuring their safety
...
p65
Incentives and resources for mitigation
To a very large extent the success of mitigation
programs will depend upon the availability of
continued funding
...
This will
include incentives for relocation of commercial
and residential activities outside the disaster
prone areas
...
The introduction of disaster linked
insurance should be explored and should cover
not only life but also household goods, cattle,
structures and crops
...
•
Prevention of over-bank spilling by the construction of embankments and floodwalls
...
•
Improved drainage
...
The Ganga Brahmaputra basin receives maximum run off within the three
monsoon months
...
while 82 percent of the rainwater flows through rivers ultimately into the sea
...
The non-structural measures include:
The mitigation measures for floods include both
structural and non-structural measures
...
Flood plain management such as Flood Plain
Zoning and Flood Proofing including Disaster Preparedness
•
Maintaining wetlands
•
Flood forecasting and warning services
•
Disaster relief, flood fighting and public
health measures
•
Floods can be caused by natural, ecological or
anthropogenic factors either individually or as a
combined result
...
Forests on the hill slopes
normally exert a sponge effect soaking up the
abundant rainfall and storing it before releasing it in small amounts over a period of time
...
An increasing proportion of the rainfall is therefore released shortly
after precipitation in the form of floods
...
In these
years rehabilitation has been done on a massive
scale
...
The role of NGOs in this is very important
...
Their ability to reach out to the community and sensitivity to local traditions is an
asset in such situations
...
2) by Mihir Bhatt throws light on
the various developments that have taken place
after the earthquake
...
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Agriculture Development in supporting the Self
Employed Women’s Association and the
Government’s initiative in community based livelihood security for earthquakes and drought victims have the potential to shape future disaster
response and development projects in Gujarat
...
This project
supported by the Asian Development Bank, puts
premium on investments in income generation
and asset building after a natural disaster
...
The author
however states that coordination between Government, local NGOs and local community initiatives both for rescue as well as rehabilitation
needs to be strengthened as this can cause delays, overlaps and waste of relief material and
efforts
...
They are large revolving vortices
in the atmosphere extending horizontally from
150 to1000 km and vertically from the surface
to 12 to 14 km
...
Strong winds spiraling anti clockwise in
the Northern Hemisphere blow around the cyclone center at the lower level
...
They generally move 300
to 5000 km per day over the ocean
...
On an average about 5 to 6 tropical cyclones form in the
Bay of Bengal and the Arabian Sea every year
out of which 2 to 3 may be severe
...
The main dangers from cyclones
Although one cannot control cyclones, the effects of cyclones can be mitigated through effective and efficient mitigation policies and
strategies
...
Installation of early warning systems: Such systems fitted along the coastlines can greatly assist forecasting techniques thus helping in early
evacuation of people in the storm surge areas
...
Amateur Radio has today emerged as a second line
unconventional communications systems and is
an important tool for disaster mitigation
...
Apart from acting as effective
windbreakers and protecting soil crops from
being damaged they prevent soil erosion
...
In the normal course
these shelters can be used as public utility buildings
...
Training and education: Public awareness programs that inform the population about their
response to cyclone warnings and preparedness
can go a long way in reducing causalities
...
p65
are very strong winds, torrential rains and high
storm tides
...
This is often followed by heavy rainfall and floods
...
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Landuse control and settlement planning: No
residential and industrial units should be ideally
permitted in the coastal belt of 5 km from the
sea as it is the most vulnerable belt
...
Major settlements and other important
establishments should be located beyond 10 km
from the sea
...
In the recent years however
intensive construction activity and the destabilizing forces of nature have aggravated the problem
...
The
changes can be due to geology, climate, weathering, land-use and earthquakes
...
Developmental programs that involve modification
of the topography, exploitation of natural resources and change in the balance load on the
ground should not be permitted
...
Disasters cannot be totally prevented
...
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...
1 DEFINITION
112
5
...
2
...
2
...
2
...
2
...
2
...
2
...
2
...
3 SOLID WASTE MANAGEMENT: CAUSES, EFFECTS AND CONTROL MEASURES
OF URBAN AND INDUSTRIAL WASTE
5
...
5 POLLUTION CASE STUDIES
153
5
...
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111
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‘We spray our elms, and the following spring,
trees are silent of robin song, not because
we sprayed the robins directly but because
the poison traveled step by step through the
now familiar elm-earthworm-robin cycle’
– Rachael Carson
book has inspired controversy and has initiated
a major change in thinking about the safety of
using pesticides and other toxic chemicals
...
In the years following the publication of Silent Spring in 1962, the
Pollution is the effect of undesirable changes in
our surroundings that have harmful effects on
plants, animals and human beings
...
p65
5
...
No natural phenomenon has led
to greater ecological changes than have been
made by mankind
...
Pollutants include solid, liquid or gaseous substances present in greater than natural abundance produced due to human activity, which
have a detrimental effect on our environment
...
An average human requires
about 12 kg of air each day, which is nearly 12
to15 times greater than the amount of food we
eat
...
Pollutants that enter water have the ability to
spread to distant places especially in the marine
ecosystem
...
Eg: domestic sewage, discarded vegetables, etc
...
Eg: DDT and most
plastics
...
Once they are
released into the environment they are difficult
to eradicate and continue to accumulate
...
5
...
2
...
Hippocrates has mentioned air pollution in 400 BC
...
It was recognized as a problem 700 years
ago in London in the form of smoke pollution,
which prompted King Edward I to make the first
antipollution law to restrict people from using
coal for domestic heating in the year 1273
...
Defying the law led to imposition of capital punishment
...
The earliest recorded major disaster was the ‘London Smog’ that occurred
in 1952 that resulted in more than 4000 deaths
due to the accumulation of air pollutants over
the city for five days
...
Usually the normal
Peppered moth is well camouflaged on a clean
lichen covered tree
...
Thus while the peppered
patterned moths were successful in surviving in
clean non-industrial areas, the black coloured
moths were successful in industrial areas
...
This is a classic case of pollution leading to adaptation
...
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Air pollution began to increase in the beginning
of the twentieth century with the development
of the transportation systems and large-scale use
of petrol and diesel
...
Pollution due to auto-exhaust remains a serious environmental issue in many
developed and developing countries including
India
...
These laws
are intended to prevent air from being polluted
...
The effects of this disaster
on human health and the soil are felt even today
...
At the top of the troposphere temperatures abruptly begin to rise
...
The tropopause marks the end of the troposphere and the beginning of the stratosphere,
the second layer of the atmosphere
...
While the composition of
the stratosphere is similar to that of the troposphere it has two major differences
...
The presence of ozone in the
stratosphere prevents about 99 percent of the
sun’s harmful ultraviolet radiation from reaching the earth’s surface thus protecting humans
from cancer and damage to the immune system
...
Temperature rises with altitude in the
stratosphere until there is another reversal
...
Structure of the atmosphere
The atmosphere is normally composed of 79
percent nitrogen, 20 percent oxygen and one
percent as a mixture of carbon dioxide, water
vapour and trace amounts of several other gases
such as neon, helium, methane, krypton, hydrogen and xenon
...
The
atmosphere is divided into several layers
...
It contains
about 75 percent of the mass of the earth’s air
...
Types and sources of Air Pollution
What is air pollution?
Air pollution occurs due to the presence of undesirable solid or gaseous particles in the air in
quantities that are harmful to human health and
the environment
...
p65
In the mesosphere the temperature decreases
with altitude falling up to –110 oC at the top
...
This layer is called the thermosphere
...
The other layers are not significant in
determining the level of air pollution
...
However, unlike pollutants from human
activity, naturally occurring pollutants tend to
remain in the atmosphere for a short time and
do not lead to permanent atmospheric change
...
These are called primary pollutants
...
These are carbon
oxides (CO and CO2), nitrogen oxides, sulfur
oxides, volatile organic compounds (mostly hydrocarbons) and suspended particulate matter
...
Eg: sulfuric acid, nitric acid, carbonic acid, etc
...
Vehicular exhausts are the single largest
source of carbon monoxide
...
Vehicles are also poorly maintained
and several have inadequate pollution control
equipment resulting in release of greater
amounts of carbon monoxide
...
Natural processes can convert carbon monoxide to
other compounds that are not harmful
...
Sulfur oxides are produced when sulfur containing fossil fuels are burnt
...
Nitrogen oxides are significant, as they are involved in the production of secondary air pollutants such as ozone
...
They either evaporate from fuel supplies or are
remnants of fuel that did not burn completely
...
They cause
an oily film on the surface and do not as such
cause a serious issue until they react to form
secondary pollutants
...
Particulates are small pieces of solid material (for
example, smoke particles from fires, bits of asbestos, dust particles and ash from industries)
dispersed into the atmosphere
...
Repeated exposure
to particulates can cause them to accumulate
in the lungs and interfere with the ability of the
lungs to exchange gases
...
High
lead levels have been reported in the ambient
air in metropolitan cities
...
Pollutants are also found indoors from infiltration of polluted outside air and from various
chemicals used or produced inside buildings
...
Pollution
Chapter5
...
Zinc/lead fumes
Plume
Geometrical shape or form of the smoke coming out of
a chimney
Fog
Aerosol consisting of water droplets
Smog
Term used to describe a mixture of smoke and fog
...
The atmosphere normally disperses pollutants
by mixing them in the very large volume of air
that covers the earth
...
The rate of dispersion however varies in relation to the following aspects:
However on a still evening, the process is reversed
...
Due to the absence of wind, a static layer of
cold air is produced as the ground cools
...
The morning
sun cannot initially penetrate this fog layer
...
p65
Topography
Normally as the earth’s surface becomes
warmed by sunlight the layer of air in contact
with the ground is also heated by convection
...
Thus pollutants produced in
the surface layer are effectively dispersed
...
It cannot move out of
the area due to the surrounding hills
...
This
condition often continues through the cool night
and reaches its maximum intensity before sunrise
...
This may be broken up
by strong winds
...
Such a situation is
known as smog (smoke + fog)
...
This used to lead
to the generation of high levels of smoke containing sulphur oxides
...
The white fog accumulated
over the city turned black forming a ‘pea-soup’
smog with almost zero visibility
...
This event lead to several
deaths
...
Strong winds mix polluted air more
rapidly with the surrounding air diluting the
pollutants rapidly
...
The most well known example is that of the
‘London Smog’ that occurred in 1952
...
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When sulphur dioxide and nitrogen oxides are
transported by prevailing winds they form secondary pollutants such as nitric acid vapour,
droplets of sulfuric acid and particles of sulphate
and nitrate salts
...
The resulting mixture is called
acid deposition, commonly called acid rain
...
1 for terrestrial
systems and below 5
...
It
contributes to human respiratory diseases such
as bronchitis and asthma, which can cause premature death
...
Acid deposition
can damage tree foliage directly but the most
serious effect is weakening of trees so they become more susceptible to other types of damage
...
This can over stimulate growth of other
plants and intensify depletion of other important soil nutrients such as calcium and magnesium, which in turn can reduce tree growth and
vigour
...
The hair in our nose filters out large
particles
...
When
the upper respiratory system is irritated by pollutants sneezing and coughing expel contaminated air and mucus
...
Elderly people, infants, pregnant women and
people with heart disease, asthma or other res-
Cigarette smoking is responsible for the greatest exposure to carbon monoxide
...
001 percent of carbon
monoxide for several hours can cause collapse,
coma and even death
...
This impairs perception and thinking, slows reflexes and causes
headaches, drowsiness, dizziness and nausea
...
Sulfur dioxide irritates respiratory tissues
...
It also reacts with water, oxygen and
other material in the air to form sulfur-containing acids
...
Nitrogen oxides especially NO2 can irritate the
lungs, aggravate asthma or chronic bronchitis
and also increase susceptibility to respiratory
infections such as influenza or common colds
...
Exposure to these particles over a long
period of time damages lung tissue and contributes to the development of chronic respiratory disease and cancer
...
Inhaling ozone,
a component of photochemical smog causes
coughing, chest pain, breathlessness and irritation of the eye, nose and the throat
...
p65
piratory diseases are especially vulnerable to air
pollution
...
Effects on plants
When some gaseous pollutants enter leaf pores
they damage the leaves of crop plants
...
Such exposure interferes with photosynthesis and plant
growth, reduces nutrient uptake and causes
leaves to turn yellow, brown or drop off altogether
...
They eventually fall from the plants,
as they are unable to flower
...
Effects of air pollution on materials
Every year air pollutants cause damage worth
billions of rupees
...
All around
the world air pollutants have discoloured irreplaceable monuments, historic buildings, marble
statues, etc
...
This region called the
ozone layer extends up to 60 kms above the
surface of the earth
...
The ozone
layer does not consist of solely ozone but a mixture of other common atmospheric gases
...
Therefore even small changes in the ozone con-
The total amount of ozone in a ‘column’ of air
from the earth’s surface upto an altitude of 50
km is the total column ozone
...
This means that 100
DU=1mm of pure ozone gas at normal temperature and pressure at sea level
...
It is produced naturally from the
photodissociation of oxygen gas molecules in
the atmosphere
...
In the absence of pollutants the creation
and breakdown of ozone are purely governed
by natural forces, but the presence of certain
pollutants can accelerate the breakdown of
ozone
...
Soon after these findings a greater impetus was
given to research on the ozone layer, which
convincingly established that CFC’s were leading to its depletion
...
This makes
them ideal for many industrial applications like
aerosols, air conditioners, refrigerators and fire
extinguishers
...
(eg: perfumes, room fresheners, etc
...
However their sta-
Pollution
Chapter5
...
Halons are similar in structure to the CFCs but
contain bromine atoms instead of chlorine
...
Halons are used as fire extinguishing
agents as they do not pose a harm to people
and equipment exposed to them during fire
fighting
...
As they
are heavier than air they have to be carried by
air currents up to just above the lower atmosphere and then they slowly diffuse into the
upper atmosphere
...
In the
stratosphere unfiltered UV-radiation severs the
chemical bonds releasing chlorine from the rest
of the CFC
...
Despite the fact that CFCs are evenly distribute
over the globe, the ozone depletion is especially
pronounced over the South Pole due to the extreme weather conditions in the Antarctic atmosphere
...
The ozone layer
over countries like Australia, New Zealand, South
Africa and parts of South America is also depleted
...
Ozone depletion-What does it do?
Changes in the ozone layer have serious implications for mankind
...
This reduces
the nutrient content and the growth of plants
...
Plant and animal planktons are damaged by ultra-violet radiation
...
As planktons form the basis
of the marine food chain a change in their number and species composition influences fish and
shell fish production
...
Effect on climate: Atmospheric changes induced by pollution contribute to global warming, a phenomenon which is caused due to the
increase in concentration of certain gases like
carbon dioxide, nitrogen oxides, methane and
CFCs
...
This is known as the ‘Greenhouse Effect’
...
The glass in a
greenhouse allows solar radiation to enter which
is absorbed by the objects inside
...
The
heat is therefore trapped in the greenhouse increasing the temperature inside and ensuring
the luxuriant growth of plants
...
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increased ultra-violet radiation
...
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Green House Effect
There could be several adverse effects of global
warming
...
•
In countries like Bangladesh or the Maldives
this would be catastrophic
...
, Maldives will disappear completely beneath the waves
...
When the permafrost melts the
methane that will be released can accelerate the process of global warming
...
•
Changes in the distribution of solar energy
can bring about changes in habitats
...
This could
bring about changes in the species of natural plants, agricultural crops, insects, livestock and micro-organisms
...
Vast quantities of meth-
Air pollution can be controlled by two fundamental approaches: preventive techniques and
effluent control
...
This includes devices for removal of pollutants from the flue gases though scrubbers,
closed collection recovery systems through
which it is possible to collect the pollutants
before they escape, use of dry and wet collectors, filters, electrostatic precipitators, etc
...
Industries should be located in places so as to minimize the effects of pollution after considering
the topography and the wind directions
...
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pollution with those that cause less pollution can
be done
...
However compared to other cities in India, Delhi
is not at the top of the list of polluted cities
...
The recent release from the Central Pollution Control
Board (CPCB), Parivesh, January 2003 states that
Ahmedabad’s air is most noxious flowed by
Kanpur, Solapur and Lucknow with small particulate levels (PM10) 3-4 times the standard of
60 microgram per cubic meter (mg/m3)
...
This report thus confirms
the fact that Indian cities show high particulate
pollution with 14 cities hitting critical levels
...
However sharp increases have
been noticed in a few cities with heavy vehicular traffic and density as in a few locations in
Kolkata and Delhi indicating stronger impact of
traffic
...
However the impact of hard measures implemented
in Delhi over the last few years such as introduction of Euro II standards, lowering the sulphur content in fuel to 500 ppm and
implementing Compressed Natural Gas program
has succeeded in improving the quality of air
...
The Supreme Court also played a vital role protecting the Taj Mahal
...
The SPM deposits blackened it
...
Twelve years later
the Supreme Court ordered 292 industries in
the vicinity to either adopt pollution control
measures or shut down
...
Air quality monitoring
India does not presently have a well established
system of monitoring air pollution
...
Other pollutants
such as carbon monoxide and lead were monitored only on a limited scale
...
A database on ambient air
quality in Indian cities has been prepared by the
monitoring networks of the National Environmental Engineering Research Institute (NEERI),
Nagpur
...
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The Supreme Court’s
order of April 5, 2002 has directed the Central
Government for an action plan for other polluted cities
...
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Ambient air quality standards in India developed by the Central Pollution Control Board
Area Category
SPM µg/m3
SO2 µg/m3
Co µg/m3
NOx µg/m3
Industrial and mixed use
500
120
5000
120
Residential and rural
200
80
2000
80
Sensitive
100
3
1000
30
Data to the NAAQM is supplied by the respective state pollution control boards, which is then
transmitted to the CPCB
...
Moreover critical toxins have still not been included in the list of pollutants to be monitored
...
We need a
much more strengthened air quality management with continuous monitoring of air if we
are to have a better quality of air
...
Some of the suggestions
for doing this include:
•
Legal aspects of air pollution control in India
The Air (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act
was legislated in 1981
...
In areas notified under this Act no industrial pollution causing activity could come up
without the permission of the concerned State
Pollution Control Board
...
After the Bhopal disaster, a more
comprehensive Environment Protection Act
(EPA) was passed in 1986
...
To regulate vehicular pollution the Central Motor Vehicles Act of
1939 was amended in 1989
...
The
mass emission norms have been further revised
for 2000
...
2
...
There is nothing else like it in the solar system
...
– John Todd
Introduction: Water is the essential element
that makes life on earth possible
...
We usually take water for granted
...
Most of us are able to bathe when
we want to, swim when we choose and water
Pollution
Chapter5
...
Like good health we ignore water
when we have it
...
About 97% of the
total water available on earth is found in oceans
and is too salty for drinking or irrigation
...
Of this 2
...
Thus only 0
...
In short if the world’s water supply were only
100 litres our usable supply of fresh water would
be only about 0
...
This makes water a very precious resource
...
By the middle of this century, almost twice as many people will be trying to share
the same amount of fresh water the earth has
today
...
Water availability on the planet: Water that
is found in streams, rivers, lakes, wetlands and
artificial reservoirs is called surface water
...
Porous water-saturated layers of sand, gravel
or bedrock through which ground water flows
are called aquifers
...
This process is
called natural recharge
...
Any pollutant that is
discharged onto the land above is also pulled
into the aquifer and pollutes the groundwater
resulting in polluted water in the nearby wells
...
Point sources of pollution: When a source of
pollution can be readily identified because it has
a definite source and place where it enters the
water it is said to come from a point source
...
Municipal and Industrial Discharge Pipes
...
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...
These winds blow
from the opposite directions in the different seasons
...
The monsoon in India is usually reasonably stable but varies geographically
...
The rains may also terminate earlier
than usual
...
All these may cause
local floods or drought
...
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Sources of Pollution
Causes of water pollution
There are several classes of common water pollutants
...
Human wastes contain concentrated populations of coliform bacteria such as
Escherichia coli and Streptococcus faecalis
...
These bacteria are not harmful in low
numbers
...
Other
potentially harmful bacteria from human wastes
may also be present in smaller numbers
...
Another category of water pollutants is oxygen depleting wastes
...
Large populations of
bacteria use up the oxygen present in water to
degrade these wastes
...
The amount of oxygen
required to break down a certain amount of
organic matter is called the biological oxygen
demand (BOD)
...
If too
much organic matter is added to the water all
the available oxygen is used up
...
Thus anaerobic bacteria (those that
do not require oxygen) begin to break down
the wastes
...
A third class of pollutants are inorganic plant
nutrients
...
The excessive
growth of algae and aquatic plants due to added
nutrients is called eutrophication
...
As the organic matter decays, oxygen
levels decrease and fish and other aquatic species die
...
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The quantity of fertilizers applied in a field is
often many times more than is actually required
by the plants
...
While excess
fertilizers cause eutrophication, pesticides cause
bioaccumulation and biomagnification
...
They are then absorbed by the phytoplanktons and aquatic
plants
...
At each link in the food chain these chemicals which do not pass out of the body are accumulated and increasingly concentrated
resulting in biomagnification of these harmful
substances
...
High levels of these chemicals can make the water unfit to drink, harm
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...
This results in the premature breaking
of these eggs, killing the chicks inside
...
Although DDT has been banned in India for
agricultural use and is to be used only for malaria eradication, it is still used in the fields as it
is cheap
...
Another cause of water pollution is a variety of
organic chemicals, which include oil, gasoline,
plastics, pesticides, cleaning solvents, detergent
and many other chemicals
...
They get into
the water directly from industrial activity either
from improper handling of the chemicals in industries and more often from improper and illegal disposal of chemical wastes
...
These are insoluble particles of soil and other solids that become suspended in water
...
High levels of soil particles suspended in water, interferes with the penetration of sunlight
...
When the velocity of water in streams and rivers decreases the suspended particles settle
down at the bottom as sediments
...
Water soluble radioactive isotopes are yet
another source of water pollution
...
Ionizing radiation emitted by such isotopes can
cause birth defects, cancer and genetic damage
...
Thermal pollution occurs when
industry returns the heated water to a water
source
...
For efficient functioning of the steam
turbines, the steam is condensed into water after it leaves the turbines
...
This heated water, which is at
least 15oC higher than the normal is discharged
back into the water body
...
Oil is washed into surface water in runoff from
roads and parking lots which also pollutes
groundwater
...
On 24th
march 1989 the Exxon Valdez, a tanker more
than three football fields wide went off
course in a 16 kilometer wide channel in
Prince William Sound near Valdez in Alaska
...
The rapidly spreading oil slick
coated more than 1600 kilometers of shoreline killing between 300,000 and 645,000
water birds and a large number of sea otters, harbor seals, whales and fishes
...
2
...
However some results of the
cleanup effort showed that where high pressure jets of hot water were used to clean
beaches coastal plants and animals that had
survived the spill were killed
...
Exxon pleaded guilty in
1991 and agreed to pay the Federal Government and the state of Alaska $ 1 billion
in fines and civil damages
...
5 billion
accident might have been prevented if Exxon
had spent only $22
...
Such
double hulled vessels would be less likely to
rupture and spill their contents
...
Pollution
Chapter5
...
Accidental oil spills
from large transport tankers at sea have been
causing significant environmental damage
...
Nearly two thirds of all marine oil pollution comes from three sources: runoff from streets, improper discharge of
lubricating oil from machines or automobile
crankcases and intentional oil discharges that
occur during the loading and unloading of tankers
...
This oil contaminated water is then discharged back into the sea when the tanker is
refilled
...
While
groundwater is easy to deplete and pollute it
gets renewed very slowly and hence must be
used judiciously
...
Moreover pumping
groundwater and treating it is very slow and
costly
...
Ground water is polluted due to:
•
Urban run-off of untreated or poorly treated
waste water and garbage
•
Industrial waste storage located above or
near aquifers
•
Agricultural practices such as the application of large amounts of fertilizers and pesticides, animal feeding operations, etc
...
One group of researchers suggested that the cause is natural while the other
stated that the cause is man-made
...
p65
Severe cases of arsenic poisoning from contaminated groundwater have been reported from
West Bengal in what is known today as the worst
case of groundwater pollution
...
According to a report in the Down to Earth (Vol
...
22), arsenic poisoning was first noticed
by K C Saha, former professor of dermatology
at the School of Tropical Medicine, Kolkata when
he began to receive patients with skin lesions
that resembled the symptoms of leprosy which
was in reality not leprosy
...
Thus groundwater arsenic contamination in West Bengal was
first reported in a local daily newspaper in December 1983 when 63 people from three villages located in different districts were identified
by health officials as suffering from arsenic poisoning
...
Most of the arsenic affected areas of West Bengal lie in the alluvial plains
formed in the quarternary period (last 1
...
The Purulia district of West Bengal is
part of the extensive area of the Precambrian
era (last 570 million year) having metamorphic
rocks and granites with widespread sulphide
mineralisation
...
According to David Kinniburgh project leader
with BGS the main factor is time
...
It can thus take
hundreds or thousands of years for underground
water to percolate through the mud before
reaching the sea and thus it absorbs arsenic for
a long period
...
Their hypothesis called the pyrite oxidation thesis describes how arsenic can get mobilized in
the groundwater
...
Due to the lowering of the water table
below the deposits, arseno-pyrite which is oxidized in a zone of the aquifer called the Vadose
zone releases arsenic as arsenic adsorbed on iron
hydroxide
...
This theory is supported by two
arguments
...
This method of
extraction, which was exactly in the 20m to
100m below ground level ensured, increased
contribution of groundwater to irrigation
...
Arsenicosis or arsenic toxicity develops after two
to five years of exposure to arsenic contaminated
drinking water depending on the amount of
water consumption and the arsenic concentration in water
...
At a
later stage leucomelanosis sets in and the body
begins to show black and white spots
...
Rough, dry skin with
nodules on hands or the soles of feet indicate
severe toxicity
...
Arsenic poisoning
brings with it other complications such as liver
and spleen enlargement, cirrhosis of the liver,
diabetes, goiter and skin cancers
...
Most of the rivers in India are named after gods, goddesses or saints
...
Urbanization, industrialization, excess withdrawal of water, agricultural
run-off, improper agricultural practices and various religious and social practices all contribute
to river pollution in India
...
Waters from the Ganga and the
Yamuna are drawn for irrigation through the
network of canals as soon as these rivers reach
the plains reducing the amount of water that
flows downstream
...
The
residual freshwater, is unable to dilute the pol-
Pollution
Chapter5
...
In spite of data from scientifically competent
studies conducted by the Central Pollution Control Board (CPCB), the Government has not been
able to tackle this issue
...
In 1985, India launched the Ganga Action plan
(GAP) the largest ever river clean-up operation
in the country
...
The GAP Phase
II in 1991 included cleaning operations for the
tributaries of the Ganga, ie; the Yamuna, Gomti
and the Damodar
...
In 1995 the National River Conservation plan
was launched
...
In most
of these plans, attempts have been made to tap
drains, divert sewage to sewage treatment
plants before letting out the sewage into the
rivers
...
With the
power supply being erratic and these plants
being heavily dependent on power, most of
these facilities lie underutilized
...
NRCP is scheduled to be completed by March
2005
...
772
...
The cost is borne entirely by
the Central Government and the Ministry of
Environment and Forests is the nodal agency that
co-ordinates and monitors the plan
...
The treated effluent
can be reused for either gardening or cooling
purposes wherever possible
...
This system
involves running contaminated water through
the root zones of specially designed reed beds
...
The oxygen is pushed through the porous stem
of the reeds into the hollow roots where it enters the root zone and creates conditions suitable for the growth of numerous bacteria and
fungi
...
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5
...
3 Soil Pollution
Introduction: We can no more manufacture a
soil with a tank of chemicals than we can invent
a rain forest or produce a single bird
...
The
soil is a resource for which there is no substitute
...
Soil is a thin covering over the land consisting of
a mixture of minerals, organic material, living
organisms, air and water that together support
the growth of plant life
...
This includes mechanical weathering
of rocks due to temperature changes and abrasion, wind, moving water, glaciers, chemical
weathering activities and lichens
...
Extremely dry or cold climates develop soils
very slowly while humid and warm climates develop them more rapidly
...
Under poor
climatic conditions a hard parent material may
require hundreds of years to develop into soil
...
Each horizon has a distinct
texture and composition that varies with different types of soils
...
The top layer or the surface litter layer called
the O horizon consists mostly of freshly fallen
and partially decomposed leaves, twigs, animal
waste, fungi and other organic materials
...
The uppermost layer of the soil called the A
horizon consists of partially decomposed organic
matter (humus) and some inorganic mineral
particles
...
The roots of most plants are found
in these two upper layers
...
These two
top layers also contain a large amount of bacteria, fungi, earthworms and other small insects
that form complex food webs in the soil that
help recycle soil nutrients and contribute to soil
fertility
...
The area below the subsoil is
called the C horizon and consists of weathered
parent material
...
The chemical
composition of the C-horizon helps to determine
the pH of the soil and also influences the soil’s
rate of water absorption and retention
...
The relative amounts of the different sizes
and types of mineral particles determine soil
texture
...
Causes of soil degradation
Erosion
Soil erosion can be defined as the movement of
surface litter and topsoil from one place to another
...
Loss of the topsoil makes a soil less fertile and
reduces its water holding capacity
...
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life
...
Thus if the topsoil
erodes faster than it is formed the soil becomes
a non-renewable resource
...
There are several techniques that can protect soil from erosion
...
Some of the most commonly employed methods include the two types of treatment that are generally used
...
These are actually
shallow trenches dug across the slope of the
land and along the contour lines basically for
the purpose of soil and water conservation
...
These bunds are stabilized by fast growing tree species and grasses
...
Gradonies can also be used to convert wastelands into agricultural lands
...
The area
between the two bunds is use for cultivation of
crops after development of fertile soil cover
...
A bund constructed out of stones across the
stream can also be used for conserving soil and
water
...
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Drainage line treatment
Purpose
Treatment measure
Effect
Stop further deepening
of gullies and retain
sediment run-off
Plug the gullies at formation
Stops erosion, recharges
groundwater at the
upper level
...
A Gabion structure is a bund constructed of
stone and wrapped in galvanized chainlink
...
This ferrocement partition supported by the gabion portion is able to retain
the water and withstand the force of the runoff
water
...
Excess use of fertilizers: Approximately 25
percent of the world’s crop yield is estimated to
be directly attributed to the use of chemical fertilizers
...
Fertilizers
are very valuable as they replace the soil nutrients used up by plants
...
These are
commonly referred to as macronutrients
...
When crops
are harvested a large amount of macronutrients
and a small amount of micronutrients are removed with the crops
...
These necessary nutrients can be returned to the soil through the
application of fertilizers
...
Pesticides can be subdivided into several categories based on the kinds
of organisms they are used to control
...
Mice and rats are killed by rodenticides
while plant pests are controlled by herbicides
...
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Problems with pesticide use
Pesticides not only kill the pests but also a large
variety of living things including humans
...
Persistent
pesticides once applied are effective for a long
time
...
For example, DDT which was one of the first
synthetic organic insecticide to be used was
thought to be the perfect insecticide
...
However after a period of
use many mosquitoes and insects became tolerant of DDT, thus making it lose its effectiveness
...
This means that if 100 kilograms of DDT
were to be sprayed over an area, 50 kilograms
would still be present in the area 10 to 15 years
later
...
In tropical parts
of the world the half life may be as short as six
months
...
India still however permits the
use of DDT though for purposes of mosquito
control only
...
Persistent pesticides
may also accumulate in the bodies of animals,
and over a period of time increase in concentration if the animal is unable to flush them out
of its system thus leading to the phenomenon
called bioaccumulation
...
This phenomenon of acquiring
increasing levels of a substance in the bodies of
higher trophic level organisms is known as
biomagnification
...
Most pesticides kill beneficial as well as pest species
...
Thus the pest species increase rapidly
following the use of a pesticide as there are no
natural checks to their population growth
...
Exposure to
small quantities of pesticides over several years
can cause mutations, produce cancers, etc
...
Firstly the use of
pesticides in the short term has increased the
amount of food that can be grown in many parts
of the world as the damage by pests is decreased
...
The increased yields more than compensates the
farmer for cost of pesticides
...
However more and more farmers are increasingly opting to replace chemical fertilizers and
use different methods of controlling pests without affecting their yield
...
Alternative
agriculture is the broadest term that is used that
includes all non-traditional agricultural methods
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DDT is a well known case of
biomagnification in ecosystems
...
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and encompasses sustainable agriculture, organic agriculture, alternative uses of traditional
crops, alternative methods for raising crops, etc
...
Organic agriculture
advocates avoiding the use of chemical fertilizers and pesticides
...
Leaving crop residue on the soil and
incorporating it into the soil reduces erosion and
increase soil organic matter
...
Crop rotation is an effective way
to enhance soil fertility, reduce erosion and control pests
...
Critics argue that
organic farming cannot produce the amount of
food required for today’s population and it is
economically viable only in certain conditions
...
Besides organic farmers do not have to
spend on fertilizers and pesticides and also get
a premium price for their products thus making
it financially viable for them
...
This is
a technique that uses a complete understanding of all ecological aspects of a crop and the
particular pests to which it is susceptible to establish pest control strategies that uses no or
few pesticides
...
Biopesticides are derived from
three sources: microbial, botanical and biochemical
...
They
produce toxins specific to the pests and produce
diseases in them
...
The most
commonly used biopesticides are Bacillus
thuringiensis (Bt), neem (Azadirachta indica) and
trichogramma
...
Excess salts and water
Irrigated lands can produce crop yields much
higher than those that only use rainwater
...
Irrigation
water contains dissolved salts and in dry climates
much of the water in the saline solution evaporates leaving its salts such as sodium chloride in
the topsoil
...
These salts
can be flushed out of the soil by using more
water
...
Flushing salts can also make
the downstream irrigation water saltier
...
This occurs when large amounts of water
is used to leach the salts deeper into the soil
...
The roots of the plants then get
enveloped in this saline water and eventually
die
...
5
...
4 Marine Pollution
Marine pollution can be defined as the introduction of substances to the marine environment directly or indirectly by man resulting in
adverse effects such as hazards to human health,
obstruction of marine activities and lowering the
quality of sea water
...
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rine pollution may be similar to that of general
water pollution there are some very specific
causes that pollute marine waters
...
•
•
Offshore oil exploration and extraction also
pollute the seawater to a large extent
...
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in huge quantities sometimes to the capacity of 350,000 tonnes
...
Shipping channels in
estuaries and at the entrances to ports often require frequent dredging to keep them
open
...
The most obvious inputs of waste is through
pipes directly discharging wastes into the
sea
...
•
•
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Pollution due to organic wastes
The amount of oxygen dissolved in the water is
vital for the plants and animals living in it
...
Normally
the greatest volume of waste discharged to
watercourses, estuaries and the sea is sewage,
which is primarily organic in nature and is degraded by bacterial activity
...
However as a result of this bacterial activity the oxygen concentration in the water is reduced
...
5 mg/
lit, the rate of aerobic oxidation is reduced and
their place is taken over by the anaerobic bacteria that can oxidize the organic molecules without the use of oxygen
...
This process results in the formation of an
anoxic zone which is low in its oxygen content
from which most life disappears except for
anaerobic bacteria, fungi, yeasts and some protozoa
...
Control measures: One way of reducing the
pollution load on marine waters is through the
introduction of sewage treatment plants
...
Various stages of treatment such as primary,
secondary or advanced can be used depending
on the quality of the effluent that is required to
be treated
...
This includes, stones, sticks,
rags, and all such material that can clog pipes
...
One way of avoiding the problem of
disposal of materials collected on the screens is
to use a device called a comminuter which grinds
the coarse material into small pieces that can
then be left in the waste water
...
The
detention time is chosen to be long enough to
allow lighter, organic material to settle
...
If the waste is to undergo
only primary treatment it is then chlorinated to
destroy bacteria and control odours after which
the effluent is released
...
Secondary treatment: The main objective of
secondary treatment is to remove most of the
BOD
...
Secondary treatment
can remove at least 85 percent of the BOD
...
The spaces between the rocks allow
air to circulate easily so that aerobic conditions
can be maintained
...
which
degrade the waste trickling through the bed
...
In the activated sludge process the sewage is
pumped into a large tank and mixed for several
hours with bacteria rich sludge and air bubbles
to facilitate degradation by micro-organisms
...
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where most of the microorganisms settle out as
sludge
...
The gas produced in the digester is
60 percent methane, which is a valuable fuel
and can be put to many uses within the treatment plant itself
...
This dried sludge is potentially a good source of manure
...
They are also less expensive to construct than trickling filters and
have fewer problems with flies and odour and
can also achieve higher rates of BOD removal
...
Oxidation ponds are large shallow ponds approximately 1 to 2 metres deep where raw or
partially treated sewage is decomposed by microorganisms
...
They however require a large amount of land
and hence can be used where land is not a limitation
...
Sewage treatment plant effluents contain nitrates and phosphates in large amounts
...
Thus advanced treatment plants
are designed to specifically remove these contaminants
...
Tanker operations
Half the world production of crude oil which is
close to three billion tones a year is transported
by sea
...
This ballast water is stored in the
cargo compartments that previously contained
the oil
...
The ballast
water thus becomes contaminated with this oil
...
Two techniques have substantially
reduced this oil pollution
...
The oily water is retained
in the compartment until the oil floats to the
top
...
At the loading
terminal, fresh oil is loaded on top of the oil in
the tank and hence the name of the technique
...
Some modern tankers have segregated ballast where the
ballast water does not come in contact with the
oil
...
Dry docking
All ships need periodic dry docking for servicing, repairs, cleaning the hull, etc
...
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Pollution due to oil: Oil pollution of the sea
normally attracts the greatest attention because
of its visibility
...
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completely emptied, residual oil finds its way into
the sea
...
While being pumped overboard it carries
oil into the sea
...
Tanker accidents
A large number of oil tanker accidents happen
every year
...
Offshore oil production
Oil that is extracted from the seabed contains
some water
...
Drilling muds which are pumped down oil wells
when it is being drilled normally contain 70 to
80 percent of oil
...
Uncontrolled release of oil
from the wells can be catastrophic events resulting in oil pollution
...
The natural process of emulsification
of oil in the water can be accelerated through
the use of chemical dispersants which can be
sprayed on the oil
...
Rocks, harbour walls can be cleaned with high-
pressure steam or dispersants after which the
surface must be hosed down
...
These are phytoplankton blooms of
such intensity that the area is discolored
...
When liquid oil is spilled on the sea it spreads
over the surface of the water to form a thin film
called an oil slick
...
Oil slicks damage marine life to a large extent
...
For salt marsh
plants, oil slicks can affect the flowering, fruiting and germination
...
Water thus
penetrates the plumage and displaces the air
trapped between the feathers and the skin
...
With this loss the plumage
becomes water logged and the birds may sink
and drown
...
Birds often
clean their plumage by preening and in the process consume oil which depending on its toxicity can lead to intestinal, renal or liver failure
...
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...
The most important
commercial damage can however also come
from tainting which imparts an unpleasant
flavour to fish and seafood and is detectable at
extremely low levels of contamination
...
5
...
5 Noise Pollution
Noise may not seem as harmful as the contamination of air or water but it is a pollution problem that affects human health and can
contribute to a general deterioration of environmental quality
...
Noise emanating from factories, vehicles, playing of loudspeakers during various
festivals can contribute to outdoor noise pollution while loudly played radio or music systems,
and other electronic gadgets can contribute to
indoor noise pollution
...
The permitted noise level is 125 decibels, as per
the Environment (Protection) (second amendment) Rules, 1999
...
Not
all sound is noise
...
It
is not a substance that can accumulate in the
environment like most other pollutants
...
The differences between sound and noise is often subjective and a matter of personal opinion
...
These effects can range in severity from
being extremely annoying to being extremely
painful and hazardous
...
However temporary effects are
noticed at sound levels between 80 and 130
dBA
...
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The most direct harmful effect of excessive noise
is physical damage to the ear and the temporary or permanent hearing loss often called a
temporary threshold shift (TTS)
...
However hearing ability is usually
recovered within a month of exposure
...
Permanent
loss, usually called noise induced permanent
threshold shift (NIPTS) represents a loss of hearing ability from which there is no recovery
...
A sound level of 150 dBA or
more can physically rupture the human eardrum
...
For
example, 1hour of exposure to a 100 dBA sound
level can produce a TTS that may last for about
one day
...
Exposure to 95
dBA for 8 hours everyday for over a period of
10 years may cause about 15 dBA of NIPTS
...
Permitted noise levels
Ambient Noise Levels dB
Zone
Day-time
Night-time
Silent Zone
50
40
Residential Zone
55
45
Commercial Zone
65
55
Industrial Zone
70
70
A standard safe time limit has been set for exposure to various noise levels
...
Duration
dBA
8 hours
Noise can also cause emotional or psychological effects such as irritability, anxiety and stress
...
It has been
observed that the performance of school children is poor in comprehension tasks when
schools are situated in busy areas of a city and
suffer from noise pollution
...
It definitely affects the quality of life
...
102
15 minutes
105
7 minutes
108
4 minutes
111
2 minutes
114
1 minute
As noise interferes with normal auditory communication, it may mask auditory warning signals and hence increases the rate of accidents
especially in industries
...
30 minutes
117
30 seconds
120
Instantaneous rupture of membrane
150
Noise Control techniques
There are four fundamental ways in which noise
can be controlled: Reduce noise at the source,
block the path of noise, increase the path length
and protect the recipient
...
Pollution
Chapter5
...
In industries noise reduction can be done
by using rigid sealed enclosures around machinery lined with acoustic absorbing material
...
However one of the best methods of noise
source reduction is regular and thorough maintenance of operating machinery
...
Locating noisy air compressors and other
equipment away from the site boundary along
with creation of temporary barriers to physically
block the noise can help contribute to reducing
noise pollution
...
However
poorly maintained vehicles can add to the noise
levels
...
For example
doubling the speed increases the sound levels
by about 9 dBA and doubling the traffic volume
(number of vehicles per hour) increases sound
levels by about 3 dBA
...
Proper highway planning and
design are essential for controlling traffic noise
...
The
path of traffic noise can also be blocked by construction of vertical barriers alongside the highway
...
In industries different types of absorptive material can be used
to control interior noise
...
Sound levels drop significantly with increasing
5
...
6 Thermal Pollution
Sources: The discharge of warm water into a
river is usually called a thermal pollution
...
Power plants heat water to convert it into steam,
to drive the turbines that generate electricity
...
This condensation is done by taking water from a water body to absorb the heat
...
Effects: The warmer temperature decreases the
solubility of oxygen and increases the metabolism of fish
...
Within certain limits thermal additions can promote the growth of certain fish
and the fish catch may be high in the vicinity of
a power plant
...
Tropical marine animals are generally unable to
withstand a temperature increase of 2 to 30C
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Increasing the
path length between the source and the recipient offers a passive means of control
...
Use of
earplugs and earmuffs can protect individuals
effectively from excessive noise levels
...
However very often workers tend not to wear
them on a regular basis despite company requirements for their use
...
This
results in a change in the diversity of fauna as
only those species that can live in warmer water survive
...
The heat is dissipated into the
air and the water can then be discharged into
the river or pumped back to the plant for reuse
as cooling water
...
One method
is to construct a large shallow pond
...
The heat
gets dissipated from the pond into the atmosphere
...
These structures take up less land area
than the ponds
...
Here warm waters
coming from the condenser is sprayed downward over vertical sheets or baffles where the
water flows in thin films
...
A natural draft is maintained because of the density difference between the cool air outside and the warmer air
inside the tower
...
The cooled water is collected
at the floor of the tower and recycled back to
the power plant condensers
...
5
...
7 Nuclear Hazards
Nuclear energy can be both beneficial and harmful depending on the way in which it is used
...
Approximately 17 % of the electrical
energy generated in the world comes from
nuclear power plants
...
The radioactive wastes
from nuclear energy have caused serious environmental damage
...
The resulting energy can be used for
a variety of purposes
...
However the United States was the first country to develop an atomic bomb which was subsequently dropped on the Japanese cities of
Hiroshima and Nagasaki
...
In December 1953, President Dwight D
...
The users will pay a fee and use as much electricity as they want
...
’
Today however though nuclear power is being
used as a reliable source of electricity the above
statement sounds highly optimistic
...
In order to appreciate the consequences of using nuclear fuels to generate energy it is important to understand how the fuel is processed
...
2
percent uranium by weight, is obtained by surface or underground mining
...
Naturally occurring uranium contains only
0
...
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high enough for most types of reactors
...
The enrichment process increases the U-235 content from 0
...
Fuel fabrication then converts the enriched material into a powder, which is then compacted
into pellets
...
As fission occurs the
concentration of U-235 atoms decreases
...
The spent rods are however still very radioactive containing about one
percent U-235 and one percent plutonium
...
Initially it was thought that spent fuel rods could
be reprocessed to not only provide new fuel but
also to reduce the amount of nuclear waste
...
Presently
India does operate reprocessing plants to reprocess spent fuel as an alternative to storing them
as nuclear waste
...
Although nuclear power has significant benefits
an incident which changed people’s attitudes
towards nuclear power plants was the
Chernobyl disaster that occurred in 1986
...
At 1
...
This was important information since the
emergency core cooling system required energy
for its operation and the coasting turbine could
provide some of that energy until another source
At 1
...
Just as the final stages for the test were
beginning a signal indicated excessive reaction
in the reactor
...
As the test continued the
power output of the reactor rose beyond its
normal level and continued to rise
...
But it was already too late
...
In 4
...
The fuel rods ruptured the cooling
water turned into steam and a steam explosion
occurred
...
The explosion blew the 1000
metric ton concrete roof from the reactor and
the reactor caught fire
...
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The amount of steam being
produced was reduced by lowering the control
rods into the reactor
...
The operators
failed to program the computer to maintain
power at 700 megawatts and the output
dropped to 30 megawatts
...
Meanwhile an inert gas (xenon) had accumulated on the fuel rods
...
In an attempt to obtain more power the operators withdrew all the control rods
...
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There were of course immediate fatalities, but
the long-term consequences were devastating
...
Even today many people suffer from illnesses
they feel are related to their exposure to the
fallout from Chernobyl
...
The degree and the kind of damage from
nuclear accidents vary with the kind of radiation, the amount of radiation, the duration of
exposure and the types of cells irradiated
...
Mutations can occur in the ovaries or the testes
leading to the formation of mutated eggs or
sperms which in turn can lead to abnormal offspring
...
Two
common cancers that are linked to increased
radiation exposure are leukemia and breast cancer
...
3 SOLID WASTE MANAGEEMNT:
CAUSES, EFFECTS AND CONTROL MEASURES OF URBAN AND INDUSTRIAL
WASTE
In ancient cities, food scraps and other wastes
were simply thrown into the unpaved streets
where they accumulated
...
C
...
Disposal methods were
very crude and often were just open pits outside the city walls
...
Until recently
the disposal of municipal solid waste did not
attract much public attention
...
Around most towns and cities in India the approach roads are littered with multi-coloured
plastic bags and other garbage
...
Modern methods
of disposal such as incineration and the development of sanitary landfills, etc
...
Lack of space
for dumping solid waste has become a serious
problem in several cities and towns all over the
world
...
Today disposal of solid waste should be part of an
integrated waste management plan
...
Characteristics of municipal solid waste
Solid wastes are grouped or classified in several
different ways
...
The term municipal solid waste (MSW) is
generally used to describe most of the non-hazardous solid waste from a city, town or village
that requires routine collection and transport to
a processing or disposal site
...
However MSW does not include wastes
from industrial processes, construction and
demolition debris, sewage sludge, mining wastes
or agricultural wastes
...
It can contain food waste such as vegetable and meat material, left over food, egg
shells, etc which is classified as wet garbage as
well as paper, plastic, tetrapacks, plastic cans,
newspaper, glass bottles, cardboard boxes, alu-
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...
which
is classified as dry garbage
...
Source reduction
2
...
Disposal
Source reduction is one of the fundamental
ways to reduce waste
...
On an individual
level we can reduce the use of unnecessary items
while shopping, buy items with minimal packaging, avoid buying disposable items and also
avoid asking for plastic carry bags
...
Recycling has readily visible benefits such as conservation of resources reduction in energy used
during manufacture and reducing pollution levels
...
Metal, paper, glass
and plastics are recyclable
...
Paper recycling
can also help preserve forests as it takes about
17 trees to make one ton of paper
...
Cullet
lowers the temperature requirement of the
glassmaking process thus conserving energy and
reducing air pollution
...
The problems associated with recycling are either technical or economical
...
Since
each type has its own chemical makeup differ-
Disposal of solid waste is done most commonly
through a sanitary landfill or through incineration
...
The three key characteristics of a municipal sanitary landfill that
distinguish it from an open dump are:
•
Solid waste is placed in a suitably selected
and prepared landfill site in a carefully prescribed manner
...
•
The waste is covered each day with a layer
of compacted soil
...
Pollutants seeping
out from the bottom of a sanitary landfill
(leachates) very often percolate down to the
groundwater aquifer no matter how thick the
underlying soil layer
...
The organic material in the buried solid waste
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Thus
separation of different plastics before recycling
is necessary
...
Recycled
paper is banned for use in food containers to
prevent the possibility of contamination
...
Collection, sorting and transport
account for about 90 percent of the cost of
paper recycling
...
Very often thus
recycled paper is more expensive than virgin
paper
...
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will decompose due to the action of microorganisms
...
The anerobes take over producing methane which is poisonous and highly
explosive when mixed with air in concentrations
between 5 and 15 percent
...
A venting system to collect the blocked gas and vent it to the surface
where it can be safely diluted and dispersed into
the atmosphere is thus a necessary component
of the design of sanitary landfills
...
Another reason is that no matter how
well engineered the design and operation may
be, there is always the danger of some environmental damage in the form of leakage of
leachates
...
Incineration is a chemical process in
which the combustible portion of the waste is
combined with oxygen forming carbon dioxide
and water, which are released into the atmosphere
...
For complete oxidation the waste must be mixed with appropriate volumes of air at a temperature of about
815o C for about one hour
...
The risks of incineration however involve airquality problems and toxicity and disposal of the
fly and bottom ash produced during the incineration process
...
Most of the incinerator ash is
bottom ash while the remainder is fly ash
...
Thus toxic products and
materials containing heavy metals (for example
batteries and plastics) should be segregated
...
Thus while sanitary landfills and incinerators have
their own advantages and disadvantages, the
most effective method of solid waste management is source reduction and recycling
...
The biogeochemical cycles are designed to clear the
waste material produced by animals and plants
...
All dead and dry leaves and
twigs decompose and are broken down by organisms such as worms and insects, and is finally broken down by bacteria and fungi, to form
a dark rich soil-like material called compost
...
These
nutrients are returned to the soil to be used again
by trees and other plants
...
This soil can be used as a manure for farms and
gardens
...
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Steps for Vermi-Compost
•
Dig a pit about half a meter square, one
meter deep
...
•
Organize the disposal of organic waste
into the pit as and when generated
...
•
Ensure that the contents are covered
with a sprinkling of dried leaves and soil
everyday
...
•
Turn over the contents of the pit ever
15 days
...
•
The soil derived is fertile and rich in nutrients
...
In
addition to this waste products that are either
infectious or radioactive are also classified as
hazardous
Toxic wastes are those substances that are poisonous even in very small or trace amounts
...
Others may have a chronic or long term
effect slowly causing irreparable harm to exposed persons
...
Chronic toxicity is
much more difficult to determine because the
effects may not be seen for years
...
Reactive wastes are those that have a tendency
to react vigorously with air or water, are unstable to shock or heat, generate toxic gases or
explode during routine management
...
Hazardous wastes
Modern society produces large quantities of
hazardous waste which are generated by chemical manufacturing companies, petroleum refineries, paper mills, smelters and other industries
...
Wastes are normally classified as hazardous waste when they
cause or significantly contribute to an increase
in mortality or an increase in serious irreversible
or incapacitating reversible illness or pose a sub-
Ignitable wastes are those that burn at relatively
low temperatures (less than 60 C) and are capable of spontaneous combustion during storage, transport or disposal
...
Corrosive wastes are those that destroy materials and living tissue by chemical reaction
...
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Infectious wastes include human tissue from
surgery, used bandages and hypodermic
needles, microbiological materials, etc
...
Lead may also damage nerve tissue which can result in brain disease
...
Mercury occurs in several different forms
...
It is
also used as a catalyst in the production of some
plastics
...
Our body has a limited ability to
eliminate mercury
...
In an aquatic environment,
mercury can be absorbed by the plankton which
are then consumed by fish
...
As most of the hazardous wastes are disposed
of on or in land the most serious environmental
effect is contaminated groundwater
...
Pesticides are used increasingly to protect and
increase food production
...
The residues may
persist in the soil or in the bottom of lakes and
rivers
...
Today we have an alternative to the excess use of pesticides through the
use of Integrated Pest Management (IPM)
...
The
natural balance between climate, soil and insect populations can help to prevent an insect
from overpopulating an area and destroying a
particular crop
...
Lead is an abundant heavy metal and is
relatively easy to obtain
...
Most
of the lead taken up by people and wildlife is
stored in bones
...
A large plastics plant located
near the Minamata bay used a mercury containing compound in a reaction to produce
vinyl chloride a common plastic material
...
Though the mercury was in its less toxic inorganic state when dumped microorganisms
at the bottom of the bay converted the mercury into its organic form
...
The contaminated fish thus
caused an outbreak of poisoning killing and
affecting several people
...
Mercury poisoning is thus called
Minamata Disease
...
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other fish contaminated with mercury
...
Birds that eat the fish
concentrate even more mercury in their bodies
...
Thousands of chemicals are used in industry
everyday
...
PCBs
(Polychlorinated biphenyls) are resistant to fire
and do not conduct electricity very well which
makes them excellent materials for several industrial purposes
...
PCBs do not break down
very rapidly in the environment and thus retain
their toxic characteristics
...
PCBs are concentrated in the kidneys and
liver and thus cause damage
...
Vinyl chloride is a chemical that is widely used
in the manufacture of plastic
...
After a
long continuous exposure (one to three years)
in humans, vinyl chloride can cause deafness,
vision problems, circulation disorders and bone
deformities
...
It is essential to substitute the use of PCBs and
vinyl chloride with chemicals that are less toxic
...
Thus by reducing waste,
encouraging recycling and using products that
are well made and durable we can greatly reduce our consumption of these chemicals thus
curtailing our exposure to these substances
...
In countries where there is abundant land available for disposal for example,
North America land disposal is the most widely
used method
...
In spite of strong laws however illegal dumping of these wastes continues
...
Industries need to be encouraged to generate less hazardous waste in
their manufacturing processes
...
An informed public can also
contribute in a big way towards this end
...
We might decide that the benefits of the use of a toxic
substance do not outweigh the risks and choose
not to use it at all or we may decide that it is
acceptable to use a substance under certain
specific circumstances where it is adequately
controlled and exposure to toxic levels is prevented
...
4 ROLE OF AN INDIVIDUAL IN PREVENTION OF POLLUTION
There are a host of environmental problems
caused by human actions on the environment
...
Our personal actions can either worsen
or improve our environmental quality
...
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as wildlife
...
When these products are used incorrectly
they have the potential to be harmful
...
Some of our wastes can be diluted,
decomposed and recycled by natural processes
indefinitely as long as these processes are not
overloaded
...
We must therefore learn to value
these resources and use them sustainably
...
They
reduce air pollution
...
Manufacturing paper leads to pollution and loss of forests
which releases oxygen and takes up carbon
dioxide
...
•
From the mail you receive reuse as many
envelopes that you can
...
While a majority of individuals would want a
cleaner environment, not many of them want
to make major changes in their lifestyle that
could contribute to a cleaner environment
...
This necessitates that individuals
should not only be aware of various environmental issues and the consequences of their
actions on the environment but should also
make a firm resolve to develop environmentally
ethical lifestyles
...
These are forest based
...
•
Use pesticides in your home only when absolutely necessary and use them in as small
amounts as necessary
...
•
Advocate organic farming by asking your
grocery store to stock vegetables and fruits
grown by an organic method
...
•
Reduce the use of fossil fuels by either walking up a short distance using a car pool,
sharing a bike or using public transport
...
•
Shut off the lights and fans when not
needed
...
They damage
the ozone layer
...
•
Develop respect or reverence for all forms
of life
...
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•
Do not pour pesticides, paints, solvents, oil
or other products containing harmful chemicals down the drain or on the ground
...
•
Buy consumer goods that last, keep them
as long as possible and have them repaired
as far as possible instead of disposing them
off
...
•
Do not litter the roads and surroundings just
because the sweeper from the Municipal
Corporation will clean it up
...
•
Buy consumer goods ages in refillable glass
containers instead of cans or throwaway
bottles
...
You can however concentrate
on issues that you feel strongly about and
can do something about
...
•
You could join any of the several NGOs that
exist in our country or become volunteers
...
•
Learn about the biodiversity of your own
area
...
This would help you to develop a
sense of pride in your city/town/village and
will also help you understand the problems
facing their survival
...
•
Try to avoid asking for plastic carry bags
when you buy groceries or vegetables or
any other items
...
•
Use sponges and washable cloth napkins,
dish towels and handkerchiefs instead of
paper ones
...
•
Recycle all newspaper, glass, aluminum and
other items accepted for recycling in your
area
...
•
Set up a compost bin in your garden or terrace and use it to produce manure for your
plants to reduce use of fertilizers
...
You have the option to make a choice
rather than complain later on
...
Do not dwell
on the negative aspects
...
•
When talking to elected officials always be
courteous and reasonable
...
•
Choose items that have the least packaging or no packaging
...
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spectful in doing so as you will gain little by
being hostile and brash
...
Remember environment protection
begins with YOU
...
5 POLLUTION CASE STUDIES
A case study of groundwater pollution in
India
An example of groundwater pollution caused
by excessive extraction is that fluoride contamination
...
It has
spread across 19 states and across a variety of
ecological regions ranging from the Thar desert,
the Gangetic plains and the Deccan plateau
...
High fluoride
concentration in groundwater is a natural phenomenon in several countries such as China, Sri
Lanka, West Indies, Spain, Holland, Italy and
Mexico
...
According to a report of the
Rajiv Gandhi National Drinking Water mission,
the bedrock of the Indian peninsula consists of
a number of fluoride bearing minerals
...
Although the Indian peninsular bedrock has always been the same, this
problem has only surfaced during the last three
decades
...
The beginnings of this phenomenon can be
traced back to the 1970s and the 1980s when
there was massive state investment in rural
water development for irrigation as well as for
drinking
...
This policy aggravated
the fluoride problem
...
Excess intake
of fluoride can lead to dental fluorosis, skeletal
fluorosis or non-skeletal fluorosis
...
Skeletal fluorosis
leads to severe and permanent bone and joint
deformities
...
Fluoride can damage the foetus and
adversely affect the IQ of children
...
Various technologies
are available for this process
...
None of the Indian
technologies are however fool-proof
...
A case study of pesticide pollution in India
One of the most terrifying effects of pesticide
contamination of ground water came to light
when pesticide residues were found in bottled
water
...
Pesticide residues of organochlorine and organophosphorus pesticides which are most
commonly used in India were found in all the
samples
...
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prevalent while among organophosphorus pesticides, Malathion and Chlorpyrifos were most
common
...
One may wonder as to how these pesticide residues get into bottled water that is manufactured by several big companies
...
There is no regulation
that the bottled water industry must be located
in ‘clean’ zones
...
Most companies use bore wells to pump
out water from the ground from depths varying from 24m to even 152 m below the ground
...
This clearly indicated that the source of pesticide residues in the polluted groundwater are
used to manufacture the bottled water
...
Thus obviously
the fault lies in the treatment methods used
...
While nanofiltration can remove insecticides and herbicides it is expensive and thus
rarely used
...
To remove pesticides the plants use reverse osmosis and granular activated charcoal
methods
...
Similarly six months after CSE reported pesticide residues in bottled water it also found these
pesticides in popular cold drink brands sold
across the country
...
There were no standards for bottled water in
India till on September 29, 2000 the Union Ministry of Health and Family Welfare issued a notification (no759(E)) amending the Prevention of
Food Adulteration Rules, 1954
...
However the parameters for pesticide
residues remained ambiguous
...
18, a series of Committees were established and eventually on 18th July 2003 amendments were made in the Prevention of Food
Adulteration Rules stating that pesticide residues
considered individually should not exceed
0
...
lit and the total pesticide residues will
not be more than 0
...
This notification came into
force from January 1, 2004
...
The
causes of pollution may also be more or less similar
...
The 563 km long
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...
However repeated exposure even to extremely miniscule amounts can result in chronic
effects like cancer, liver and kidney damage,
disorders of the nervous system, damage to the
immune system and birth defects
...
It flows through one of the richest mineral belts in the world before draining into the
Hooghly, about 50 km south of Calcutta
...
Coal based
industries of all types dot the area because of
locational advantages and the easy availability
of water and power
...
The river
Damodar is polluted with minerals, mine rejects
and toxic effluents
...
There are seven thermal power plants
in the Damodar valley
...
These power
plants not only consume a lot of water but also
dump ash in the valley
...
The disposal of rock and soil extracted along with the coal only adds to the
problem
...
Among the big coal
based industries the washeries account for the
bulk of the pollution in terms of the total suspended solids (TSS), oil and grease
...
After the slurry settles, coalfine (the sediment) is collected manually
...
The other major coal based polluters are the coke oven plants that heat coal to
temperatures as high as 1100oC in the absence
of oxygen to prepare it for use in blast furnaces
and foundries
...
This water that contains oil and
suspended particles is then discharged into the
river
...
As most of these plants are located on the banks of the river the fly ash eventually finds its way into the river
...
Most of the ponds are full and in several cases
the drainage pipes are choked
...
Effects
The river and its tributaries are the largest source
of drinking water for the huge population that
lives in the valley
...
This oil traveled
150 km downstream to Durgapur
...
03 mg/l
...
One viable option could be to switch to
less polluting industries and cleaner technology
...
Pollution
Chapter5
...
6 DISASTER MANAGEMENT: FLOODS,
EARTHQUAKES, CYCLONES, LANDSLIDES
The Indian subcontinent is very vulnerable to
droughts, floods, cyclones, earthquakes, landslides, avalanches and forest fires
...
this phenomenon occurs with so little warning
that it is almost impossible to make preparations against damages and collapse of buildings
...
Most of
the vulnerable areas are located in the Himalayan and sub-Himalayan regions
...
About 75 percent of the annual rainfall in India is concentrated in three to
four months of the monsoon season
...
Approximately 40 million hectares of land
in the country has been identified as being prone
to floods
...
From management to mitigation of disasters
India has a long coastline of 5700 kms, which is
exposed to tropical cyclones arising in the Bay
of Bengal and the Arabian sea
...
In India, cyclones occur usually between April and May and also between October and December
...
It is evident today that human activities are responsible for accelerating the frequency and
severity of natural disasters
...
will
always occur
...
However destruction from
natural hazards can be minimized by the presence of a well functioning warning system combined with preparedness on part of the
community that will be affected
...
Droughts are a perennial feature in some states
of India
...
Drought is a significant
environmental problem as it is caused by a lower
than average rainfall over a long period of time
...
Earthquakes are considered to be one of the
most destructive natural hazards
...
It is also multi-sectoral as it involves
administrators, scientists, planners, volunteers
and communities
...
p65
Till very recently the approach towards dealing
with natural disasters has been post disaster
management involving problems such as evacuation, warnings, communications, search and
rescue, fire-fighting, medical and psychiatric
assistance, provision of relief, shelter, etc
...
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the pre-disaster, during disaster and post disaster plans
...
In order to transfer the benefits of scientific research and development to the communities
links must be developed between scientific communities and field agencies
...
Today we have a range of early warning systems for a range of natural hazards
...
This is where disaster mitigation can play an important role
...
It is defined as sustained
action taken to reduce long term vulnerability
of human life and property to natural hazards
...
Certain guidelines if followed can result in an
effective mitigation program
...
•
Mitigation measures must ensure protection of the natural and cultural assets of the
community
...
•
Any mitigation program must also ensure
effective partnership between Government,
scientific, private sector, NGOs and the community
...
Once this information is collected
a risk assessment should be done to determine
the frequency, intensity, impact and the time
taken to return to normalcy after the disaster
...
A regular mechanism will therefore have to be established for
this
...
Applied research and technology transfer
There is a need to establish or upgrade observation equipment and networks, monitor the
hazards properly, improve the quality of forecasting and warning, disseminate information
quickly through the warning systems and undertake disaster simulation exercises
...
Government organizations like ISRO (Indian Space Research Organization) can play a
vital role
...
can undertake applied research for
devising locale specific mitigation strategies in
Pollution
Chapter5
...
Such steps could lead to the formulation of locale specific mitigation measures
...
Public awareness and training
One of the most critical components of a mitigation strategy is the training to be imparted to
the officials and staff of the various departments
involved at the state and the district level
...
The success of a mitigation strategy will
depend to a large extent on the inter-sectional,
inter-departmental coordination and efficient
teamwork
...
Institutional mechanisms
The most important need at the National level
is to strengthen or develop the capacity to undertake disaster mitigation strategies
...
It is thus essential to have a permanent
administrative structure which can monitor the
developmental activities across departments and
provides suggestions for necessary mitigation
measures
...
Professionals like architects, structural engineers,
doctors, chemical engineers who are involved
with management of hazardous chemicals can
be asked to form groups that can design specific mitigation measures
...
Separation of industrial areas
from residential areas, maintaining wetlands as
buffer zones for floods, creation of public awareness of proper land practices and formation of
land-use policies for long term sustainable development is imperative
...
Thus it is
essential to promote the knowledge of disaster
resistant construction techniques and practices
among engineers, architects and technical personnel
...
This can
be done by insertion of walls on the outside of
the building, buttresses, walls in the interior of
the building, portico fill-in-walls, specially anEnvironmental Studies for Undergraduate Courses
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There is thus a need to develop mechanisms to provide stable sources of
funding for all mitigation programs
...
Housing finance companies should
make it mandatory for structures in such hazard prone areas to follow special building specifications
...
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chored frames, covering of columns and beams,
construction of new frame system, placing residential electrical equipment above flood level,
designing water storage tanks to be able to withstand cyclonic winds, earthquakes and floods,
etc
...
•
Improvement of flow conditions in the channel and anti-erosion measures
...
Floods and mitigation measures
The lower plain regions of India in particular
Bihar, Uttar Pradesh and West Bengal in respect
of the Ganga and Assam in respect of the
Brahmaputra suffer from the adverse effects of
floods every year
...
Based on hydrological studies carried out, it is estimated that only 18 percent of the rainwater can be stored in dams,
reservoirs, etc
...
Floods are therefore a recurring phenomenon
in our country
...
The
structural measures include:
•
Reservoirs for impounding monsoon flows
to be released in a regulated manner after
the peak flood flow passes
...
Anthropogenic activities such
as deforestation and shifting cultivation can also
contribute to floods
...
However when the forests are cleared the rivers turn muddy and swollen during the wet
monsoon season and run dry later on in the year
during the drier periods
...
•
Flood insurance
Earthquakes and mitigation measures
It has been several years since the earthquake
struck Gujarat on January 26, 2001
...
Gujarat’s experience has taught that building shelters with less vulnerability to earthquakes
should also take into consideration the specific
needs of the victims instead of being a top down
approach
...
Their strength lies in their manpower,
informality in operations and valuable human
resources
...
A report on the various
initiatives in Gujarat reported in Down to Earth
(Vol 12, No
...
According to the report
the initiatives of the International Fund for
Pollution
Chapter5
...
Similarly the Gujarat Woman’s Economic Development Corporation initiative in reviving
women’s businesses after the calamity also provides many practical lessons in regenerating local economies and artisan markets
...
The
farming kits provided to affected farmers by
Gujarat’s agriculture ministry is also showing
promising results after two seasons
...
Cyclones and mitigation measures
Tropical cyclones are the worst natural hazards
in the tropics
...
These are intense low-pressure
areas
...
At the higher
levels the sense of rotation is just opposite to
that at the lower level
...
While moving over the ocean they pick up energy from
the warm water of the ocean and some of them
grow into a devastating intensity
...
More cyclones form in the Bay of Bengal than in the
Arabian Sea
...
A brief description of the same is
given below
...
Developing communication infrastructure: Communication plays a vital role in cyclone disaster
mitigation and yet this is one of the first services that gets disrupted during cyclones
...
Developing shelter belts: Shelter belts with plantations of trees can act as effective wind and
tide breakers
...
Developing community cyclone shelters: Cyclone
shelters at strategic locations can help minimizing the loss of human life
...
Construction of permanent houses: There is a
need to build appropriately designed concrete
houses that can withstand high winds and tidal
waves
...
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...
Most of the causalities are caused
by coastal inundation by storm tides
...
Storm
surges cause the greatest destruction
...
No further
growth of settlements in this region should allowed
...
Landslides and mitigation measures
Landslides are recurring phenomena in the Himalayan region
...
Landslides occur as a result of changes on
a slope, sudden or gradual, either in its composition, structure, hydrology or vegetation
...
A significant reduction in the hazards caused
by landslides can be achieved by preventing the
exposure of population and facilities to landslides
and by physically controlling the landslides
...
Some critical
measures that could be undertaken to prevent
further landslides are drainage measures, erosion control measures such a bamboo check
dams, terracing, jute and coir netting and rockfall control measures such as grass plantation,
vegetated dry masonry wall, retaining wall and
most importantly preventing deforestation and
improving afforestation
...
However
early warning systems, careful planning and preparedness on part of the vulnerable community
would help in minimizing the loss of life and
property due to these disasters
...
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UNIT 6:
Social Issues and The Environment
6
...
2 URBAN PROBLEMS RELATED TO ENERGY
167
6
...
3
...
3
...
3
...
4 RESETTLEMENT AND REHABILITATION OF PEOPLE; ITS PROBLEMS
AND CONCERNS
...
5 ENVIRONMENTAL ETHICS: ISSUES AND POSSIBLE SOLUTIONS
6
...
1 Resource consumption patterns and the need for their equitable utilisation
6
...
2 Equity – Disparity in the Northern and Southern countries
6
...
3 Urban – rural equity issues
6
...
4 The need for Gender Equity
6
...
5 Preserving resources for future generations
6
...
6 The rights of animals
6
...
7 The ethical basis of environment education and awareness
6
...
8 The conservation ethic and traditional value systems of India
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173
175
175
175
176
177
178
181
6
...
CASE STUDIES
6
...
1 Climate change
6
...
2 Global warming
6
...
3 Acid rain
6
...
4 Ozone layer depletion
6
...
5 Nuclear Accidents and Nuclear Holocaust
182
182
183
184
185
186
Social Issues and The Environment
Chapter6
...
7 WASTELAND RECLAMATION
187
6
...
9 ENVIRONMENT PROTECTION ACT
193
6
...
11 WATER (PREVENTION AND CONTROL OF POLLUTION) ACT
196
6
...
13 FOREST CONSERVATION ACT
199
6
...
14
...
14
...
15 PUBLIC AWARENESS
6
...
1 Using an Environmental Calendar of Activities
6
...
2 What can I do?
204
204
205
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...
1 FROM UNSUSTAINABLE TO SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT
Until two decades ago the world looked at economic status alone as a measure of human development
...
Most countries of
North America and Europe which had become
industrialized at an earlier stage have become
economically more advanced
...
Thus
the way development progressed, the rich countries got richer while the poor nations got
poorer
...
This form of development did not
add to the quality of life as the environmental
conditions had begun to deteriorate
...
Development strategies in which only
economic considerations were used, had begun
to suffer from serious environmental problems
due to air and water pollution, waste management, deforestation and a variety of other ill
effects that seriously affected peoples’ well being and health
...
The
disparity in the lifestyles between the rich and
the poor was made worse by these unsustainable development strategies
...
He stressed
on the need for sanitation based on recycling
human and animal manure and well-ventilated
cottages built of recyclable material
...
His main objective was to use village made goods
instead of industrial products
...
Gandhiji had designed a sustainable lifestyle for himself when these concepts
were not a part of general thinking
...
This is based on
his concept that the world could support
people’s needs but not their greed
...
The world now
appears to be at a crossroad
...
The earth cannot supply the amount of resources used and wasted by the economically
well off sectors of society as well as that required
for day to day sustenance of the ever growing
population in less developed countries
...
This form of sustainable development can only be brought about
if each individual practices a sustainable lifestyle
based on caring for the earth
...
Indira Gandhi said in the Stockholm Conference in 1972 that poverty was the greatest
polluter
...
Developing countries were suffering the consequences of a rapidly expanding human population with all its
Social Issues and The Environment
Chapter6
...
Thus increasingly the world began to see the
need for a more equitable use of earth resources
...
This is also a major cause for
the loss of quality of life
...
The current strategies of economic development
are using up resources of the world so rapidly
that our future generations, the young people
of the world, would have serious environmental problems, much worse than those that we
are facing at present
...
The newer concept of development has come
to be known as “Sustainable Development”
...
Several documents were created for the United
Nations Conference on Environment and Development (UNCED), which brought out the fact
that environment and development were closely
connected and that there was a need to ‘care
for the Earth’
...
It also looks at the equity between countries and continents, races and classes, gender
and ages
...
Many ‘development projects’, such as dams, mines, roads,
industries and tourism development, have severe environmental consequences that must be
studied before they are even begun
...
Large dams, major highways, mining, industry,
etc
...
Forests
are essential for maintaining renewable resources, reducing carbon dioxide levels and
maintaining oxygen levels in the earth’s atmosphere
...
Loss of forests depletes biodiversity
which has to be preserved to maintain life on
earth
...
Toxic and Nuclear wastes
can become serious economic problems as getting rid of them is extremely costly
...
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...
It is
based on improving the quality of life for all,
especially the poor and deprived within the carrying capacity of the supporting ecosystems
...
Its strength is that it acknowledges the
interdependence of human needs and environmental requirements
...
If we see that a development
project or an industry is leading to serious environmental problems, it is our duty to bring this
to the attention of authorities such as the local
administration, the Forest Department or the
Pollution Control Board, to look into the issue
...
While we all need to think globally, we need to
act locally
...
If new projects of a large size are to be passed
Government has made it compulsory to publish
the summary report of the Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) and conduct a ‘Public
Hearing’
...
In
many situations there are proponents of the
project who only look at their own rapid economic gains
...
Life has to be made more livable for all
...
6
...
In the past, urban housing required relatively smaller amounts of energy than we use at
present
...
Embodied energy
Materials like iron, glass, aluminium, steel,
cement, marble and burnt bricks, which are
used in urban housing, are very energy intensive
...
This energy consumed in the process is called embodied energy
...
This was possible and
practical when homes had chimneys and kitchens were isolated from the rest of the house
...
Kerosene thus became a
popular urban fuel
...
Urban centers in hot climates need energy for
cooling
...
New buildings in our country have taken to using large areas covered by
glass
...
Thus it requires even
more energy to run large central air conditioning units
...
Social Issues and The Environment
Chapter6
...
3 WATER CONSERVATION, RAINWATER
HARVESTING, WATERSHED MANAGEMENT
Energy efficiency
6
...
1 Water Conservation:
Urban residential and commercial facilities
are responsible for approximately 35% of
USA’s greenhouse gas emissions
...
Conserving water has become a prime environmental concern
...
With deforestation
surface runoff increases and the sub soil water
table drops as water has no time to seep slowly
into the ground once vegetation is cleared
...
Most urban people use their own
individual transport rather than public transport
systems for a variety of reasons
...
Thus even middle income groups tend to use
their own private vehicles
...
This causes a rise in the number of people having serious respiratory diseases
...
Each of us as an environmentally conscious individual must reduce our use of energy
...
Imagine the amount of energy wasted by
thousands of careless people
...
As many areas depend on wells, it has become
necessary to go on making deeper and deeper
wells
...
This could take
years to recharge even if the present rate of
extraction is reduced which seems hardly possible in most situations
...
In many areas the small streams run dry soon
after the monsoon as the water table drops further and further below the surface
...
When we waste water, we do not realise that it
is affecting the lives of all of us in so many different ways
...
It’s
over use and misuse due to various activities that
waste water or cause pollution has led to a serious shortage of potable drinking water
...
Traditional systems of collecting water and using it optimally have been used in India for many
generations
...
Conserving water in multiple small
percolation tanks and ‘jheels’ was important in
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Chapter6
...
Villages all over
the country had one or more common ‘talabs’
or tanks from which people collected or used
water carefully
...
Many homes had a kitchen garden
that was watered by the wastewater
...
CASE STUDY
Pani Panchayat – Pune District,
Maharashtra
Mahur village in Pune District of Maharashtra
is situated in a drought prone area
...
Clean drinking water was also scarce
...
Watershed
development was initiated on a barren and
uncultivated piece of land belonging to a
temple
...
Out of the 16 hectares of land in the village, 9
...
4 hectares was
afforested and 4 hectares was converted into
percolation tanks
...
While 200 quintals of grains were produced on 24 acres of Salunkhe’s land, 40
acres in the same area yielded only 10 quintals
...
The
area rapidly turned green and productive
...
Post independence, India’s
policy on water changed towards building large
dams for expanding agriculture to support the
green revolution
...
The newer forms of
irrigated agriculture such as sugarcane and other
water hungry cash crops required enormous
quantities of water
...
As excess water evaporates rapidly from
the surface of heavily irrigated croplands, it pulls
up subsoil water along with salts to the surface
of the soil
...
Reducing the
high salinity levels in soil is extremely expensive
and frequently impossible
...
Saving water in agriculture: Drip irrigation supplies water to plants near its roots through a
system of tubes, thus saving water
...
Rainwater collected from rooftops can be stored
or used to effectively recharge subsoil aquifers
...
Leaking taps and
pipes are a major source of loss of water
...
Reducing the demand for water by saving it
is more appropriate than trying to meet growing demands
...
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6
...
2 Rain water Harvesting
As our world faces serious water shortages, every drop of water we can use efficiently becomes
of great value
...
If as much water as possible is collected and
stored this can be used after the rainy season is
over
...
However the stored water has to be kept
pollution free and clean so that it can be used
as drinking water
...
This can
be pathogenic and cause infections
...
Current technologies of rainwater harvesting
require that all roof and terrace water passes
down into a covered tank where it can be stored
for use after the monsoon
...
However there are practical difficulties
such as constructing large storage tanks which
are expensive
...
There are various types of rainwater harvesting systems
...
It controls erosion and conserves
moisture
...
The land not only becomes more fertile
after trapping silt, but also retains substantial
quantities of water in the soil
...
The
height is slowly increased up to the right height
of the check dam which determines the size
of the naada
...
Tree plantations, seeding of grass for fodder, contour
bunds with trenches and loose stone check
dams are developed in the chak
...
It reduces soil
erosion and enhances recharge of ground
water
...
Udaipur City is famous for its large number of talabs, and is
called the lake city
...
Saza kuva: This is an open dug well which has
several owners
...
This is an important method
for irrigation in the Aravalli hills
...
These are considered
common property resources
...
p65
duced to a point that it cannot be taken directly to the fields for irrigation
...
Thus by recharging
ground water harvested from rooftops, the
water table rises and the surrounding wells retain water throughout the year
...
3
...
A group of small
streams flow down hillsides to meet larger
streams in the valley which forms the tributaries of major rivers
...
It is a technique
that has several components
...
The natural drainage pattern of a
watershed unit if managed appropriately can
bring about local prosperity by a year round
abundance of water that improves the quality
of human life in the area
...
Watershed management enhances the growth of agricultural crops
and even makes it possible to grow more than
one crop in a year in dry areas
...
People must appreciate the need to
improve the availability of water both in quantity and quality for their own area
...
along contours of the hill to hold the rainwater
and allow it to percolate into the ground
...
This is enhanced by allowing
grasses and shrubs to grow and by planting trees
(mainly local species) which hold the soil and
prevents it from being washed away in the
monsoon
...
The next measure is to make ‘nala’ plugs in the
streams so that the water is held in the stream
and does not rush down the hillside
...
All
these measures constitute sound watershed
management
...
Watershed management principles:
This is a land management program that
looks at a region from the perspective of all
its water related issues
...
Watershed management could also
consider the management of a single valley
as a unit, based on its small streams
...
This allows underground aquifers to fill so that ground water is recharged
...
Afforesting such degraded areas
is an important aspect of watershed management
...
This is done by constructing a series of long trenches and mounds
Social Issues and The Environment
Chapter6
...
4 RESETTLEMENT AND REHABILITATION
OF PEOPLE: ITS PROBLEMS AND CONCERNS
Major projects such as dams, mines, expressways, or the notification of a National Park disrupts the lives of the people who live there and
may also require moving them to an alternative
site
...
Uprooting people is a serious
issue
...
Especially
tribal people, whose lives are woven closely
around their own natural resources, cannot
adapt to a new way of life in a new place
...
In India, lakhs of people have been
unfairly displaced by thousands of dams created
since independence to drive the green revolution
...
The
Government is expected to find ‘good’ arable
land to resettle displaced persons and provide
them with an adequate rehabilitation package
to recover from the disruption
...
In many cases across the
country, this has not been implemented satisfactorily for decades
...
However,
in our overpopulated country, there is no arable high quality land available
...
Rehabilitation involves more than just
giving land
...
The greatest battle to save their
own precious land has been carried out by the
tribal people of the Narmada River
...
The
Narmada Bachao Andolan has shown how bitter people can get over this issue
...
Since the dam
was sanctioned in 1972, local people have
been opposing the dam and resisting its construction
...
Little is done to ensure proper rehabilitation
and compensation for nearly a lakh of people
who will be uprooted from their homes as a
result of this dam, with little hope of rehabilitation, as no alternative land is available
...
Resettlement not only puts pressure on the
project affected people but also on the people
who have been living in the area that has been
selected for resettlement
...
CASE STUDY
Indigenous tribes
It is not flora and fauna alone that is under
the threat of extinction
...
Dispossession of their customary rights
over land has put their survival at risk
...
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...
This is
often observed where people live inside or on
the periphery of a National Park or Wildlife Sanctuary
...
6
...
This concerns not only
the needs of each person today, but also those
who will come after us
...
6
...
1 Resource consumption patterns and
the need for their equitable utilisation:
Environmental ethics deals with issues that are
related to how we utilise and distribute resources
...
The
just distribution of resources has global, national
and local concerns that we need to address
...
There are rich
and poor communities in every country
...
In this era of
modern economic development, the disparity
between the haves and have-nots is widening
...
) to the rural sector, and from there
to the urban sector
...
This unequal distribution of
wealth and access to land and its resources is a
serious environmental concern
...
As the political
power base is in the urban centers, this itself
leads to inequalities and a subsequent loss of
sustainability in resource management in the
rural and even more so for forest dwelling
people
...
It emphasized that India’s environmental problems were
caused by the excessive consumption patterns
of the rich that left the poor poorer
...
There are multiple stakeholders in Indian society who are dependent on different
natural resources which cater directly or indirectly to their survival needs
...
These include:
1
...
2
...
3
...
4
...
Social Issues and The Environment
Chapter6
...
There cannot be proper economic and social development without a holistic understanding of society and nature
...
If we care for the poor, we cannot allow
the Gross Nature Product to be destroyed
any further
...
7
...
In this we will have
to learn a lot from our traditional cultures
...
It is totally inadequate to talk only of sustainable rural development, as the World
Conservation Strategy does
...
Equitable use of forest resources: We
think of forests as being degraded due to
fuelwood collection by poor rural communities, but forget that the rich use much greater
quantities of timber
...
These
need land, energy, irrigation and forest resources
...
Those who suffer most are the
poor, especially rural women, and tribal people
who are dependent on forests
...
All these effects can be linked to
unsustainable increasing pressures on land and
natural resources
...
It is the so-called, educated people who need Environment
Education more than anyone else”
...
The well to do educated urban dweller consumes much larger quantities of resources and
energy, than the traditional rural individual
...
While the rural people have a deep insight on the need for sustainable use of natural
resources and know about methods of conservation, there are however several newer environmental concerns that are frequently outside
their sphere of life experiences
...
These
people thus require a different pattern of environment education that is related to their gaps
in information
...
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crustacea, are seriously affected by the degradation of aquatic ecosystems
...
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dressed through locale specific environment
awareness programs designed specifically for
rural school children and adults
...
such as in South and Southeast Asia and South
America
...
This is at the cost of poor people who
are resource dependant and live in developing
nations
...
When the British found
that they were unable to get enough wood for
ship building and other uses they converted forest areas into Government ‘Reserved Forests’ for
their own use to grow timber trees
...
This in turn led to
large-scale losses in forest cover and the creation of wasteland
...
that supported conservation
...
Any infringement was quickly
dealt with by the panchayat and the offender
was punished
...
As
landuse patterns changed, these mechanisms
were lost and unsustainable practices evolved,
frequently as a result of an inadequately planned
development strategy
...
They now buy their resources from resource rich but economically deprived nations
at a low cost
...
6
...
2 Equity – Disparity in the Northern and
Southern countries
Environmental ethics are concerned with, who
owns resources and how they are distributed
...
At
the global level it deals with the great North –
South divide between the rich industrialized
nations of North America and Europe, as against
the needs of developing countries of the South
Changing this unfair economic practice to a
more just and fair way in managing trade would
require a new thinking on the part of people
who live in the super rich countries
...
5
...
Land itself that was once held
as a common property resource of villages is
being taken over by the urban and industrial
sectors as it expands
...
As a result, the commons of
the rural sector are being depleted of their resources
...
The urban rich must appreciate where their resources are derived from and be willing to pay a
fair price for using them
...
5
...
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men
...
In attempting to
eke out a living from their environment, they
must constantly collect fuelwood for their homes
and for sale to nearby urban areas
...
They have
to trudge several kilometers to reach a reasonably clean water source
...
All
this can take 10 to 12 hours a day of very hard
work, every day of the year
...
Unfortunately it is the men who play a decisive role in
managing the village commons and its resources
whereas it should be the local women whose
lives are deeply linked with the utilisation and
conservation patterns of natural resources, who
should be decision makers at the local level
...
This begins with the lack of attention given
to girls whose education is always given less attention than the boys in the family
...
Women fetch water, collect
fuelwood, fruit, medicinal products, etc
...
This disparity in the lives of
women and men has also led to a lower access
to education and health care for girl children
...
Rural women who are intimately connected to
resources, appreciate the value of conserving
6
...
5 Preserving resources for future generations:
Can we use up all the resources of the world,
leaving nothing for our future generations? This
ethical issue must be considered when we use
resources unsustainably
...
A critical concern is to preserve
species and natural undisturbed ecosystems that
are linked with bioresources, which must be
protected for the use of future generations
...
Just as
our ancestors have left resources for us, it is our
duty to leave them behind for our future generations
...
We only hold the world as trustees so that future generations can also survive
...
We need to appreciate that the next
generation and those that will come later also
have a right to the earth’s natural resources
...
We have
no right to destroy their claim to the use of the
earth’s resources just because of the accident
of being born before them
...
We are not
given the earth so that we can use up its resources
...
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natural resources more deeply than men
...
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future generations are given their just share of
the earth’s resources
...
5
...
The plants and animals that share the earth with
us too have a right to live and share our earth’s
resources and living space
...
Not only do wild
and domesticated animals have a right to life,
but have the right to a dignified existence
...
Mahatma Gandhi’s philosophy was based on
the assumption that human beings were not
masters of the other forms of life
...
Human beings are one small cog in the wheel
of life on earth
...
Every plant and animal has a right to life as a part
of our earth’s community of living things
...
While evolution has
developed a system whereby species become
extinct and new ones evolve to fill the world’s
ecosystems with new plant and animal species,
it is man alone that has been responsible for
the recent rapid decline in the number of species on earth
...
Thus endangering the existence of
wild plants and animals and bringing them close
to the brink of extinction is not only unfair to a
species but also to future generation of people
who may find them of great use
...
Every individual, human or
animal, that is living has feelings and emotions
...
Animals have a right to a dignified existence, and their life, well-being and
liberty must be respected
...
There
is a growing awareness of animal rights in our
country and cruelty to animals is being increasingly regarded as a criminal offence
...
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but that this has led to serious floods and loss
of precious soil
...
Local women led by a Bishnoi woman,
Amrita Devi, clung to the trees to prevent the
felling of the trees that formed the basis of
the scarce resources on which they were dependent
...
It is said that the ruler later realised his
mistake
...
They
called their movement the ‘Chipko’ movement
in memory of the event during which women
had clung to their trees and given up their
lives
...
Chipko is a movement primarily begun and
supported by local women in the hills of
Uttarakhand and Garhwal, where the women
have had to bear the brunt of deforestation
...
5
...
This brings us to the need
for environmental education
...
They also appreciated
that substitutions of oak and other
broadleaved forests of the Himalayas by planting fast growing pine for timber and resin was
an ecological and social disaster which reduced
the forest resources used by traditional hill
communities
...
It is not to create only an awareness of
environmental issues, but also to bring about
pro environmental action
...
Creating a love
for nature brings about strong pro environmental action
...
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Chipko activists have made long padyatras
across the Himalayas protesting against deforestation
...
The movement has
proved to the world that the forests of the
hills are the life support systems of local communities of immense value in terms of local
produce that is essential for the survival of local people and that the forest has less quantifiable but even more important ecological
services such as soil conservation and the maintenance of the natural water regime of the
whole region
...
The Gandhian way of life
Mahatma Gandhi had deep insights into the
need to conserve resources
...
At the time natural resources seemed
to be limitless to most people
...
Gandhiji believed in simplistic living to save
our earth’s resources
...
There are two aspects that are closely connected
with ethical issues that are related to our environment
...
Valuing nature as a resource: It is essential that
a value system that is based on environmental
concern becomes a part of the thinking that we
as responsible citizens of our country and our
earth need to bring into our own daily lives
...
This has been essentially forgotten
...
We now know that forests clean up our
air, and act like a sponge that can hold water
for the dry season
...
Education in nature – The Shantiniketan
model
Rabindranath Tagore founded Shantiniketan
and taught an environment-based philosophy
...
To achieve this
he relied on exposing young people to nature
...
Tagore linked these
concepts with celebrations of nature through
music, dance, drama and poetry
...
He started Vriksha ropan way back in 1928
...
Many species were not only valued, but also venerated
...
We depend on an intact unpolluted world which is
based on nature’s goods and services
...
If we as citizens begin to
again respect Nature and all its varied species
forming a complex web of life, and appreciate
Nature’s functions and services, it will continue
to support our lives
...
Nature’s resources that we all use
and depend on can only be optimized if they
are equitably shared by all of us
...
The
‘have not’s’ cannot be expected to remain in
Social Issues and The Environment
Chapter6
...
Bringing back an ethic for nature conservation
requires environment education and conservation awareness
...
This forms a
sharp contrast to the sad plight of degraded
areas and polluted sites in which most of humanity now lives in the developed and developing world
...
We rarely take the
opportunity to gaze at a scenic sunset, or spend
the time to sit in the incredible silence of the
forest, or listen to the songs of birds and the
sound of the wind rustling through the leaves
...
Or observe a tree through a round of seasons
as it gets new leaves, flowers, fruit and seeds
...
It is the beauty of Nature that gives it
an intrinsic value which we tend to ignore
...
They are
part of our living throbbing earth
...
or seashore where man’s hand has not made
drastic changes to the ecosystem and one begins to value its beauty
...
Without the
wilderness, the earth would be a sad bleak human dominated landscape
...
Unless
we begin to see the ecological values of the wilderness, an ethic for its conservation cannot
become part of our daily lives
...
The concept of ‘Karma’ is based on a thinking
that the soul moves from man to animal and in
reverse depending on ones actions
...
Ahimsa or non-violence towards
life which includes all plants and animals provides India with its basic philosophy which early
Hindu philosophers and later sages such as Buddha, Mahavir and Mahatma Gandhi spoke of
...
It brings in the notion that
animals are not to be viewed purely for their
utility value but are a part of the earth’s oneness which is linked with our own lives as well
...
In contrast, in Western thought
Nature is to be subjugated and used
...
Several
modern philosophers in the West have now
begun to see these eastern patterns of thought
as a new basis for human development
...
Once we realise that the wilderness has a value
all its own, this puts man in his rightful role as a
custodian of nature rather than an exploiter
...
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6
...
8 The conservation ethic and traditional
value systems of India
In ancient Indian traditions people have always
valued mountains, rivers, forests, trees and several animals
...
Forests have been
associated with the names of forest gods and
goddesses both in the Hindu religion as well as
in tribal cultures
...
Ficus
religiosa, the peepal tree, is venerated and is
thus not to be cut down
...
The Tulsi plant is grown on
the doorstep outside every home
...
These traditionally protected forest
patches depict the true nature of undisturbed
vegetation and have a large number of indigenous plant species as their exploitation has been
controlled through local sentiments
...
The
mango tree is protected for its fruit around most
farms even when wood becomes scarce
...
Many plants, shrubs and herbs have
been used in Indian medicines which were once
available in the wild in plenty
...
Many species of animals are
venerated as being the ‘vahan’ or vehicle of different gods on which they are said to travel
through the cosmos
...
The Sun god, Surya, rides a horse and
has a superb chariot on which he moves through
the sky
...
The cow is associated with Krishna
...
The associations to various plants that have been
given a religious significance include Tulsi, which
is linked to Lakshmi and Vishnu
...
The peepal tree is said to be the tree under
which Buddha attained enlightenment
...
Several trees
are associated with the goddess Laxmi, including Amalaki, Mango and the Tulsi shrub
...
In traditional societies of the past, these
examples were all a part of ethical values that
protected nature
...
Concepts that support nature’s integrity must
thus become a part of our modern educational
systems
...
In Indian mythology, the elephant is associated
with Ganesha
...
Vishnu is associated with
the eagle
...
In mythology, Hanuman, the monkey god, rendered
Social Issues and The Environment
Chapter6
...
6 CLIMATE CHANGE, GLOBAL WARMING,
ACID RAIN, OZONE LAYER DEPLETION,
NUCLEAR ACCIDENTS AND HOLOCAUST
6
...
1 Climate change:
The average temperature in many regions has
been increasing in recent decades
...
6° + 0
...
Globally,
1998 was the warmest year and the 1990s the
warmest decade on record
...
In some regions, such as parts of Asia and Africa, the frequency and intensity of droughts
have been observed to increase in recent decades
...
All these are signs that the earth
is sick
...
The earth is losing its ability to balance itself due to the imbalances created by human activities
...
These are worked
out on estimates of aspects such as future population growth and energy use
...
These studies
have shown that in the near future, the global
mean surface temperature will rise by 1
...
8°C
...
The projected rate of
warming is greater than has occurred in the last
10,000 years
...
There will be fewer cold spells but more
heat waves
...
A changing climate would bring about changes
in the frequency and/or intensity of these extremes
...
To a large extent, public health depends
on safe drinking water, sufficient food, secure
shelter, and good social conditions
...
Fresh
water supplies may be seriously affected, reducing the availability of clean water for drinking
and washing during drought as well as floods
...
The risk of spread of
infectious diseases such as diarrhoeal diseases
will increase
...
The local reduction in food
production would lead to starvation and malnutrition with long-term health consequences,
especially for children
...
Climate change related impacts on human health
could lead to displacement of a large number
of people, creating environmental refugees and
lead to further health issues
...
g
...
The seasonal
transmission and distribution of many diseases
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...
Global mean sea level
is projected to rise by 9 to 88 cm by the year
2100
...
They are likely
to be seriously impacted by an ingress of salt
water and by the rising sea
...
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that are transmitted by mosquitoes (dengue,
yellow fever) and by ticks (Lyme disease, tickborne encephalitis) may spread due to climate
change
...
It is estimated that about 10% of the Earth’s coral
reefs were dead, another 30 % were seriously affected and another 30% were degraded
...
Butterfly populations in the United Kingdom
Global warming is leading to an early arrival
of butterflies in Britain
...
Some, like
the red admiral, can now be seen a month
earlier than was the case in the mid – 1970s
...
Future rise in temperature is likely to have a detrimental effect on
these butterflies
...
A Task Group set up by WHO has warned that
climate change may have serious impacts on
human health
...
Strategies aimed at
reducing potential health impacts of anticipated
climate changes should include monitoring of
infectious diseases and disease vectors to detect early changes in the incidence of diseases
and the geographical distribution of vectors; environmental management measures to reduce
risk; disaster preparedness for floods or
droughts; and their health related consequences
...
Improved water and air pollution control will
become increasingly essential for human health
...
Training of researchers and health professionals must become
an essential part of the world becoming more
responsible towards the expected outcome of
Global Climate Change (GCC)
...
6
...
The rest of the heat
radiates back to the atmosphere
...
As carbon dioxide is released by
various human activities, it is rapidly increasing
...
The average surface temperature is about 15°C
...
Without
such gases most of the Earth’s surface would
be frozen with a mean air temperature of -18°C
...
Carbon dioxide in the atmosphere has increased by
31% since pre-industrial times, causing more
heat to be trapped in the lower atmosphere
...
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levels are still increasing
...
Current international agreements
are however not still effective to prevent the
significant changes in climate and a rise in sea
levels
...
Motor vehicle exhaust fumes
are the main source of nitrogen oxides
...
Acids react with other
chemicals by giving up hydrogen atoms
...
Global warming is accelerating faster than
what climatologists had calculated a few
years ago
...
5
to 10 degrees Centigrade during the 21st
century, if the present trends continue
...
This would lead to not only temperature changes but in the amount of rainfall
...
6
...
3 Acid rain:
When fossil fuels such as coal, oil and natural
gas are burned, chemicals like sulfur dioxide and
nitrogen oxides are produced
...
These
acid pollutants spread upwards into the atmosphere, and are carried by air currents, to finally
return to the ground in the form of acid rain,
fog or snow
...
Acid pollutants also occur as dry particles and
gases, which when washed from the ground by
rain, add to the acids in the rain to form a more
corrosive solution
...
Damage from acid rain is widespread in North
America, Europe, Japan, China and Southeast
Asia
...
In
Canada oil refining, metal smelting and other
2
...
It affects trees more directly by creating holes in the waxy coating of leaves,
causing brown dead spots which affect the
plant’s photosynthesis
...
Spruce and fir forests at
higher elevations seem to be most at risk
...
3
...
This affects plant and animal life in aquatic
ecosystems
...
Acid rain also has far reaching effects on
wildlife
...
Different aquatic species can tolerate different
levels of acidity
...
0, while frogs can tolerate
more acidic water, although with the decline in supply of mayflies, frog populations
may also decline
...
p65
1
...
It can also dissolve naturally occurring toxic
substances like aluminium and mercury,
freeing them to pollute water or poison
plants
...
5
...
The acid corrodes
the materials causing extensive damage and
ruins historic buildings
...
6
...
Fish caught in these waters may be
harmful for human consumption
...
Solutions: The best way to stop the formation
of acid rain is to reduce the emissions of sulfur
dioxide and nitrogen oxides into the atmosphere
...
Switching to cleaner burning fuels is also a way out
...
If the pollutants have already been
formed by burning fossil fuels, they can be prevented from entering the atmosphere by using
scrubbers in smokestacks in industry
...
In catalytic converters, the gases are passed over
metal coated beads that convert harmful chemicals into less harmful ones
...
Once acid rain has affected soil,
powdered limestone can be added to the soil
by a process known as liming to neutralize the
acidity of the soil
...
6
...
It forms a layer 20 to 50kms above the
surface of the earth
...
Ozone is a highly poisonous gas with a strong
odour
...
It is considered a pollutant at ground level and constitutes a health
hazard by causing respiratory ailments like
asthma and bronchitis
...
Ozone in
the upper atmosphere however, is vital to all
life as it protects the earth from the sun’s harmful ultraviolet radiation
...
This layer in the atmosphere protects life on
earth from the dangerous UV radiation from the
sun
...
The CFC molecules are virtually indestructible until they reach the stratosphere, where
UV radiation breaks them down to release chlorine atoms
...
Since
the early 1980s, scientists detected a thinning
of the ozone layer in the atmosphere above
Antarctica
...
Although the use of CFCs has been reduced
and now banned in most countries, other chemicals and industrial compounds such as bromine,
halocarbons and nitrous oxides from fertilizers
may also attack the ozone layer
...
It also causes damage to certain crops and
Social Issues and The Environment
Chapter6
...
This in turn causes an increase
in carbon dioxide due to the decrease in vegetation
...
After 2000, the ozone layer is expected to recover slowly over a period of about
50 years
...
6
...
And although this did happen, along with
the benefits of nuclear energy came its downfalls
...
A single nuclear accident
can cause loss of life, long-term illness and destruction of property on a large scale for a long
period of time
...
CASE STUDY
Nuclear disasters and leakages
In 1986 the Nuclear Power Station at
Chernobyl in USSR developed a problem that
led to a fire and a number of explosions in
its Nuclear Reactor
...
Three people died in the explosion and 28
shortly after due to radiation exposure
...
As the area had
to be evacuated 1,35,000 people had to be
moved immediately and another 1
...
As radioactive fall out continued even
more people had to be moved
...
5 lakh people may have been seriously affected
...
As radioactivity passes from grass to herbivores, sheep in Scotland and Reindeer in
Lapland were affected and were unfit for
human consumption
...
A French Nuclear Waste Processing Center
in Normandy may have affected the lives of
children playing nearby
...
Nuclear holocaust:
The use of nuclear energy in war has had devastating effects on man and earth
...
In 1945, the United States dropped atomic
bombs in Japan over the towns of Hiroshima
and Nagasaki
...
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around
...
6
...
This is one of the pressing problems of
the country
...
If it remains unchecked, it will affect the remaining land
...
Hence, conservation of soil,
protecting the existing cultivable land and reclaiming the already depleted wastelands figures prominently among the priority tasks of
planning for the future
...
In choosing wasteland reclamation methods attention must be paid to the cost factor
...
A proper study of environmental aspects and
human impacts which are responsible for the
development of wastelands have to be looked
into
...
Easily reclaimable wastelands can be used for
agricultural purposes
...
Wastelands that are reclaimed
with extreme difficulty can be used for forestry
or to recreate natural ecosystems
...
Gypsum,
urea, potash and compost are added before
planting crops in such areas
...
Its main purpose is to have trees and
crops inter- and /or under planted to form an
integrated system of biological production within
a certain area
...
Forestry: Attempts to grow trees in highly non
alkaline saline soils have been largely unsuccessful
...
Studies have shown that if tree seedlings are planted
with a mixture of original soil, Gypsum, and
manure, better growth can be achieved
...
Need for wasteland development:
Wasteland development provides a source of
income for the rural poor
...
It makes the soil fertile by preventing soil erosion and conserving moisture
...
The increasing forest cover helps in maintaining
local climatic conditions
...
The trees help in holding back moisture and reduce surface run off
rates thus helping in the control of soil erosion
...
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Components of wasteland reclamation:
The first major task is the identification of the
problem at the micro level
...
A profile of the maps
indicating the detailed distribution and information on the wasteland is essential
...
This must be done through a participatory exercise that involves all the different
stakeholders in the community
...
velopment provide the local people with newer
technological advances
...
Appropriate technologies must be made available
to people belonging to the weaker sections and
landless farmers
...
Plans concerning wasteland reclamation and utilization
prepared at various stages must be properly integrated for a successful long-term outcome
...
Based on these factors the wasteland is classified into: marginally, partially or severely deteriorated lands
...
Government officials along with the local NGOs
must assist the farmers by demonstrating improved methods of cultivation, arranging for
loans for the small, marginal and landless farmers and the people from the weaker sections of
the society
...
Another essential component of the program is to organize publicity campaigns, integrated with training farmers and
frontline Government and Forest Department
staff on the various aspects of wasteland utilization
...
Other tasks that should be addressed include
the selection of appropriate crops for fodder and
trees that provide local people with non-wooded
forest products according to the nature of the
wasteland
...
Irrigation and other
expertise needed for improving productivity
without creating unsustainable patterns of de-
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Chapter6
...
When Soban Singh Bhandari returned
to his village after retirement from the army
in 1987 he was struck by this degradation
...
Through the Jawahar Rozgar Yojana, he
gained immense community support
...
The villagers controlled grazing in the area,
undertook plantations for fuel and fodder
...
This
community effort has had a great impact on
the ecology of the area
...
Local people now have access to all the natural resources they need for their daily lives
...
This is closely linked to the wellbeing of
the rural population which constitutes a large
percent of the population which depends on
local natural resources for their survival
...
has led to activities that are responsible for
increasing environmental degradation
...
Thus
the development of agro forestry based agriculture and forestry has become the prime prerequisite for an overall development of the
economy in the country
...
6
...
The increasing consumption of natural resources has lead to serious environmental
problems around the world
...
The present pattern of consumption,
especially in affluent societies, is mainly responsible for the high level of utilization of resources
...
This is due to a pattern of economic
development that ensures that people go on
consuming even more than they actually need
...
The rich in such a society get richer often at the
cost of the poor whose lives are not improved
by the process of development
...
Consumerism causes wasteful use of energy and material far beyond that needed for
everyday living at a comfortable level
...
When one adds up all the raw
material and energy that goes into the manufacture of goods or the services provided by
nature that one uses during a day’s activities,
the toll on the environment is large
...
If one considered the overutilisation
in each family, city or a country, the impacts are
incredibly high
...
“Disposable” items greatly increase this
waste
...
Buying quality products
that are warranteed against failure or wearing
out, learning about the raw materials that things
are made of, and an appreciation of their origin
from nature’s storehouse, as well as knowing
the conditions of the workers that make them,
are some ways of resisting consumerism and
decreasing waste
...
The State proposed a ban on all types
of polythene packing
...
This alone
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...
This is a tricky problem
...
Consumerism is driven by huge
sums spent on advertising designed to create
both a desire to follow trends, and a personal
feeling of satisfaction based on acquisition
...
Consumerism interferes with the sustainable use
of resources in a society by replacing the normal common sense desire for an adequate supply of life’s necessities, with an insatiable quest
for things that are purchased by larger and larger
incomes to buy them
...
An intended
consequence of this strategy which is promoted
by those who profit from consumerism, is to
accelerate the discarding of the old, either because of lack of durability or a change in fashion
...
In many cases consumer
products are made psychologically obsolete by
the advertising industry long before they actually wear out
...
Most
human activities are related to production and
consumption cycles which produce excessive
amounts of waste in the form of solid, liquid
and gaseous waste products
...
Rural communities that were
smaller, once had a limited amount of waste
which was recycled as the communities used
them effectively
...
Therefore reuse of
goods and waste utilization should become a
part of the production -consumption cycle
...
Current patters in the industrial sector have led
to the disposal of waste in a careless uneconomical manner
...
For example it is
estimated that the per capita production of domestic waste is many times higher in a developed country when compared to a developing
country
...
Large quantities of solid, liquid and gaseous waste is produced by urban industrial communities in the
form of plastic, paper, leather, tin cans, bottles,
mineral refuse, and pathological waste from
hospitals
...
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cal processes for production of goods has rapidly increased problems due to inadequate waste
disposal
...
With the rapid increase in
population, the amount of waste in terms of
quantity and quality has increased waste management pressures many fold in recent years
...
His health will
be affected by dangerous industrial effluents,
and he will be smothered by clouds of smoke
and unhealthy gases
...
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animal excreta are essentially rural concerns
...
These wastes are not considered to have any
economic value
...
Bagasse, a waste product of the sugar industry,
is used in the paper, ply industries
...
CASE STUDY
Reduce, reuse, recycle
Reduce, Reuse, Recycle, or the 3Rs principle, is
the new concept in waste management
...
Do not use what you
do not need
...
Eg
...
Use your own reusable cloth/ jute bags instead
of plastic bags
...
In developed countries waste
is used to produce energy
...
Thus
the waste does not remain a waste product anymore, but becomes a useful resource
...
Using kitchen wet waste to make compost
that can be used as an organic fertilizer
...
The generated waste or discarded material that
cannot be used again in its original form can be
sent back to the industry to be broken down
and used as a resource to be made into a new
product of the same type or into something
entirely different
...
Plastic items are recycled into new plastic
products
...
Finally, the waste material generated which can
neither be reused or recycled, must be disposed
off in a proper manner with minimum impact
to the environment
...
-
Toxic wastes should be treated or disposed
off separately in a proper manner
...
One industry’s waste could be a valuable resource for another industry
...
Cloth rags from the textile industry are
bought and used by paper and other industries
...
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-
Sewage and industrial wastewater should
be adequately treated and raw materials recovered from it where possible before it is
released into our rivers and waterways
...
-
-
-
Reduction is the best option
...
Reuse is the next best option, as the product is reused in its current form without any
energy expended to convert it into a new
item
...
Thus by following the ‘Reduce, Reuse, Recycle’
principle, i
...
by reducing use at source, by reusing and recycling whatever possible and finally by proper disposal of residual waste, we
can cut down or the waste generated and ensure that the minimal residual waste does not
harm our environment
...
What can I do? You can follow the 3Rs principle in the following ways:
1
...
2
...
If it is of no
use to you, could someone else use it?
Reuse rinse water to water your garden, etc
...
3
...
4
...
Wet garbage includes most kitchen
wastes
...
Most dry garbage is recyclable
...
A lot of dry waste
means you should go back to the ‘Reduce and
Reuse’ principles and try to follow them better
...
Avoid the use of non-biodegradable materials such as Styrofoam and certain types of plastics
...
If thrown away as
waste, Styrofoam and plastics can take hundreds
of years to decompose
...
Do not litter or throw garbage in public places
...
Proper disposal of garbage is an important part of waste
management
...
Be a conscious consumer and do not buy products that are over packaged
...
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They must set up priorities concerning waste utilization
...
2) Plans should be prepared for controlling waste at the source
...
3) Research and developmental programs
to find innovative methods of waste recycling must be encouraged
...
Private and public organizations for waste
recycling and management should be
set up
...
Plans
for appropriate disposal of non-utilizable
hazardous waste from chemical industries must be implemented and strictly
monitored
...
People
should be informed of the need for
waste management to protect the quality of the environment
...
6) Every society should make efforts to design peoples’ life styles and cultural patterns based on low waste production
...
Resources must be conserved by proper selection, production technologies, recovering and
recycling what is usable and reducing unnecessary demands for consumption and inventing
technologies which would make it possible for
reusing the waste resources so as to reduce overexploiting of our existing resources
...
9 THE ENVIRONMENT (PROTECTION) ACT
The Environment (Protection) Act, 1986 not only
has important constitutional implications but
also an international background
...
Although there were several existing laws that
dealt directly or indirectly with environmental
issues it was necessary to have a general legislation for environmental protection because the
existing laws focused on very specific types of
pollution, or specific categories of hazardous
substances or were indirectly related to the environment through laws that control landuse,
protect our National Parks and Sanctuaries and
our wildlife
...
There were also gaps
in areas that were potential environmental hazards and there were several inadequate linkages
in handling matters of industrial and environmental safety
...
Thus there
was a need for an authority which could assume
the lead role for studying, planning and implementing long term requirements of environmental safety and give directions to, as well as
coordinate a system of speedy and adequate
response to emergency situations threatening
the environment
...
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This Act was thus passed to protect the environment, as there was a growing concern over
the deteriorating state of the environment
...
The decline in the environmental quality, was
evidenced by increasing pollution, loss of forest
cover and an increasing threat to biodiversity
...
These are
symptoms of a rapidly deteriorating environment
...
The decision taken at the conference in Stockholm
strongly voiced these environmental concerns
and several measures were made possible for
environmental protection
...
We need to implement
this Act much more aggressively if our environment is to be protected
...
This must be supported by an
enlightened media, good administrators, highly
aware policy makers, informed judiciary and
trained technocrats who together can influence
and prevent further degradation of our environment
...
6
...
Sources of
air pollution such as industry, vehicles, power
plants, etc
...
The main objectives of the Act are as follows:
(a) To provide for the Prevention, Control and
abatement of air pollution
...
(c) To confer on the Boards the powers to
implement the provisions of the Act and
assign to the Boards functions relating to
pollution
...
The presence of pollution beyond
certain limits due to various pollutants discharged through industrial emission are monitored by the Pollution Control Boards set up in
every State
...
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dioxide, nitrogen oxide, volatile organic compounds (VOCs) or other toxic substances beyond
a prescribed level
...
This is measured in parts per million or
in milligrams or micrograms per cubic meter
...
However, the most important aspect is for
people themselves to appreciate the dangers of
air pollution and reduce their own potential as
polluters by seeing that their own vehicles or
the industry they work in reduces levels of emissions
...
The Board
advises the Central Government on matters concerning the improvement of air quality and also
coordinates activities, provides technical assistance and guidance to State Boards and lays
down standards for the quality of air
...
State Pollution Control Boards: The State Boards
have the power to advice the State Government
on any matter concerning the prevention and
control of air pollution
...
They are expected to inspect
air pollution control areas at intervals or whenever necessary
...
A State Board may establish or recognize a laboratory to perform this
function
...
Penalties: Persons managing industry are to be
penalized if they produce emissions of air pollutants in excess of the standards laid down by
the State Board
...
Whoever contravenes any of the provision of
the Act or any order or direction issued is punishable with imprisonment for a term which may
extend to three months or with a fine of
Rs
...
What can an individual do to control air pollution?
1) When you see a polluting vehicle take down
the number and send a letter to the Road
Transport Office (RTO) and the Pollution
Control Board (PCB)
...
3) Use cars only when absolutely necessary
...
4) Use public transport as far as possible, as
more people can travel in a single large vehicle rather than using multiple small vehicles which add to pollution
...
Carpools minimise the use of fossil
fuels
...
7) Do not smoke in a public place
...
8) Coughing can spread bacteria and viruses
...
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fection which is air borne
...
It is a citizen’s duty to report to the local authorities such as the Collector or the Pollution
Control Board, and the press about offences
made by a polluter so that action can be taken
against the offender
...
preventing air pollution and preserving the quality of our air is a responsibility that each individual must support so that we can breathe air
that will not destroy our health
...
11 THE WATER (PREVENTION AND CONTROL OF POLLUTION) ACT
The Government has formulated this Act in 1974
to be able to prevent pollution of water by industrial, agricultural and household wastewater that can contaminate our water sources
...
Controlling the
point sources by monitoring levels of different
pollutants is one way to prevent pollution by
giving a punishment to a polluter
...
Individuals can also
do several things to reduce water pollution such
as using biodegradable chemicals for household
use, reducing use of pesticides in gardens, and
identifying polluting sources at workplaces and
in industrial units where oil or other petroleum
products and heavy metals are used
...
Citizens need to develop a watchdog
force to inform authorities to take appropriate
actions against different types of water pollution
...
How-
The main objectives of the Water Act are to provide for prevention, control and abatement of
water pollution and the maintenance or restoration of the wholesomeness of water
...
The Central Government and State
Governments have set up Pollution Control
Boards that monitor water pollution
...
The Government
has also suggested penalties for violation of the
provisions of the Act
...
The Central and State Boards are entitled to
certain powers and functions which are as follows:
Central Board: It has the power to advise the
Central Government on any matters concerning the prevention and control of water pollution
...
The
Central Board can provide technical assistance
and guidelines to State Boards to carry out investigations and research relating to water pollution, and organizes training for people involved
in the process
...
The Board lays down
or modifies the rules in consultation with the
State Boards on standards of disposal of waste
...
p65
ever, preventing pollution is better than trying
to cure the problems it has created, or punishing offenders
...
State Boards: They have the power to advise
the State Government on any matters concerning water pollution
...
It collects and disseminates information on water pollution and participates in research in collaboration with the Central Board in organizing
training of people involved in the process
...
It plans the utilization of sewage water for agriculture
...
The State Board advises State Governments with respect to location of industries
...
The State Boards have the power to obtain information from officers empowered by it who
make surveys, keep records of flow, volume, and
other characteristics of the water
...
The concerned board
analyst is expected to analyze the sample sent
to him and submit a report of the result to the
concerned Board
...
The Board also has the power of inspecting any
plant record, register, document or any material object, and can conduct a search in any place
in which there is reason to believe that an offence has been conducted under the Act
...
This includes failing to furnish information required by the Board, or failing to inform the occurrence of any accident or other
unforeseen act
...
5,000 everyday
...
What can individuals do to prevent water pollution?
1
...
One can
also write to the press
...
Do not dump wastes into a household or
industrial drain which can directly enter any
water body, such as a stream, river, pond,
lake or the sea
...
Do not use toilets for flushing down waste
items as they do not disappear but reappear at other places and cause water pollution
...
Use compost instead of chemical fertilizers
in gardens
...
Avoid use of pesticides at home like DDT,
Melathion, Aldrin, and use alternative methods like paste of boric acid mixed with gram
flour to kill cockroaches and other insects
...
6
...
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and their notification
...
It
provides for setting up Wildlife Advisory Boards
...
These are notified
in order of their endangeredness
...
The Amendment to the Wildlife Protection Act
in 2002 is more stringent and prevents the commercial use of resources by local people
...
It has also altered several definitions
...
Forest produce has been redefined to ensure protection of ecosystems
...
Laws are only as good as the ones
that can be complied with
...
However, there are serious problems due to poaching
...
for establishing a strong deterrent force
...
The offence is punishable with imprisonment for a term which may extend to three years
or with a fine of Rs 25,000 or with both
...
In the case of a second or subsequent offence
of the same nature mentioned in this sub-section, the term of imprisonment may extend to
What can an individual do?
1) If you observe an act of poaching, or see a
poached animal, inform the local Forest Department Official at the highest possible
level
...
Follow up to check that action is
taken by the concerned authority
...
2) Say ‘no’ to the use of wildlife products and
also try to convince other people not to buy
them
...
4) Avoid misuse of paper because it is made
from bamboo and wood, which destroys
wildlife habitat
...
5) Create a pressure group and ask Government to ensure that the biodiversity of our
country is conserved
...
Stop others from inflicting cruelty to animals
...
8) When you visit the Zoo do not tease the
animals by throwing stones or feeding
them, and prevent others from doing so
...
10) If the animal needs medical care and expert attention contact the Society for the
Prevention of Cruelty to Animals in your city
...
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six years and not less than two years with a penalty of Rs
...
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11) Create awareness about biodiversity conservation in your own way to family and
friends
...
6
...
The Indian Forest Act of 1927 consolidated all the previous laws regarding forests
that were passed before the 1920’s
...
It also created Protected Forests, in
which the use of resources by local people was
controlled
...
The Act remained in force till the 1980s when it
was realised that protecting forests for timber
production alone was not acceptable
...
Thus a new Act was essential
...
India’s first Forest Policy was enunciated in 1952
...
Large tracts of
forestland had already been diverted to other
uses
...
In the 1980s
it became clear that forests must be protected
for their other functions such as maintenance
of soil and water regimes centered around ecological concerns
...
The new policy framework made conversion of
forests into other uses much less possible
...
It also values meeting the needs
of local people for food, fuelwood, fodder and
non-wood forest products that they subsist on
...
It expressly
states that the network of Protected Areas
should be strengthened and extended
...
It gives States the ability to provide
power to the local panchayats to manage local
forest resources
...
It ensured that
forestlands could not be de-reserved without
prior approval of the Central Government
...
States
had regularized encroachments and resettled
‘Project Affected People’ from development
projects such as dams in these de-reserved areas
...
The Act made it possible to retain a greater
control over the frightening level of deforestation in the country and specified penalties for
offenders
...
Cattle are not permitted
to trespass into the Reserved Forest
...
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collecting any forest product is punishable with
imprisonment for a term of six months, or with
a fine which may extend to Rs
...
3) Be in touch with concerned local NGOs and
associations
...
Penalties for offences in Protected Forests: A
person who commits any of the following offences like felling of trees, or strips off the bark
or leaves from any tree or sets fire to such forests, or kindles a fire without taking precautions
to prevent its spreading to any tree mentioned
in the Act, whether standing or felled, or fells
any tree, drags timber, or permits cattle to damage any tree, shall be punishable with imprisonment for a term which may extend to six month
or with a fine which may extend to Rs
...
4) Create awareness about the existence and
value of National Parks and Sanctuaries and
build up a public opinion against illegal activities in the forest or disturbance to wildlife
...
Every officer seizing any property under this section shall put on the property a mark indicating
the seizure and report the seizure to the Magistrate who has the jurisdiction to try the offence
...
What can an individual do to support the Act?
1) Be alert to destructive activities in your local green areas such as Reserved Forests and
Protected Forests, and in Protected Areas
(National Parks and Wildlife Sanctuaries)
...
Report of violations can be made to the Conservator of
Forest, District Forest Officer, Range Forest
Officer, Forest Guard or the District Commissioner, or local civic body
...
6) Take legal action if necessary and if possible through a Public Interest Litigation (PIL)
against the offending party
...
7) Help to create public pressure to change
rules laws and procedures when necessary
...
Do not litter in
a forest area
...
Whom should forest offences be reported to?
If you as a citizen come across anyone felling
trees, encroaching on forest land, dumping garbage, cutting green wood, lighting a fire, or creating a clearing in Reserved Forests, Protected
Forests, National Park, Sanctuary or other forest areas, you must report it to the forest / wildlife officers concerned
...
In fact you should file an
FIR in any case because it serves as an important proof that you have made the report
...
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14 ISSUES INVOLVED IN ENFORCEMENT
OF ENVIRONMENTAL LEGISLATION
Environmental legislation is evolved to protect
our environment as a whole, our health, and
the earth’s resources
...
does not necessarily mean that the problem is addressed
...
For a successful environmental legislation to be
implemented, there has to be an effective
agency to collect relevant data, process it and
pass it on to a law enforcement agency
...
Information to law enforcement officials must also come from concerned individuals
...
There are several NGOs in
the country such as WWF-I, BEAG and the BNHS
which take these matters to court in the interest of conservation
...
There are also legal experts such as MC Mehta who have successfully
fought cases in the courts to support environmental causes
...
Thus the general public must act
as a watch dog not only to inform concerned
authorities, but also to see that actions are taken
against offenders
...
14
...
The EIA must look into physical, biological and
social parameters
...
The Ministry of Environment and Forests (MoEF) has identified a large number of
projects that need clearance on environmental
grounds
...
It also requires that a list of flora and fauna identified
in the region is documented and to specify if
there are any endangered species whose habitat or life could be adversely affected
...
This must be addressed in the
EIA
...
Impacts created by each type of industry differs
and the proposed sites also vary in their sensitivity to impacts
...
Some have unique ecosystems
...
All these aspects require evaluation
before a development project or an industry site
is cleared
...
Projects
that already exist but require expansion must
also apply for clearance
...
After the Environmental Protection Act of 1986
was passed, an EIA to get an environmental
clearance for a project became mandatory
...
Projects can
be classified into those with a mild impact, a
moderate impact or a serious impact
...
In other situations the impact may continue and even increase, for example where toxic
solid waste will be constantly generated
...
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projects could thus cause temporary reversible
damage while others can have irreversible or
even permanent impacts
...
The PCB checks and
confirms that the EIA can be initiated
...
This may take several
months
...
After 1997, the MoEF has stipulated that a public
hearing should be done at the local level
...
An Environmental Impact Statement which is
an Executive Summary of the EIA is kept for the
public to read
...
Once the hearing is held
and opinions have been expressed, both for and
against the project, the minutes of the meeting
are sent to the MoEF
...
In some cases NGOs have
taken up the cause of local people
...
Experience shows that a large number of EIAs
are inadequately researched and frequently biased as they are funded by the proposer of the
project
...
Biodiversity concerns frequently are sketchily
considered and mostly consist of a listing of spe-
Issues related to equity of resources that are inevitably altered by development related projects
are also not fully addressed
...
It is not sufficient to say that an EIA has
been done
...
An EIA is not intended to stop all types of development
...
In some cases it is essential to drop projects altogether if the anticipated impacts are likely to
be very severe
...
This
means compensating for the environmental
damage by afforestation or creating a Protected
Area in the neighbourhood at the cost of the
project
...
In most cases it is advisable to
avoid resettlement altogether
...
6
...
2 Citizens actions and action groups:
Citizens must learn to act as watch dogs to protect their own environment from the conseEnvironmental Studies for Undergraduate Courses
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Changes in landuse
patterns effect whole communities of living organisms
...
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quences of unsustainable projects around them
...
They
can join action groups to develop a lobby to
strengthen the environmental movements in the
country, their State, town or village
...
An individual has the
right to bring an environmental offence or nuisance to the attention of concerned authorities
...
At times the concerned officials may
not be able to easily appreciate complex environmental concerns and the individual may have
to learn how to communicate these issues in a
way in which it becomes essential for the concerned officer to act in a pro environmental fashion
...
The Environment Protection Act and the Wildlife Protection Act are the most frequently used legal
instrument for these purposes
...
Apex Court – the Supreme Court of India, which in the recent past
has given several highly enlightened pro-conservation judgements
...
to
draw attention to important environmental concerns
...
CASE STUDY
The Narmada Issue
The controversy over the plan to build several dams on the Narmada River and its tributaries symbolizes the struggle for a just and
equitable society in India
...
The Narmada Bachao Andolan (Save the
Narmada Movement) is one of the most dynamic people’s movements fighting for the
rights of these underprivileged people who
are being robbed of their homes, livelihoods
and way of living in the name of ‘national
interest’
...
CASE STUDY
Silent Valley
The proposed Hydel project at Silent valley,
a unique pocket of tropical biodiversity in
South India, in the 1970s was stopped and
the area declared a National Park in 1984
...
Social Issues and The Environment
Chapter6
...
These projects have led to serious environmental degradation in spite of the laws intended to
control such damage
...
15 PUBLIC AWARENESS
Environmental sensitivity in our country can only
grow through a major public awareness campaign
...
The electronic
media, the press, school and college education,
adult education, are all essentially complementary to each other
...
Policy makers will only work
towards environmental preservation if there is
a sufficiently large bank of voters that insist on
protecting the environment
...
Several advertising campaigns
frequently have messages that are negative to
environmental preservation
...
15
...
February 2: World Wetland Day is celebrated
to create awareness about wetlands and their
value to mankind
...
You
can initiate a campaign for proper use and maintenance of wetlands in the vicinity of the city or
village
...
A campaign for personal sanitation and hygiene to understanding issues of public health, occupational health, etc
...
Topics that deal with environment
related diseases and their spread can be discussed and preventive measures suggested
...
Environment also includes our cultural monuments
...
April 22: Earth Day was first celebrated in 1970
by a group of people in the USA to draw attention to increasing environmental problems
caused by humans on earth
...
June 5: World Environment Day marks the
anniversary of the Stockholm Conference on
Human Environment in Sweden in 1972, where
nations of the world gathered to share their
concern over human progress at the expense of
the environment
...
New
pledges must be made to strengthen an environmental movement at the college level
...
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The program must be action oriented and
become an ongoing process with activities such
as tree plantation
...
globally and act locally’ to improve your own
environment
...
September 16: World Ozone Day was proclaimed by the United Nations as the International Day for the preservation of the ozone
layer
...
The day marks
the Montreal Protocol signed in 1987 to control
production and consumption of ozone depleting substances
...
Its unique landscapes are shrinking as the intensive forms of agriculture and industrial growth spreads through a process called
‘development’
...
The
extinction of species cannot be reversed
...
Future generations will hold us responsible for this great
loss
...
Students could talk to
shopkeepers and consumers about excess packaging and a campaign to use articles which are
not heavily packaged could be carried out
...
The State forest Departments
organize various activities in which every student should take part
...
Wildlife does not only mean animals,
but includes plants as well
...
8 million species
of plants and animals on earth that live in a large
number of ecosystems
...
Dos:
6
...
2 What can I do?
Most of us are always complaining about the
deteriorating environmental situation in our
country
...
However how many of us actually do
anything about our own environment?
You can think about the things you can do that
support the environment in your daily life, in
your profession and in your community
...
A famous dictum is to ‘think
1
...
Encourage your friends to do so
...
2
...
These support bird and insect life that form
a vital component of the food chains in
nature
...
Social Issues and The Environment
Chapter6
...
If you live in an apartment, grow a terrace
or balcony garden using potted plants
...
4
...
Old trees
are especially important
...
Support Project Tiger, Project Elephant, etc
...
13
...
Don’ts
5
...
Degradation of
hill slopes leads to severe environmental
problems
...
Do not present flower bouquets instead give
a potted plant and encourage your friends
to do so
...
When shopping, choose products in limited
packaging
...
2
...
7
...
Use both sides of every sheet of paper
...
Habitat preservation: The rapid destruction of
forests, and the growth of human habitations
and activities have reduced the natural habitats
of animals and birds
...
Many others are seriously threatened
...
8
...
For example sheets of paper, envelopes, etc
...
Reuse cartons and gift-wrapping paper
...
10
...
The donations
will not only help these organizations, but
also will reduce the exploitation of natural
resources used to produce paper
...
Participate in the events that highlight the
need for creating Sanctuaries and National
Parks, nature trails, open spaces, and saving forests
...
Dos:
1
...
Remember to bring
out everything you take in, and clean up
litter left by others
...
Study the ecosystem; it gives one
a greater sense of responsibility to conserve
it
...
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3
...
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2
...
Stop friends from disturbing or being cruel to wild creatures such
as birds, frogs, snakes, lizards and insects
...
Learn about birds
...
Understand their
food requirements and feeding habits
...
This
will encourage birds to stay in your neighborhood, even if their nesting habitat is
scarce
...
The zoo is in any case not an ideal home for
them
...
Do not disturb, tease, hurt or throw stones
at animals in a Protected Area and stop others from doing so
...
You can learn more about birds by making
a birdbath
...
You can make
a birdbath out of a big ceramic or plastic
saucer
...
2
...
4
...
Make a hole in the
bottom of a bucket and poke a string
through to serve as a wick
...
4
...
Butterflies, moths, bees, beetles and
ants are important pollinators
...
Protect wildlife, especially birds and insects
that are insectivorous and live in your neighborhood by eliminating the use of chemicals in your garden
...
Do your
gardening and landscaping using local
plants, to control pests in your garden
...
If you have pets, feed them well and give
them a proper home and in an emergency
proper medical care
...
When you visit a zoo learn about the animals that are found there but do not tease
or hurt them through the bars of their cage
...
Do not use articles like leather handbags
and lipsticks, which are made from animal
products
...
5
...
6
...
You could be seriously
harming wild populations and natural ecosystems where they were collected
...
Do not buy products like purses, wallets,
boots and that are made from reptile skins
...
8
...
Elephants are killed for their tusks, which are
used to make a variety of ivory products
...
Do not use any wild animal or plant products that are collected from the wild and
Social Issues and The Environment
Chapter6
...
You may
be endangering a species and even your
own health
...
There
are many ways that each of us can help in solving environmental problems due to loss of soil
...
5
...
For example compost from kitchen
scraps and manure from poultry, cows are
good sources of nutrients
...
Healthy soil grows healthy
plants, and it lessens the need for insecticides and herbicides
...
In your vegetable garden, rotate crops to
prevent the depletion of nutrients
...
Dos:
1
...
Mulch can be made from grass clippings or
leaf litter
...
If you plan to plant on a steep slope in your
farm or garden, prevent soil erosion by first
terracing the area
...
3
...
You
might organize a group of citizens to identify places that need planting, raise funds,
work with the local government to plant
trees, shrubs and grasses, and maintain
them over the long term
...
If your college is surrounded by open space,
evaluate how well the soil is being conserved
...
These areas need
special care and must be carefully replanted
...
Encourage your local zoo, farms, and other
organizations or people that house a large
number of animals to provide your community with bioferilizer made from animal
manure
...
9
...
Look for
organically grown produce in your grocery
shop, or try growing some yourself if you
have the space
...
Support environmental campaigns in your
State and community
...
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...
Set up a compost pit in your college or garden, so that you can enrich your soil with
the organic waste from the kitchen and cut
down on the amount of waste it sends to a
landfill
...
Empty the buckets daily into a
compost pit, and use the rich compost
formed in a few weeks to enrich the soil
around the college
...
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4/9/2004, 5:21 PM
7
...
Don’ts:
1
...
Cuttings serve as moisture-retention mulch
and a natural fertilizer
...
Do not use toxic pesticides in your garden—
they often kill the beneficial organisms, your
soil needs to stay healthy
...
This is one
of the major environmental problems in our
country
...
It should start with every individual
...
Dos:
1
...
For example - turn off the tap
while brushing your teeth to save water
...
Reuse the rinsing water for house-plants
...
3
...
4
...
5
...
6
...
8
...
So
many people in our country don’t even have
access to clean drinking water!
9
...
Harvest rainwater from rooftops and use it
sustainably to recharge wells to reduce the
burden on rivers and lakes
...
Monitor and control wastes going into
drains for preventing water pollution
...
Replace chemicals like phenyl, strong detergents, shampoo, chemical pesticides and
fertilizers used in your home, with environment friendly alternatives, such as neem and
biofertilisers
...
12
...
Don’ts:
1
...
2
...
A 10 minute shower
wastes many liters of water as compared
to using water from a bucket
...
Do not over water garden plants, water
them only when necessary
...
Do not pollute sources of water or water
bodies by throwing waste into them
...
p65
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209
4/9/2004, 5:21 PM
5
...
Conserving energy: Coal, petroleum and oil
are mineral resources and are non-renewable
sources of energy
...
Crores of rupees are being spent to extract, process and distribute coal, petroleum and
electricity
...
They are highly successful
...
Following are some of the things you can
do to conserve energy
...
Turn off the stove immediately after use
...
Plan and keep things ready before you start
cooking
...
Keep vessels closed while cooking and always use small, narrow mouthed vessels to
conserve energy
...
When the food is almost cooked, switch
off the gas stove and keep the vessel closed
...
13
...
, before cooking to
reduce cooking time and save fuel
...
Get your family to eat together, it will save
re-heating fuel
...
Turn off the lights fans and air conditioning
when not necessary
...
Select a light shade of paint for walls and
ceilings, as it will reflect more light and reduce electrical consumption
...
Use low voltage lights
...
Use tube lights and energy saver bulbs as
they consume less electricity
...
Switch off the radio and television when not
required
...
Use alternative sources of energy like solar
power for heating water and by cooking
food in a solar cooker
...
Cut down on the use of electrical appliances
...
In summer, shut windows, curtains and
doors early in the morning to keep the
house cool
...
Use a pressure cooker as much as possible
to save energy
...
Use a bicycle—it occupies less space, releases no pollutant and provides healthy
exercise
...
Try using public transport systems like trains
and buses as far as possible
...
Plan your trips and routes before setting out
...
Walk rather than drive wherever possible
...
21
...
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...
Position your reading tables near the window and cut down on your electricity bill
by reading in natural light
...
Do not use unnecessary outdoor decorative
lights
...
Do not use a geyser during summer
...
3
...
4
...
Social Issues and The Environment
Chapter6
...
1 POPULATION GROWTH, VARIATION AMONG NATIONS
7
...
1 Global population growth
214
214
7
...
2
...
1
...
3 ENVIRONMENTAL AND HUMAN HEALTH
7
...
1 Environmental health
7
...
2 Climate and health
7
...
3 Infectious diseases
7
...
4 Water-related diseases
7
...
5 Risks due to chemicals in food
7
...
6 Cancer and environment
220
221
223
224
227
231
232
7
...
4
...
4
...
4
...
5 VALUE EDUCATION
7
...
1 Environmental Values
7
...
2 Valuing Nature
7
...
3 Valuing cultures
7
...
4 Social justice
7
...
5 Human heritage
7
...
6 Equitable use of Resources
7
...
7 Common Property Resources
7
...
8 Ecological degradation
236
237
240
241
241
242
242
242
242
7
...
7 WOMEN AND CHILD WELFARE
244
7
...
p65
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213
4/9/2004, 5:09 PM
7
...
The needs of this huge number of human beings cannot be supported by the Earth’s natural
resources, without degrading the quality of human life
...
It will be impossible to meet the demands for food from existing agro systems
...
Seas will not have enough fish
...
Global warming due
to industrial gases will lead to a rise in sea levels
and flood all low-lying areas, submerging coastal
agriculture as well as towns and cities
...
The control over regional biological diversity, which is vital for producing new
medicinal and industrial products, will lead to
grave economic conflicts between
biotechnologically advanced nations and the biorich countries
...
These are only some of the environmental problems related to an increasing human population and more intensive use of resources that
we are likely to face in future
...
Increase in production per capita of agricultural
produce at a global level ceased during the
1980’s
...
Two of every
three children in South Africa are underweight
...
However, current
development strategies that essentially lead to
short-term gains have led to a breakdown of
our Earth’s ability to replenish the resources on
which we depend
...
1
...
This will essentially prevent their
further economic ‘development’
...
In the recent past, the escalation in growth of human
numbers has become a major cause of our environmental problems
...
27
billion by 2015
...
92 billion
...
2 to 3 billion, in 33 years
...
p65
In other regions famines due to drought have
become more frequent
...
On the other hand, only 15% of
the world’s population in the developed world
is earning 79% of income! Thus the disparity in
the extent of per capita resources that are used
by people who live in a ‘developed’ country as
against those who live in a ‘developing’ country is extremely large
...
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4/9/2004, 5:09 PM
3 to 4 billion, in 14 years
...
5 to 6 billion, in 11 years
...
The extent of this depletion is further increased by affluent societies that consume
per capita more energy and resources, that less
fortunate people
...
In the first half of the 1900s human numbers
were growing rapidly in most developing countries such as India and China
...
In contrast, in the developed world population growth
had slowed down
...
Several environmental ill-effects were linked with the increasing population
of the developing world
...
In rural
areas population growth led to increased
fragmentation of farm land and unemployment
...
By the 1970s
most countries in the developing world had
realized that if they had to develop their
economics and improve the lives of their citizens they would have to curtail population
growth
...
By the 1990s the
growth rate was decreasing in most countries
such as China and India
...
However, fertility continues to remain high in sub Saharan African countries
...
It also varies in different parts of certain countries and is linked with community and/
or religious thinking
...
7
...
Slogans such as
‘Hum do hamare do’ indicated that each family
should not have more than two children
...
At the global level by the year 2000, 600 million, or 57% of women in the reproductive age
group, were using some method of contraception
...
Female sterilization is the most popular method
of contraception used in developing countries
at present
...
India
and China have been using permanent sterilization more effectively than many other countries in the developing world
...
p65
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215
4/9/2004, 5:09 PM
The best decision for the method used by a
couple depends on a choice that they make for
themselves
...
Informing the public about the various contraceptive measures that are available is of primary
importance
...
It is of great importance for policy
makers and elected representatives of the
people – Ministers, MPs, MLAs at Central
and State levels – to understand the great
and urgent need to support Family Welfare
...
The decision to limit family size depends on a
couple’s background and education
...
Free access to Family Welfare information provided through the Health Care System,
is in some cases unfortunately counteracted by
cultural attitudes
...
The greatest challenge the world now faces is
how to supply its exploding human population
with the resources it needs
...
In addition
economically advanced countries and rich
people in poorer countries use up more resources than they need
...
Soil will become unproduc-
The first ‘green revolution’ in the ‘60s produced
a large amount of food but has led to several
environmental problems
...
The world’s most populous regions are in coastal
areas
...
Global climate change is
now a threat that can affect the very survival of
high population density coastal communities
...
Once considered an inexhaustible resource, over fishing has depleted stocks
extremely rapidly
...
Human populations will inevitably expand from
farm lands into the remaining adjacent forests
...
But forest loss has long-term negative effects on water and air quality and the loss of biodiversity is
still not generally seen as a major deterrent to
human well-being
...
Energy use is growing, both due to an increasing population, and a more energy hungry
lifestyle that increasingly uses consumer goods
that require large amounts of energy for their
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...
Rivers, lakes and coastal waters will be increasingly polluted
...
By 2025, there will be 48
countries that are starved for water
...
Air pollution already kills 3 million people every year
...
Our
growing population also adds to the enormous
amount of waste
...
Planning for the future
How Governments and people from every
community meet challenges such as limiting
population size, protecting the natural environment, change their consumer oriented
attitudes, reduce habits that create excessive waste, elevates poverty and creates an
effective balance between conservation and
development will determine the worlds future
...
The UN has shown
that by 2025 there will be 21 "megacities"
most of which will be situated in developing
countries
...
The most effective measure is the one most
suited to the couple once they have been offered all the various options that are available
...
Permanent methods or sterilisation are done by a minor
surgery
...
Male sterilization or vasectomy, is done by tying the tubes that carry the sperm
...
Vasectomy does not cause any
loss in the male’s sexual ability but only arrests
the discharge of sperm
...
Condoms are used by males to prevent
sperms from fertilizing the ovum during intercourse
...
They do not disturb any functions in the woman’s life or work
...
There are also traditional but less reliable methods of contraception such as abstinence of the
sexual act during the fertile period of the
women’s cycle and withdrawal during the sexual
act
...
2
...
2
...
In 1975 only 27% of the people in the developing world lived in urban areas
...
The developed world is already highly urbanized with
75% of its population living in the urban sector
...
p65
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217
4/9/2004, 5:09 PM
CASE STUDY
Urban Environments
Nearly half the world's population now lives
in urban areas
...
Today, more than 290 million people live in
towns and cities in India
...
Urban population growth is both due to migration of people to towns and cities from the rural sector in search of better job options as well
as population growth within the city
...
The town also loses its open spaces
and green cover unless these are consciously
preserved
...
While all these issues appear to be under the
preview of local Municipal Corporations, better
living conditions can only become a reality if
every citizen plays an active role in managing
the environment
...
Apart from undertaking actions that support the
environment every urban individual has the ability to influence a city’s management
...
Failure to do this leads to increasing urban problems which eventually destroys a city’s ability to
maintain a healthy and happy lifestyle for its
dwellers
...
In
many cities growth outstrips the planner’s ability to respond to this in time for a variety of
reasons
...
Unplanned and haphazard growth of urban
complexes has serious environmental impacts
...
22
...
3
16
...
0
20
...
India’s
urban areas will grow by a projected 297 million residents
...
This is the ‘Pull’ factor
...
Loss of agricultural land to urbanisation
and industry, the inability of governments to
sustainably develop the rural sector, and a lack
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...
5
Kolkata
218
4/9/2004, 5:09 PM
Megacities – Over 10 million inhabitants
...
1975 – there were 5
...
2015 – there will be 21 megacities
...
By 2015 these will increase to 554, of which
75% are in developing countries
...
As our development strategies have focused
attention mostly on rapid industrial development
and relatively few development options are offered for the agricultural rural sector, a shift of
population is inevitable
...
The "Ecological footprint" corresponds to the land area necessary to supply
natural resources and disposal of waste of a
community
...
3 hectares of land per
capita
...
7 hectares of land per individual to
manage these needs sustainably
...
The pull factor of the urban centers is not only
due to better job opportunities, but also better
education, health care and relatively higher living standards
...
Thus in reality, development
has lagged behind in the rural sector that is rapidly expanding in numbers,
...
It is not appropriate to use the development
methods used for other rural communities for
tribal people who are dependent on collecting
natural resources from the forests
...
In general the growing human population in the rural sector will only opt
to live where they are if they are given an equally
satisfying lifestyle
...
The
urban sector affects the land at the fringes
of the urban area and the areas from which
the urban center pulls in agricultural and
natural resources
...
About
60% of the world's water is used by urban
areas of which half irrigates food crops for
urban dwellers, and one third goes to industry and the rest is used for household use
and drinking water
...
Human Population and the Environment
Chapter7
...
A third of the poor
people in the world live in urban centers
...
In most cases while a slum invariably has
unhygenic surroundings, the dwellings themselves are kept relatively clean
...
During the 1990s countries that have experienced an economic crisis have found that poor
urban dwellers have lost their jobs due to decreasing demands for goods, while food prices
have risen
...
air pollution due to high levels of particulate
matter and sulphur dioxide from industrial and
vehicle emissions lead to high death rates from
respiratory diseases
...
Indoor air pollution due
to the use of fuel wood, waste material, coal,
etc
...
This can
be reduced by using better designed ‘smokeless’ chulas, hoods and chimneys to remove indoor smoke
...
Crime rates, terrorism, unemployment, and serious environmental health
related issues can be expected to escalate
...
7
...
However, low income groups that live in high
rise buildings can also have high densities and
live in poor unhygienic conditions in certain areas of cities
...
that are unsuitable for formal urban development
...
Adequate legal housing for the urban poor remains a serious environmental concern
...
The urban poor
can only depend on cash to buy the goods they
need, while in the rural sector they can grow a
substantial part of their own food
...
Both outdoor and indoor
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...
Changes in our environment induced
by human activities in nearly every sphere of life
have had an influence on the pattern of our
health
...
We expect urbanization and industrialization to
bring in prosperity, but on the down side, it leads
to diseases related to overcrowding and an inadequate quality of drinking water, resulting in
an increase in waterborne diseases such as infective diarrhoea and air borne bacterial diseases
such as tuberculosis
...
Agricultural pesticides that enhanced
food supplies during the green revolution have
affected both the farm worker and all of us who
consume the produce
...
Many
drugs have been found to have serious side effects
...
wide
...
It created serious
drought, floods, and triggered epidemics
...
Thus development has created several long-term
health problems
...
A better health status of society will bring about
a better way of life only if it is coupled with
stabilising population
...
Poor countries are unable to meet required emission standards to slow down climate change
...
This results in
diseases such as skin cancer
...
3
...
It also refers to the theory and practice of assessing, correcting, controlling, and preventing
those factors in the environment that adversely
affect the health of present and future generations
...
Climate and weather affect human health
...
Natural disasters such as storms,
hurricanes, and floods still kill many people every year
...
Global climate change has serious health implications
...
As our climate is changing, we may
no longer know what to expect
...
The El Niño winds affect weather world-
CASE STUDY
Bhopal Gas Tragedy
The siting of industry and relatively poor
regulatory controls leads to ill health in the
urban centers
...
5 lakh
injuries to people living in the area
...
Industrial development without pollution control and traffic congestion affect the level of air
pollution in many cities
...
Thus
environmental health and human health are
SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT
HEALTHY ENVIRONMENT
Human Population and the Environment
Chapter7
...
Motor vehicle exhaust
fumes, industrial fumes, tobacco smoke and
cooking food on improper ‘chulas’, contribute to respiratory diseases
...
An estimated 2000 million people are
affected by these diseases and more than 3
million children die each year from waterborne diseases across the world
...
This is a result of inadequate environmental management and is mainly due to inadequate
purification of drinking water
...
Large numbers of people in tropical countries die of
malaria every year and millions are infected
...
The resurgence of malaria in India is leading to cerebral malaria that affects the brain
and has a high mortality
...
•
Tens of thousands of people in the world
die due to traffic accidents due to inadequate management of traffic conditions
...
•
Basic environmental needs such as clean
water, clean air and adequate nutrition
which are all related to environmental goods
and services do not reach over 1000 million
people living in abject poverty
...
This is related
to high inequalities in the distribution of
wealth and living space
...
This occurs from
eating infected food, or using poor quality
water for cooking food
...
In India, about half the children under the age of four are malnourished and 30% of newborns are significantly
underweight
...
•
Health is an outcome of the interactions
between people and their environment
...
closely interlinked
...
However this is rarely given sufficient importance
in planning development strategies
...
p65
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4/9/2004, 5:09 PM
•
Providing clean energy sources that do not
affect health is a key to reducing respiratory diseases
...
Poverty is closely related to health and is
itself a consequence of improper environmental management
...
Strategies to provide clean pottable
water and nutrition to all people is an
important part of a healthy living environment
...
Unsustainable use of resources by an ever growing population leads
to unhealthy lives
...
The world must address people’s health care
needs and sustainable use of natural resources, which are closely linked to each
other
...
•
Changing industrial systems into those that
do not use or release toxic chemicals that
affect the health of workers and people living in the vicinity of industries can improve
health and environment
...
Providing clean energy is an important factor that can lead to better health
...
Rich countries consume 50 times more per
capita than people in less developed countries
...
Definition of Health Impact Assessment
(HIA) by WHO: Health impact assessment is a
combination of procedures, methods and tools
by which a policy, program or project may be
judged as to its potential effects on the health
of a population, and the distribution of those
effects within the population
...
3
...
From the hot
tropics to the cold arctic, in deserts, marshlands
and in the high mountains
...
Natural disasters created by extremes of weather
(heavy rains, floods, hurricanes) which occur over
Human Population and the Environment
Chapter7
...
Poor people are more vulnerable to the health impacts of climate variability
than the rich
...
In weather-triggered disasters hundreds of
people and animals die, homes are destroyed,
crops and other resources are lost
...
The cyclone in Orissa in 1999 caused
10,000 deaths
...
However, marked
short-term fluctuations in weather lead to serious health issues
...
g
...
The elderly
and persons with existing heart or respiratory
diseases are more vulnerable
...
Climate plays an important role in vector-borne
diseases transmitted by insects such as mosquitoes
...
Climate affects their
distribution and abundance through its effects
on host plants and animals
...
Unusual weather conditions, for example a heavy downpour, can
greatly increase the mosquito population and
trigger an epidemic
...
Thus, when
weather conditions (rainfall and temperature)
favour transmission, serious epidemics occur in
such areas
...
Many infectious diseases have re-emerged with
a vengeance
...
Other diseases were not known to science earlier and seem to have suddenly hit our health
and our lives during the last few decades
...
While these cannot be directly related
to environmental change, they affect the environment in which we live by forcing a change
in lifestyles and behaviour patterns
...
Why have infectious diseases that were related
to our environment that were under control
suddenly made a comeback? Diseases such as
tuberculosis have been effectively treated with
anti-tubercular drugs for decades
...
However nature’s evolutionary processes are capable of permitting bacteria to
mutate by creating new genetically modified
strains
...
This leads to a reemergence of the disease
...
This is frequently related to HIV
which reduces an individual’s immunity to bacteria such as mycobacterium tuberculosis that
causes tuberculosis
...
p65
7
...
3 Infectious diseases:
224
4/9/2004, 5:09 PM
have thus failed to eradicate infectious diseases
...
While antibiotic resistance is a well-known phenomenon there are other reasons for the reemergence of diseases
...
Inadequate drinking
water quality and poor disposal of human waste
due to absence of a closed sewage system and
poor garbage management are all urban health
issues
...
With increasing global warming disease patterns
will continue to change
...
Global warming will also change the
distribution of dengue, yellow fever, encephalitis, etc
...
El
Nino which causes periodic warming is likely to
affect rodent populations
...
Globalisation and infectious disease
Globalization is a world-wide process which includes the internationalization of communication, trade and economic organization
...
Whilst globalization has the potential to enhance the lives
and living standards of certain population
groups, for poor and marginalized populations
in both the non-formal as well as formal economic sectors of developing countries, globalization enhances economic inequalities
...
In India the disease has reemerged and is now more difficult to treat
...
The spread of HIV/AIDS and the emergence of multidrug-resistant tuberculosis is contributing to the increasing morbidity of this
disease
...
It is estimated that
between 2002 and 2020, approximately 1000
million people will be newly infected, over 150
million people will get sick, and 36 million will
die of TB – if its control is not rapidly strengthened
...
Only people who are sick with pulmonary
TB are infectious
...
When a healthy person inhales
these, he gets infected by the disease
...
It is estimated that, left untreated, each patient
of active tuberculosis will infect on an average
between 10 to 15 people every year
...
The immune system can cause the
TB bacilli, which is protected by a thick waxy
coat, to remain dormant for years
...
•
Nearly 1% of the world’s population is
newly infected with TB each year
...
•
Five to ten percent of people who are infected with TB (but who are not infected
Human Population and the Environment
Chapter7
...
(WHO, 2002)
...
Factors Contributing to the rise in tuberculosis
•
TB kills about 2 million people each year (including persons infected with HIV)
...
This number is rising
rapidly as a result of the HIV/AIDS epidemic
...
•
Over a quarter of a million TB cases per year
occur in Eastern Europe
...
Everyday 20,000 Indians contract TB and
more than 1,000 die due to this chronic illness
...
Poorly managed TB programs are threatening
to make TB incurable
Until 50 years ago, there were no drugs to cure
tuberculosis
...
Drugresistant tuberculosis is caused by inconsistent
or partial treatment, when patients do not take
all their drugs regularly for the required period,
when doctors or health workers prescribe inadequate treatment regimens or where the drug
supply is unreliable
...
When people fail to complete standard treatment regimens, or are given the wrong treatment regimen, they may remain infectious
...
People they infect will have the
same drug-resistant strain
...
Malaria is a life-threatening parasitic disease
transmitted by mosquitoes
...
Later it was found that
the parasite is transmitted from person to person through the bite of a female Anopheles
mosquito, which requires blood for the growth
of her eggs
...
HIV weakens the immune system
...
Tuberculo-
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...
The disease
was once more widespread but it was successfully eliminated from many countries with temperate climates during the mid 20th century
...
There are several types of human malaria
...
There are also indications
of the spread of P
...
The malaria parasite enters the human host
when an infected Anopheles mosquito bites an
individual
...
Its various stages allow plasmodia to evade the immune system, infect the liver
and red blood cells, and finally develop into a
form that is able to infect a mosquito again when
it bites an infected person
...
Malaria symptoms appear about 9 to 14 days
after the mosquito bite, although this varies with
different plasmodium species
...
If drugs are not available for treatment, or the
parasites are resistant to them, the infection can
progress rapidly to become life-threatening
...
Malaria parasites are developing unacceptable
levels of resistance to drugs
...
Good environmental management by clearing pools of
stagnant water during the monsoons is effective in reducing the number of mosquitoes
...
Prevention of malaria in pregnant women, through
measures such as Intermittent Preventive Treatment and the use of insecticide-treated nets
(ITNs), results in improvement in maternal health,
as well as infant health and survival
...
If countries can
apply these and other measures on a wide scale
and monitor them carefully, the burden of malaria on society will be significantly reduced
...
3
...
One of the most important aspects is a lack of
environmental education and awareness that
these disease processes are related to poor environment management in various sectors
...
Environmental Sanitation and Hygiene Development
About 2
...
Poor hygiene and
behaviour pattern increase the exposure to risk
of incidence and spread of infectious diseases
...
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contaminated by inadequate management at
the household level
...
Health and Water Resources Development
An important aspect related to water-related
diseases (in particular: water-related vectorborne diseases) is attributable to the way water
resources are developed and managed
...
Other health issues indirectly associated with
water resources development include nutritional
status, exposure to agricultural pesticides and
their residues
...
Conservation of water and better management is an urgent need
...
This is being termed the ‘Blue Revolution’
and needs Governments, NGOs and people to
work together towards a better water policy at
International, National, State, regional and local levels
...
Present
patterns of development are water hungry and
water wasters
...
The linkages between managing
water resources and health issues are have not
been prioritised as a major source of environmental problems that require policy change,
administrative capacity building and an increased
financial support
...
Water borne diseases:
These are caused by dirty water contaminated by human and animal wastes, especially from urban sewage, or by chemical
wastes from industry and agriculture
...
Diarrhoea,
dysentery, polio, meningitis, and hepatitis A
and E, are caused due to improper drinking
water
...
Pesticides entering drinking water in rural
areas cause cancer, neurological diseases and
infertility
...
2
...
In
India, guinea worm affects the feet
...
3
...
Malaria that was effectively controlled in India, has now come
back as the mosquitoes have become resistant to insecticides
...
Change in climate is leading to the formation of new breeding sites
...
Dengue fever carries a high
mortality
...
Eliminating mosquito breeding sites when
pooling of water occurs in the monsoon,
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4
...
which
occur when hands are not adequately
washed
...
It has attracted much attention since its recognition in the 1990s of its wide occurrence in wellwater in Bangladesh
...
The main source of arsenic in drinking water is arsenic-rich rocks
through which the water has filtered
...
WHO has worked with other UN
organizations to produce a state-of-the-art review on arsenic in drinking water
...
Excessive concentrations are known to occur in some areas
...
Arsenic
contamination of water is also due to industrial
processes such as those involved in mining, metal
refining, and timber treatment
...
Water with high concentrations of arsenic if used
over 5 to 20 years, results in problems such as
colour changes on the skin, hard patches on the
palms and soles, skin cancer, cancers of the bladder, kidney and lung, and diseases of the blood
vessels of the legs and feet
...
Natural arsenic contamination occurs in Argentina, Bangladesh, Chile, China, India, Mexico,
Thailand and the United States
...
Long term solutions for prevention of arsenicosis
is based on providing safe drinking-water:
CASE STUDIES
Arsenic poisoning – Bangladesh
•
More than half the population of Bangladesh
is threatened by high levels of arsenic found
in drinking water
...
Deeper wells are often less likely to be contaminated
...
•
Rezaul Morol, a young Bangladeshi man,
nearly died from arsenic poisoning caused
by drinking arsenic-laden well-water for several years
...
Since then
Rezaul feels a lot better and is happy that
his skin is healing
...
•
Health education regarding harmful effects
of arsenicosis and how to avoid them
...
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Diarrhoea
Though several types of diarrhoea which give
rise to loose motions and dehydration occur all
over the world, this is especially frequently observed in developing countries
...
In another 5% it leads to loss of
health
...
2 million people globally each
year
...
The use of contaminated water is an
important cause of this group of conditions
...
Effects on health: Diarrhoea is the frequent passage of loose or liquid stools
...
Depending on
the type of infection, the diarrhoea may be watery (for example in cholera caused by vibrio
cholera) or passed with blood and mucous (in
dysentery caused by an amoeba, E Histolitica)
...
Severe diarrhoea
can become life threatening due to loss of excessive fluid and electrolytes such as Sodium and
Potassium in watery diarrhoea
...
It is also
dangerous in malnourished individuals and
people with poor immunity
...
Chemical or non-infectious intestinal conditions
can also result in diarrhoea
...
They
are mostly spread by contaminated water
...
Basic
hygiene is important in its prevention
...
Food is a
major cause of diarrhoea when it is prepared or
stored in unhygienic conditions
...
Fish and seafood from polluted water is a
cause of severe diarrhoea
...
In developed countries where good sanitation is available, most
people get enough safe drinking water
...
About 1 billion people do not
have access to clean water sources and 2
...
In Southeast Asia, diarrhoea is responsible for
8
...
In 1998, diarrhoea was
estimated to have killed 2
...
Interventions: Key measures to reduce the number of cases of diarrhoea include:
•
Access to safe drinking water
...
•
Good personal and food hygiene
...
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Feces of domestic animals also
contain microorganisms that can cause diarrhoea through water
...
•
Continue feeding
...
In rural India, during the last decade public education through posters and other types of communication strategies has decreased infant
mortality due to diarrhoea in several States
...
While cholera has devastated much of Asia and
Africa for years, its reintroduction for the first
time in almost a century on the South American continent in 1991 is an example of a well
recognised infectious disease re-emerging in a
region after decades
...
In Latin America, ice and raw or underprocessed
seafood are important causes for cholera transmission
...
coli) was first described in 1982
...
The
infection is sometimes fatal, particularly in children
...
Outbreaks have also implicated alfalfa sprouts,
unpasteurized fruit juice, lettuce, game meat
(meat of wild animals) and cheese curd
...
3
...
Contamination may occur through environmental pollution
of the air, water and soil
...
Food additives and contaminants used during food manufacture and processing adversely affects health
...
For example, outbreaks
of salmonellosis which have been reported for
decades, has increased within the last 25 years
...
Investigations of SE outbreaks indicate that its emergence is largely related to consumption of poultry or eggs
...
Listeria monocytogenes (Lm): The role of food
in the transmission of this condition has been
recognized recently
...
In
infants and persons with a poor immune system it may lead to septicemia (blood poisoning)
and meningitis
...
Outbreaks of
listeriosis have been reported from many countries, including Australia, Switzerland, France
and the United States
...
Human Population and the Environment
Chapter7
...
This is
related to a combination of intensive aquaculture production in unsanitary conditions, and
consumption of raw or lightly processed fresh
water fish and fishery products
...
It is estimated that 40
million people are affected worldwide
...
It was first discovered in the United
Kingdom in 1985
...
Recycling of the BSE agent developed into a
common source epidemic of more than 180,000
diseased animals in the UK alone
...
About 19 countries have reported
BSE cases and the disease is no longer confined
to the European Community
...
In human populations, exposure to the BSE
agent (probably in contaminated bovine-based
food products) has been strongly linked to the
appearance in 1996 of a new transmissible
spongiform encephalopathy of humans called
variant Creutzfeldt-Jakob Disease (vCJD)
...
7
...
6 Cancer and environment
Cancer is caused by the uncontrolled growth
and spread of abnormal cells that may affect
almost any tissue of the body
...
Among men, lung and stomach can-
More than 10 million people are diagnosed with
cancer in the world every year
...
Cancer causes 6 million deaths
every year – or 12% of deaths worldwide
...
Thus
prevention of at least one-third of all cancers is
possible
...
Early detection and effective treatment
is possible for a further one-third of cases
...
The chance of cure increases
if cancer is detected early
...
•
Building international networks and partnerships for cancer control
...
•
Development of guidelines on disease and
program management
...
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For women, the most common cancers are
breast and cervical cancer
...
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•
Support for low-cost approaches to respond
to global needs for pain relief and palliative
care
...
It causes 80 to 90% of all lung cancer
deaths
...
Preventive measures include bans on
tobacco advertising and sponsorship, increased
tax on tobacco products, and educational programs which are undertaken to reduce tobacco
consumption
...
Overweight individuals and
obesity are known to be associated with cancer
of the oesophagus, colon, rectum, breast, uterus
and kidney
...
Excess
consumption of red and preserved meat may
be associated with an increased risk of colorectal
cancer
...
Viral hepatitis B and C
cause cancer of the liver
...
The
bacterium Helicobacter pylori increases the risk
of stomach cancer
...
Liver fluke increases the risk
of cancer of the bile ducts
...
Excessive solar ultraviolet radiation increases the
risk of all types of cancer of the skin
...
Asbestos is known to cause lung cancer
...
Benzene can lead to leukaemia (blood
cancer)
...
7
...
These include the equitable
distribution of environmental resources, the
utilisation of resources and Intellectual Property
Rights (IPRs), conflicts between people and wildlife especially around PAs, resettlement issues
around development projects such as dams and
mines, and access to health to prevent environment related diseases
...
4
...
We can think of
the global community, regional community issues, national concerns and those related to a
family or at the individual level
...
Today the difference
between the economically developed world and
the developing countries is unacceptably high
...
Last but
not the least, we in the present generation cannot greedily use up all our resources leaving future generations increasingly impoverished
...
However, while some live unsustainable lifestyles with
consumption patterns that the resource base
cannot support, many others live well below the
poverty line
...
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ties
...
The people who live in the countries of the
North and the rich from the countries in the
South will have to take steps to reduce their
resource use and the waste they generate
...
dams, mining and Protected Areas
...
Reversing actions that have
already been taken decades ago is a complex
problem that has no simple solutions
...
This needs a deep appreciation of local environmental concerns as well as a sensitivity to the
rights of local people
...
It is related to disparities
in the amount of resources available to different sectors of society
...
They collect food, fuelwood, and nonwood products, fish in aquatic ecosystems, or
hunt for food in forests and grasslands
...
Take the case of
subsidies given to the pulp and paper industry
for bamboo which makes it several times
cheaper for the industry than for a rural individual who uses it to build his home
...
Another issue is the rights of small traditional fishermen who have to contend against mechanised
trawlers that impoverish their catch and overharvest fish in the marine environment
...
7
...
2 Nutrition, health and human rights
There are serious conflicts between the rights
of rural communities for even basic resources
such as water, and industrial development which
requires large amounts of water for sustaining
its productivity
...
It is linked to the
way we grow, develop, work, play, resist infection and reach our aspirations as individuals,
communities and societies
...
Poverty is a major cause as well as a
consequence of ill-health
...
Nearly
30% of humanity, especially those in developing countries – infants, children, adolescents,
adults, and older persons are affected by this
problem
...
We must ensure that our environmental
values and our vision are linked to human rights
and create laws to support those that need a
better environment, better health and a better
lifestyle
...
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There are links between environment, nutrition
and health which must be seen from a humanrights perspective
...
The right to life
is a Fundamental Right in our constitution
...
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Health and sustainable human development are
equity issues
...
Putting first things first,
we must also realize that resources allocated to
preventing and eliminating disease will be effective only if the underlying causes such as
malnutrition and environmental concerns, as
well as their consequences, are successfully addressed
...
4
...
This storehouse of knowledge leads to
many new ‘discoveries’ for modern pharmaceutical products
...
This leaves the original tribal user with nothing while the industry could earn billions of
rupees
...
This however has still not been generally accepted
...
Traditional Medicine: Traditional medicine refers
to health practices, approaches, knowledge and
beliefs that incorporate plant, animal and mineral based medicines, frequently of local or regional origin
...
These may be used singly or in combination to
treat, diagnose and prevent illnesses or maintain well-being
...
Traditional medicine has maintained its popularity in all regions of the developing world and
its use is rapidly spreading in industrialized countries
...
In
industrialized countries, adaptations of traditional medicine are termed “Complementary“
or “Alternative” Medicine (CAM)
...
This is a risk, as patients who use these alternative medicinal practices may rely on an ineffective measure
...
There is a need
to carefully research the claims of traditional
practices to ensure that they are effective
...
This has been observed in the
case of several Himalayan plants
...
Another related issue is that at present, the requirements for protection provided under international standards for patent law and by most
national conventional patent laws are inadequate to protect traditional knowledge and
biodiversity
...
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CASE STUDY
to our destruction of our environment
...
Since
we still put a high value only on economic
growth, we have no concern for aspects such
as sustainability or equitable use of resources
...
A US company was granted a patent for discovering extracts of arhar (pigeon pea or
Cajanus cajan) in the treatment of diabetes,
hypoglycemia, obesity and blockage of arteries
...
CSIR has challenged this
patent as it infringes on India’s traditional
knowledge, although challenging the patent
is difficult, as India’s scientific documentation of its traditional knowledge is quite poor
...
Consumerism is one aspect of
this process favoured by the rich
...
It is
only recently that the world has come to realise
that there are other more important environmental values that are essential to bring about
a better way of life
...
Twenty-five percent
of modern medicines are made from plants first
used traditionally
...
Traditional Medicine has been
found to be effective against several infectious
diseases
...
The provision of safe and effective TM/
CAM therapies could become a tool to increase
access to health care
...
5 VALUE EDUCATION
Value education in the context of our environment is expected to bring about a new sustainable way of life
...
Essentially, environmental values cannot be
taught
...
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Why and how can we
use less resources and energy? Why do we need
to keep our surroundings clean? Why should
we use less fertilisers and pesticides in farms?
Why is it important for us to save water and
keep our water sources clean? Or separate our
garbage into degradable and non-degradable
types before disposal? All these issues are linked
to the quality of human life and go beyond
simple economic growth
...
These are the values that
will bring about a better humanity, one in which
we can live healthy, productive and happy lives
in harmony with nature
...
5
...
The Western, modern approach values the
resources of Nature for their utilitarian importance alone
...
Environmental values are inherent in feelings that bring about a
sensitivity for preserving nature as a whole
...
There are several writings and sayings in Indian
thought that support the concept of the oneness of all creation, of respecting and valuing
all the different components of Nature
...
Most of our actions have adverse environmental impacts unless we consciously avoid them
...
Values lead to a process of decision making
which leads to action
...
Humans have an inborn desire to explore Nature
...
However, modern society and
educational processes have invariably suppressed these innate sentiments
...
They begin to appreciate its complexity and fragility and this awakens a new desire to want to protect our natural
heritage
...
Concepts of what constitutes right and wrong
behaviour changes with time
...
It was once considered ‘sport’ to shoot
animals
...
In today’s
context, with wildlife reduced to a tiny fraction
of what there was in the past, it is now looked
down upon as a crime against biodiversty conservation
...
Similarly with the large tracts
of forest that existed in the past, cutting a few
trees was not a significant criminal act
...
We need a
strong new environmental value system in which
felling trees is considered unwise behaviour
...
But with enormous numbers of people throwing away large quantities of non-degradable
waste, it is indeed extremely damaging to the
environment and our value system must prevent this through a strong environmental value
education system
...
Our current value system
extols economic and technical progress as being what we need in our developing country
...
”
Article 51A (g)
The constitution expects that each citizen of
the country must “protect and improve the
natural environment, including forests, lakes,
rivers and wildlife, and to have compassion
for all living creatures
...
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While we do need economic development, our
value system must change to one that makes
people everywhere support a sustainable form
of development so that we do not have to bear
the cost of environmental degradation
...
Looked at in this way, it deals with concepts of
what is appropriate behaviour in relation to
our surroundings and to other species on Earth
...
This is what environmental values
are about
...
This cannot
happen unless new educational processes are
created that provide a meaning to what is taught
at school and college level
...
They want an explanation for things
happening around them that can help them
make decisions and through this process develop
values
...
Providing
appropriate ‘meanings’ for such questions related to our own environment brings in a set of
values that most people in society begin to accept as a norm
...
At the community level, this occurs only when a
critical number of people become environmentally conscious so that they constitute a proenvironment lobby force that makes governments and other people accept good environ-
I will work towards the protection of our environment and the preservation of our wild
species,
I will work towards this with other like
minded individuals
...
I will not permit others to cause harm to the
wilderness and our wild species without protest
...
I will not carelessly throw away items that
are made of our precious natural resources
...
I will not waste energy by using a fuel based
vehicle when I can walk or cycle
...
I will not permit any individual or Government action spoil our environment or damage wilderness without protest
...
I will try not to damage her knowingly or
unknowingly
...
What professions require making value judgements that greatly influence our environment?
Evidentally nearly every profession can and does
influence our environment, but some do so more
than others
...
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agricultural experts, irrigation planners, mining
experts, foresters, forest planners, industrialists
and, most importantly, teachers at school and
college level, are all closely related to pro environmental outcomes
...
While we value resources that we use as food, water and other
products, there are also environmental services
that we must appreciate
...
But there are other aesthetic, ethical values that
are equally important aspects of our environment that we do not appreciate consciously
...
The tiger’s magnificence, the whale and elephant’s giant size,
the intelligence of our cousins the primates, the
graceful flight of a flock of cranes, are parts of
nature that we cannot help but admire
...
We value its being there on Earth for us
...
The list of
wondrous aspects of Nature’s intricate connections is indeed awe-inspiring
...
This is the oneness of Nature
...
There is incredible beauty
in some man-modified landscapes, the coloured
patterns of farmland or the greens of a tea or
coffee plantation in the hills
...
These green spaces act as not only
the lungs of a city, but also provide much needed
psychological support
...
Nevertheless, these centers of
peace and tranquility give urban dwellers an
opportunity to balance their highly man-modified environments with the splash of green of a
garden space
...
The
characteristic architecture, sculpture, artworks
and crafts of ancient cultures is an invaluable
environmental asset
...
Architectural heritage goes
beyond preserving old buildings, to conserving
whole traditional landscapes in rural areas and
streetscapes in urban settings
...
As environmentally conscious individuals we
need to develop a sense of values that are linked
with a better and more sustainable way of life
for all people
...
The positive feelings that
support environment include a value for Nature,
cultures, heritage, and equity
...
These
include our attitude towards degradation of the
environment, loss of species, pollution, poverty,
corruption in environmental management, the
rights of future generations and animal rights
...
Mahatma Gandhi and
Rabindranath Tagore are among the many internationally well-known scholars whose
thought have included values that are related
to environmental consciousness
...
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way of life on earth for all people and all living
creatures
...
5
...
Appreciating Her
magnificence and treasuring life itself leads to
positive feelings that are a manifestation of pro
environmental consciousness
...
We must appreciate that we belong
to a global community that includes another 1
...
Nothing makes us
more conscious of this wonderous aspect of our
earth’s diversity than a walk through the wilderness, feeling and exploring its beauty and
experiencing its infinite variety
...
Today, man does not even know if other
complex forms of life exist outside our own solar system in distant space
...
But for now we
only know for sure that the Earth’s life forms
are unique
...
We need to develop a sense of
values that lead us to protect what is left of the
wilderness by creating effective National Parks
and Wildlife Sanctuaries
...
There are thus conflicting values that
need to be balanced carefully
...
In the 1970s a new thinking on environmental concerns began to emerge, protecting
nature and the wilderness for its own sake,
which is now referred to as ‘Deep Ecology’
...
It recognises the intrinsic value of all
living beings and looks upon mankind as a
small segment of a great living community
of life forms
...
Yet apart from valuing the diversity of life itself,
we must also learn to value and respect diverse
human cultures
...
We believe that our modern technology-based lifestyles are the sole way for society to progress
...
While currently the environmental movement
focuses on issues that are concerned with the
management of the natural environment for the
‘benefit’ of man, Deep Ecology promotes an
approach that is expected to bring about a more
appropriate ecological balance on Earth and is
akin to a spiritual approach to Nature
...
For example some environmentalists emphasise
the need to preserve wilderness for its aesthetic
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Wilderness is being
preserved today in PAs because it is scenic and
serves the purpose of tourism for nature lovers,
and has recreational and economic value
...
Deep Ecologists on the other hand stress that
wilderness preservation is a means to achieve
the conservation and protection of biological
diversity
...
In a country such as India, with its enormous population coupled with
poverty on the one hand and the need for economic industrial growth on the other, this will
be extremely difficult to achieve
...
7
...
3 Valuing cultures
Every culture has a right to exist
...
The dilemma is how to provide them with modern health care and education that gives them an opportunity to achieve
a better economic status without disrupting their
culture and way of life
...
7
...
4 Social justice
As the divide widens between those people who
have access to resources and wealth, and those
who live near or below the poverty line, it is the
duty of those who are better off to protect the
rights of the poor who do not have the means
to fight for their rights
...
The
developing world would face a crisis earlier than
the developed countries unless the rights of poor
people that are fundamental to life are protected
...
We are
now beginning to appreciate that many ancient
and even present day sequestrated cultures have
a wisdom and knowledge of their own environments that is based on a deep sense of respect
for nature
...
They
have produced unique art forms such as painting, sculpture, and crafts that are beautiful and
can enrich living experiences for everyone
...
The world will be culturally impoverished if we allow these indigenous people to
loose their traditional knowledge which includes
sustainable use of water, land and resources
with a low impact on biodiversity
...
The art
of the potter will be lost forever to the indestructible plastic pot
...
Much that is
beautiful and hand-crafted will disappear if we
do not value these diverse aspects of human
cultures
...
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7
...
5 Human heritage
The earth itself is a heritage left to us by our
ancestors for not only our own use but for the
generations to come
...
These
are all part of human heritage
...
While we admire and value the Ajanta
and Ellora Caves, the temples of the 10th to
15th centuries that led to different and diverse
styles of architecture and sculpture, the Moghul
styles that led to structures such as the Taj
Mahal, or the unique environmentally-friendly
Colonial buildings, we have done little to actively preserve them
...
7
...
6 Equitable use of resources
An unfair distribution of wealth and resources,
based on a world that is essentially only for the
rich, will bring about a disaster of unprecedented
proportions
...
This includes an appreciation of the
fact that economically advanced countries and
the rich in even poor nations consume resources
at much greater levels than the much larger
poorer sectors of humanity in the developing
world
...
5
...
There are several commonly owned resources that all of us
use as a community
...
When
Government took over the control of community forests in British times, the local people who
until then had controlled their use through a
set of norms that were based on equitable use,
began to overexploit resources on which they
now had no personal stake
...
However, in the recent past managing
local forests through village level forest protection committees has shown that if people know
that they can benefit from the forests, they will
begin to protect them
...
7
...
8 Ecological degradation
In many situations valuable ecological assets are
turned into serious environmental problems
...
p65
in the developing world
...
The poor
while polluting the environment have no way
to prevent it
...
As we begin to appreciate that we need more
sustainable lifestyles we also begin to realize that
this cannot be brought about without a more
equitable use of resources
...
These consist of sectors of society that use a
‘get-rich-quick’ approach to development
...
Changes in landuse
from natural ecosystems to more intensive utilization such as turning forests into monoculture
forestry plantations, or tea and coffee estates,
or marginal lands into intensive agricultural patterns such as sugarcane fields or changes into
urban or industrial land carry an ecological price
...
A natural forest provides valuable non-wood forest products whose economic
returns far outweigh that provided by felling the
forest for timber
...
We cannot permit
unsustainable development to run onwards at
a pace in which our lives will be overtaken by a
development strategy that must eventually fail
as Earth’s resources are consumed and ecosystems rendered irreparable
...
6 HIV/AIDS
The Human Immunodeficiency Virus (HIV) causes
Acquired Immunodeficiency Syndrome (AIDS)
through contact with tissue fluids of infected
individuals, especially through sexual contact
...
It affects their income generation and/or their ability to utilise
natural resources
...
The inability of
these patients to have the strength to access
natural resources also affects the outcome of
the disease process, as their overall health and
well being is likely to worsen the course of the
disease when their nutritional status suffers
...
The capacity
of these patients to work for their usual sources
of income generation is lost
...
It is evident
that it is going to be increasingly difficult to
manage environments sustainably, as natural resources on which the poor debilitated patients
depend continue to be degraded
...
People affected by the disease inevitably
try to get whatever they can from their natural
resource base as they are not in any position to
think of the long-term future
...
In South Africa, for example, people
have a mistaken belief that turtle eggs can cure
HIV/ AIDS, thus leading to the eggs being over
harvested
...
Providing balanced diets and nutritional support for
these poverty stricken patients can be partially
addressed by better natural resource management such as afforestation, access to clean water and wholesome food
...
It creates an incorrect fear in
the minds of co-workers
...
Patients have a right to
continue to work as before along with unaffected individuals
...
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it is essential that alternative sources of work
must be created for them
...
ing the disease
...
However, the most important measure to prevent AIDS is the proper
use of condoms that form a barrier to the spread
of the virus during intercourse
...
By 2002, India had
an estimated 3
...
There is a great need to organise AIDS education on prevention and management of the disease
...
Education is also important to reduce
the stigma and discrimination against these patients
...
Women also have an added burden
of caring for HIV infected husbands
...
HIV in India is rapidly moving from a primarily
urban sector disease to rural communities
...
7 WOMAN AND CHILD WELFARE
Research in Nepal has shown a linkage between
rural poverty, deforestation and a shift of population to urban areas resulting in a rising number of AIDS patients
...
In more recent times, a growing number of
women are moving to Indian cities as sex workers
...
A large proportion became victims of the
disease
...
Each year, close to eleven million children
worldwide are estimated to have died from the
effects of disease and inadequate nutrition
...
In
some countries, more than one in five children
die before they are 5 years old
...
These are pneumonia, diarrhoea, measles, malaria and malnutrition
...
Cough and/or
fast breathing
Pneumonia
Severe anaemia
P
...
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Possible cause or
associated condition
Measles rash
Blood transfusion from an infected person can
also lead to HIV/AIDS in the recipient, as well as
drug abuse by sharing needles with an infected
person
...
Crowded ill-ventilated homes and living
in smokey households with open fires can trigger respiratory conditions especially in children
...
6 billion early deaths occur annually
from cooking stove pollution
...
Chula smoke is the third highest cause of
disease and death after dirty water and lack
of sanitation
...
Pneumonia: Acute respiratory infections (ARI),
most frequently pneumonia, is a major cause of
death in children under five, killing over two
million children annually
...
Children may die very quickly from the infection and
thus need treatment urgently
...
Correct management could save over 1 million
lives per year globally
...
Diarrhoea: Diarrhoea is caused by a wide variety of infections
...
Treating malnutrition that often accompanies diarrhoea can further reduce mortality
...
Two million children die each year in developing countries from diarrhoeal diseases, the second most serious killer of children under five
worldwide
...
Correct management of diarrhoea could
save the lives of up to 90% of children who
currently die by promoting rapid and effective
treatment through standardised management,
including antibiotics and simple measures such
as oral rehydration using clean boiled water with
salt and sugar
...
Improved hygiene and management of the home and surroundings is the
most important preventative measure, as well
as improved nutrition
...
Measles: Measles is a rash that appears with
fever and bodyache in children and is caused by
a virus
...
Prevention includes wider immunization coverage, rapid referral of serious cases, prompt recognition of conditions that occur in association
with measles, and improved nutrition, including breastfeeding, and vitamin A supplementation
...
Young
children with measles often develop other diseases such as acute respiratory infections, diarrhoea and malnutrition that are all linked to poor
environmental conditions in their surroundings
...
Effective prevention and
treatment could save 700,000 lives per year
...
Malaria is a widespread tropical disease
Human Population and the Environment
Chapter7
...
It has proved difficult
to control because mosquitoes have become
resistant to insecticides used against them and
because the parasite has developed resistance
in some areas to the cheap and effective drugs
that used to provide good protection in the past
...
In India the disease was
nearly wiped out a few decades ago but has
now re-emerged in many parts of the country
...
Approximately 700,000 children die
of malaria globally each year, most of them in
sub-Saharan Africa
...
Deaths from malaria can be reduced by several
measures, including encouraging parents to seek
prompt care, accurate assessment of the condition of the child, prompt treatment with appropriate anti-malarial drugs, recognition and
treatment of other co-existing conditions, such
as malnutrition and anaemia, and prevention by
using mosquito-proof bednets
...
Poverty-environment-malnutrition: There is
a close association between poverty, a degraded
environment, and malnutrition
...
Malnutrition: Although malnutrition is rarely
listed as the direct cause of death, it contributes to about half of all childhood deaths
...
Promoting breastfeeding, improving feeding
practices, and providing micronutrient supplements routinely for children who need them are
measures that reduce mortality
...
Counseling of parents on the
correct foods for each age group and helping
them to overcome various feeding problems is
an essential health care measure
...
Changing family habits and the kinds of food offered to children is
an important measure
...
A minor increase in breastfeeding could prevent
up to 10% of all deaths of children under five:
When mothers breastfeed exclusively during at
least the first four months and, if possible, six
months of life, there is a decrease in episodes
of diarrhoea and, to a lesser extent, respiratory
infections
...
This increases the risk of
diarrhoea
...
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Infection, particularly frequent or persistent diarrhoea, pneumonia, measles and malaria, undermines nutritional status
...
Malnourished children are more vulnerable to disease
...
Encouraging maximum support to mothers to
establish optimal breastfeeding from birth,
equipping health workers with counseling skills,
and providing individual counseling and support
for breastfeeding mothers are measures that
reduce malnutrition
...
A one-on-one counseling with mothers on breastfeeding techniques and its benefits
helps reduce incidence of malnutrition
...
Women, especially
in lower income group families, both in the rural and urban sector, work longer hours than
men
...
The daily collection of
water, fuelwood and fodder is an arduous task
for rural women
...
In urban centers, a number of
women eke out a living by garbage picking
...
During this process,
they can get several infections
...
Women are often the last to get enough nutrition as their role in traditional society is to cook
the family meal and feed their husband and
children
...
The sorry plight of women includes the fact that
the girl child is given less attention and educational facilities as compared to boys in India
...
This social-environmental divide is a major
concern that needs to be corrected throughout
the country
...
8 ROLE OF INFORMATION TECHNOLOGY
IN ENVIRONMENT AND HUMAN HEALTH
The understanding of environmental concerns
and issues related to human health has exploded
during the last few years due to the sudden
growth of Information Technology
...
IT can do several tasks extremely
rapidly, accurately and spread the information
through the world’s networks of millions of computer systems
...
GIS is a tool
to map landuse patterns and document change
by studying digitized toposheets and/or satellite imagery
...
CASE STUDY
Karnataka’s GIS scheme, Bhoomi, has revolutionized the way farmers access their land
records
...
Karnataka has computerized 20 million records of land ownership
of 6
...
The Internet with its thousands of websites has
made it extremely simple to get the appropriate
environmental information for any study or en-
Human Population and the Environment
Chapter7
...
This not
only assists scientists and students but is a powerful tool to help increase public awareness
about environmental issues
...
The relationship between the environment and
health has been established due to the growing
utilisation of computer technology
...
As
knowledge expands, computers will become
increasingly efficient
...
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1 VISIT TO A LOCAL AREA TO DOCUMENT ENVIRONMENTAL ASSETS,
RIVER/FOREST/GRASSLANDS/HILL/MOUNTAIN
8
...
3 STUDY OF COMMON PLANTS, INSECTS, BIRDS
268
8
...
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8
...
Each ecosystem has something different to offer us
...
In fact it can have multiple benefits for mankind at
global, national and local levels
...
A tribal from a wilderness setting, an agriculturalist
from farmlands, a pastoralist from grasslands, or a fisherman looks on his or her environment very differently from an urban resident who is mainly focused on the management of
the quality of air and water and the disposal of garbage
...
In rural India, for example, it is
mostly women who collect resources and see the degradation of their ecosystem as a
serious threat to the existence of their family and are thus more prone to fight against
processes that lead to loss of their resource base
...
Farmers know about utilisation of their land and
water resources, and also appreciate what droughts and floods can do to their lives
...
In contrast, urban dwellers
are far removed from the sites from where they get their natural resources
...
In assessing an ecosystem’s values it is not enough to look at its structure and functions,
but at who uses it and how the resources reach the users
...
The wilderness provides a sense of wonderment for all of us, if
we experience it in person
...
Guidelines for the study of environmental assets:
There are two parts to this study:
1
...
2
...
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...
1
...
3
...
What are the ecosystem’s natural resource assets?
Who uses these and how?
Is the ecosystem degraded? If so how?
How can it be conserved?
One could go into enormous detail in answering these four basic questions
...
You should begin your field study by observing the abiotic and biotic aspects of the ecosystem and documenting what you see
...
Is their utilisation sustainable or unsustainable? Look for and document signs of
degradation
...
•
Describe the ecosystem as you see it
...
This
takes time and patience
...
•
How does the ecosystem function? What are the linkages between different species
with each other and with their habitat? Observe its food chains
...
•
By interacting with local residents and multiple user groups, decide if this is sustainable
or unsustainable utilization
...
You will thus have
to ask questions of local people who have a stake in the area to answer these questions
...
A historical background frequently helps to clarify many of
these questions as landscapes are not static and always change over time
...
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Proforma for field work on documenting Environmental Assets of each
ecosystem
Use the format below as a general guideline for your field analysis
...
The field work should be recorded in your Journal as:
Aims and objectives: To identify and document:
- What are the ecosystems goods and services? (checklist of resources)
- Who uses them and how?
- Is the utilisation sustainable or unsustainable? (signs of degradation)
- How can the ecosystem be used sustainably?
Methodology: - Observation of the ecosystem
- Questioning local people on the use of resources and sustainability
...
Findings: Specific concerns relevant to the study site’s sustainable utilisation as
discussed with local people
...
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Documenting Environmental Assets of each ecosystem
Documenting general features during the field survey: Describe the site and its features as provided in the proforma for fieldwork under the following headings – Aims and
Objectives, Methodology, Observations on the site, Findings of interviews with local people,
Results and Conclusions
...
The checklist on resource use of each ecosystem can help in creating an environmental
profile of an area and will help in your appreciation of the ecosystem’s goods and services,
which include its important assets
...
Unless one
does this for several different areas, one cannot really appreciate the assets of an ecosystem in clear terms, as these are often qualitative judgements that one makes by comparing
the resources available in the study area with many others
...
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RIVER ECOSYSTEM
Guidelines on what to look for on river resource use:
•
Observe what local people use from the river, wetland or lake:
They collect drinking water and use it for other domestic needs
...
They lift water from the
lake by pumps to irrigate their fields
...
Observe that all
the animals both wild and domestic must come to the water source, or have its water
brought to them
...
Observe a clean stretch of river in a wilderness area
...
In its many pools fish dart about
...
2
...
3
...
Observe the water in a glass – it is coloured – can we drink it! ‘Who has
polluted it and how?’ This is a sign of unsustainable use of water
...
Along a river in a forest observe all the different animal tracks at the edge of the
water
...
2
...
Ask if the fish catch
has decreased, remained the same, or has increased during the last decade or
two
...
Resource use: Observe and document the different types of fish and other resources used by local people
...
4
...
•
In your report, compare and contrast an unpolluted and polluted body of water
...
Water – the greatest of all resources:
What do you use water for during the course of one day?
How much do you use?
Can you stop wasting water by using it carefully?
How can you reduce the water you use for bathing and other uses?
Discuss how wastewater can be used in the garden
...
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Observations on the site that should be recorded:
•
Type – Permanent flow/ seasonal flow
...
•
Qualitative aspects – Describe its abiotic and biotic aspects
...
•
What are the characteristic features of its components – banks, shallow areas, deep
areas, midstream areas, islands
...
•
What other resources are used – fish, crustacea, reeds, sand, etc
...
Which of these affect it most seriously?
•
Extent of pollution – Severe/high/moderate/low/nil
...
•
Test the water quality
...
•
Does it flood? If so how frequently? How does this affect people? What preventive
steps can be taken to prevent ill effects of floods?
•
How can you enhance public awareness on the need for keeping the river clean?
•
How are you dependent on the river ecosystem? How is it linked to your own life?
•
Results of the water analysis
...
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FOREST
Guidelines on what to look for on forest resource use:
•
Assessing forest use:
Ask local people, especially the women, what products they collect from the forest
...
Fruits, leaves, roots, nuts,
fuelwood, timber, grass, honey, fiber, cane, gum, resins, medicinal products are all
forest products of great value
...
Look for human footprints and hoof marks of domestic animals, which demonstrates
the dependence of man and his animals on forest vegetation
...
Specially look for cattle tracks near watering
places
...
People cut the branches of the trees and shrubs for fuel wood
...
If the forest is seriously lopped all around, the forest clearly appears degraded
...
Ask local
women how far they must travel for fuelwood
...
Observe the environment in a neighbouring village
...
Where do local people get their water? The presence of water in the streams is dependant on the existence of the forest
...
Are there signs of degradation of the
canopy, formation of wasteland or signs of soil erosion?
•
What are the products that you use in daily life that originate in forests?
Examples: water, paper, wood, medicines
...
Draw up a list of articles you use that could have originated from a
forest ecosystem
...
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Findings on the site that should be recorded through interviews:
•
List its natural resources – goods and services
...
Services- water regime, climate control, oxygen, removal of carbon dioxide, nitrogen
cycle, etc
...
Are these used for personal use, for marketing or for both? What proportion of the income of local people
comes from the sale of fruit, fodder, wood, non-wood forest products?
•
Make a map of the study area showing the different land uses and where resources
are collected from
...
•
Is the ecosystem overused due to the number of people that depend on it, or the
greed of a few, or both?
•
Is it protected, if so how?
•
If it is to be restored, how can one make this possible?
•
What forest produce do you use in your day to day life?
Field Work
Chapter8
...
•
Grassland carrying capacity:
Observe the enormous quantity of grass needed for the number of domestic herbivores dependent on it
...
•
Mapping landuse in grassland areas:
Near a village make a landuse map showing where the cattle are sent for grazing and
for water, where people collect fuelwood, etc
...
Observe differences in protected and degraded areas
...
Observations on the site that should be recorded:
•
Identify the type of grassland – Himalayan/ Terai/ semi-arid/ shola/ area developed for
grass collection/ common grazing land/ forest clearing
...
How do they use their habitat?
•
What changes occur seasonally?
Findings on the site that should be recorded through interviews:
•
Who uses it and to what extent?
•
Estimate the extent of free grazing – cattle, sheep, goats, and their proportion
...
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•
Provide a historical profile of its utilisation and changes in its environmental status by
asking local people
...
•
Can they do a rotation grazing of their common grasslands and thus manage it better?
•
What products do you use from grassland ecosystems in your daily life?
Field Work
Chapter8
...
They are however utilised by a variety
of user groups
...
Observations on the site that should be recorded:
•
Identify the type of hill – steep/ gradual slope
...
•
Qualitative aspects – Describe its abiotic (soil characteristics) and biotic (vegetation)
characteristics
...
•
Describe if its soil cover is intact/ degraded/ partially or severely eroded
...
•
Identify the plants that grow on it (trees, shrubs, herbs, grasses) and wild and domestic
animals present
...
Observe the proportion or extent used for each purpose
...
•
If it is eroded, what measures can be suggested to reverse the trend?
•
How is this linked to your own life?
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They
are used by several different stake holders
...
Observations on the site that should be recorded:
•
Identify the type – Himalayan range/ foothills
...
•
Describe its topography and soil characteristics
...
Snowcapped/ rocky precipice/ grassy slopes/ tree line
...
•
Describe its plant and animal species
...
•
Describe its soil cover/ degree of erosion
...
•
Who uses it?
•
Do local people get as much natural resources from it today as they did in the past?
- If yes, how is this managed?
- If no, why not, and what measures can be taken to remedy these trends?
•
Provide a historical profile of its utilisation and changes in its environmental status by
asking local people
...
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...
Polluted sites include urban, rural, agricultural and industrial areas
...
Pollution can affect:
• Air (smoke, gases),
• Water (urban sewage, industrial chemical effluents, agricultural pesticides and
fertilisers),
• Soil (chemicals, soild waste from industry and urban areas),
• Biodiversity: effects on plant and animal life
...
)
General observations:
The following aspects need to be observed and documented:
•
The type of land or water use in the polluted area, it’s geographical characteristics,
who uses the area, who owns it
...
•
Identifying what is being polluted – air, water, soil; the cause(s) of pollution and the
polluting agent(s)
...
•
Assess from literature, the health aspects associated with the pollutant
...
•
Make a report of the above findings
...
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Proforma for fieldwork
Aims and objectives: To study the cause and effects of pollution at the site
...
Explore the site to answer the questions about the area you have visited
...
•
Explore the reasons for pollution
...
•
Observe the area and list the waste that is seen in the garbage dumping site
...
These include food wastes, plant material, animal carcases, etc
...
Eg
...
- Toxic wastes are those that are poisonous and cause long term effects
...
Several chemicals, paints, sprays, etc
...
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1
...
Garbage dumps: One of the urban or rural environmental problem sites that can be
studied is a garbage-dumping area
...
How much garbage is produced
everyday is not given much thought
...
Garbage is a source of various diseases
...
Products like plastics are not degraded in nature and hence remain for a long time in
the environment, thus adding to the need for more dumps
...
These methods off disposing off waste contribute to contamination of soil, groundwater under the dumping site, foul up the air and
aid the spread of diseases
...
Prepare a survey sheet and ask them:
•
What is the area covered in a day?
•
How many hours are spent in collecting the waste?
•
What are the types of waste collected?
•
What are the problems faced while collecting waste?
•
What do they prefer to collect and why?
•
What is done with the waste collected?
•
If it is sold, where?
•
Would it be better to collect waste from homes rather than from roadside bins?
•
Do they feel that segregation of waste would help them?
It is essential to understand that ragpickers do an environmentally important activity for
all of us
...
They are thus performing a great proenvironmental function for most of us
...
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Study of a dump site
The location of the site and where the garbage comes from
...
Understand how the waste is managed
...
Households: The garbage generated in our homes is termed domestic waste, while a
community’s waste is referred to as municipal waste
...
Observe and document what happens in homes of different economic groups
...
Agriculture: Agricultural waste consists of biomass including farm residues such as rice
husk, straw, bagasse, etc
...
Waste material from fields includes fertilizers and pesticides that are a
serious health hazard
...
Industries: Industrial solid waste includes material from various industries or mines
...
Some of these are chemicals that have serious environmental ill effects, as they are toxic
...
The waste generated during mining is non-biodegradable, it remains in the environment
nearly indefinitely
...
E
...
It can spread
bacteria, fungi and viruses
...
The hospital should have a waste separation system at source into biomedical waste, glass,
plastics, etc
...
Field Work
Chapter8
...
WATER POLLUTION site
Guidelines for study of polluted water sites:
Observe if the river/ lake/ tank can be considered unpolluted/ slightly polluted/ moderately
polluted or severely polluted by looking at the water and by simple tests using a water
monitoring kit
...
•
Is there urban garbage dumped on the bank?
•
Are there industrial units near the site?
•
Do the industries discharge their wastewater into the site? Is this treated or untreated?
•
What is its colour and odour?
•
Are there any sources of water contamination from the surface runoff from adjacent
agricultural land on which fertilizers and pesticides are used?
•
Ask fishermen if this has affected their income
...
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AIR POLLUTION site
Guidelines for the study of polluted air sites:
Air pollution sites include cities due to traffic congestion in urban centers and industrial
areas due to gaseous products released during manufacturing processes
...
•
How can this be reduced?
•
How can you make more people aware of this issue and the effects on their health?
Field Work
Chapter8
...
3 STUDY OF COMMON PLANTS, INSECTS, BIRDS
Guidelines for the study:
These taxa have been selected as they occur nearly everywhere
...
If you have an opportunity to visit a National Park or Sanctuary, you can add other animals
...
These are available from
Bombay Natural History Society (BNHS)
...
The book of Indian Animals – S
...
Prater, BNHS
2
...
The book of Indian Reptiles – J
...
Daniel, BNHS
4
...
V
...
CD ROM on The Biodiversity of India – EK Bharucha, Mapin Publishing
Plants:
1
...
2
...
3
...
Observe their abundance levels
...
Describe five plant species
...
Describe the plant’s role in the ecosystem
...
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•
What are the major field identification features of the common animals and birds that
you observe?
•
Look for and document for each group; insects, birds (mammals if possible) at least 10
species
...
b) The level of abundance at the site – Classify as abundant/ common/ rare/ very
rare
...
What role does each species
play in the food chain and energy pyramid?
•
Observe the habits of each of the selected species such as feeding behaviour, nesting
(for birds), breeding, territorial behaviour, etc
...
- The current status from a field guide – abundant, common, uncommon, rare,
endangered
...
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...
that you have visited for documentation of an ecosystem
...
Describe its common species and their habitats
...
Discuss its biogeochemical cycles
...
Describe its utilisation
...
Remember to take the time also to just enjoy the feeling of being with Nature
...
It can become a thrill to
watch wild species of animals and birds without disturbing them in their habitat
...
The major questions that must be addressed during a field visit to any ecosystem such
as a forest, grassland, semi-arid, desert, hills, mountain ranges, lake, river or seacoast
include:
•
What is the ecosystem called on the basis of its typical features? What are its
abiotic and biotic characteristics?
•
Are its goods and services being misused or overused? What are the signs that can
be observed of degradation of the ecosystem that have occurred in the area?
Deforestation, pollution of a waterbody, soil erosion, are signs of degraded ecosystems
...
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Observing the Water Cycle:
During a monsoon field trip observe the effect of the rain
...
Classify the ecosystem: forest / grassland/ semiarid/ desert type on the basis of rainfall
...
This recharges ground water, which
charges wells, streams and rivers
...
This can be judged by observing if the
water is brown in colour
...
It takes thousands of years
for new soil to form
...
3
...
Eventually
large-scale deforestation could make life on earth impossible
...
Carbon is a component of the food we eat in the form of carbohydrates, which come
from plant material
...
4
...
Without this there would not be enough oxygen for animals to breathe
...
It leads to growth of grass and herbs every year
...
5
...
This material can be seen to
be decaying
...
Microscopic bacteria and fungi are acting on this material to
convert it into nutrients for plants to grow
...
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6
...
Frugivorous birds feed on
fruit, insectivorous birds and spiders feed on insects
...
There are
thousands of such food chains in an ecosystem
...
Observe that in our surroundings there is a great
amount of plant material
...
Estimate and document the differences in the number of plants, herbivores and carnivores in an area
...
Specific ecosystem studies:
Objectives of a Field Visit to an Ecosystem:
Identify the local landscape pattern in the forest, grassland, desert, river, hills, etc
...
Identify the modified ecosystems such as farmland, grazing land, industrial land and urban
land
...
The study site may have a mosaic of landscapes and aquatic ecosystems
...
Document the following:
A
...
B
...
The natural landscape is beautiful
...
The plants and animals
have several exciting features that can be ‘discovered’
...
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FOREST
Field Visit to a Forest – Depicting the nature of the ecosystem:
Visit the nearest or most convenient Reserved Forest, National Park or Wildlife Sanctuary
...
Check if there is an Interpretation Centre
where there may be local information
...
Officials may
agree to address a group of students
...
Make notes on the ecosystem
...
Is
there only one type or are there several types? If so why?
Coniferous, deciduous, evergreen, thorn forest and mangrove are some examples
...
•
Understanding food chains and food pyramids:
-
-
•
Observe the abundance of different species in the ecosystem
...
Only a few species are
very abundant but there are a large number of less common species of trees,
shrubs and climbers and small ground plants that add to the diversity of plant life
in any forest
...
Classify them as mammals,
birds, reptiles, amphibian or insects
...
If these are counted, you will appreciate that there is a relative abundance of
herbivores over carnivores
...
Draw profiles of the structure and label the levels
...
•
Document the micro-habitat for species in different levels of the forest:
Observe which animal uses different parts of a forest habitat
...
There are insectivorous birds, (flycatchers,
drongos and bee eaters) in the canopy
...
If one
turns over dead leaves on the forest floor there are a large number of animals (millipedes, ants, beetles etc
...
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Document what you have seen and estimate their abundance at different levels
...
Field Observation – examples of food chains that are easily seen:
Flower → butterflies → spiders
Flower → sunbirds → birds of prey
Fruit → parakeet → birds of prey
Seeds → rodents → birds of prey
Flowers → bees → bee eaters
Seeds → munias → small carnivorous mammals and birds of prey
Leaves → monkey → leopard
Grass → chital → tiger
Observe what all the animals are feeding on and reconstruct as many food chains as
possible
...
Thus the chains
form a food web
...
•
Interpreting the food pyramid and biomass distribution:
Observe that in the forest the number of trees, shrubs and ground cover of plants
constitutes an enormous amount of living material (biomass)
...
Write an explanation for this phenomenon using the examples you have observed in
the study site
...
Thus they have a great influence on the ecosystems functions
...
•
Explaining the detritus cycle:
Observe the large number of ants and beetles in the dead leaves fallen on the forest
floor
...
They thus breakdown an enormous amount of dead plant and animal waste material
...
See what earthworms, millipedes, ants and beetles do without disturbing them
...
Look for the larger fungi such as mushrooms and bracket fungi
that also do this work
...
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Feel the moisture in the detritus and superficial layers of soil, which can be compared
with the dry soil elsewhere
...
One need not name them all
...
•
Appreciate abundance of different plant species:
Look around at the trees in the forest
...
Identify the most commonly observed trees
...
These can become extinct if the
forest is cut down
...
There are more
ants than any other animal species on earth
...
There are more species
of beetles in the world than any other group of species
...
The integrity of the ecosystem is based on these small but very important species that
are a major part of the web of life of the forest
...
Insects break down the detritus of the forest, which is the nutrient material on which
the forest plants grow
...
Man is dependent on plant life, and is thus indirectly dependent on the insects in the forest detritus
...
The difference is obvious as shade of the trees reduces the local temperature
...
A considerable amount of moisture is retained in the dead leaves (humus) of
the forest floor
...
It is moist and cool under the forest
floor
...
This can continue for the rest of the year and
provide water for people outside the forest
...
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•
Understanding Prey and Predator relationships – Food chains:
There are spiders on the ground, which form tunnel webs to catch the crawling insects
...
Look for the insect life in the canopy of the trees, on trunks, on the ground and
especially under dead fallen leaves
...
•
Searching for examples of food chains, food webs and food pyramids:
Different species of lizards are found on the tree trunks and on the forest floor
...
They are feeding on insect life,
which in turn feed on the plants
...
A spider catching an insect in its web is another demonstration of a simple food chain
...
Thus multiple food chains are
linked to each other
...
There are several insectivorous birds such as bee eaters, fly catches of many species,
babblers, etc
...
There has to be a very large amount of plant life to provide enough food for the
herbivores, which are prey species for the very few carnivores in the forest
...
The energy is used for day to day functions of animals such as hunting for food,
respiration, metabolising food and breeding
...
This observation
explains the concept of the food pyramid
...
Insects
such as ants, butterflies and birds such as sunbirds and mynas use flower nectar for
food
...
During this process the insects
and birds pollinate the plants
...
These flowers
are usually white in colour so that they can be seen at night
...
The
regeneration of forests thus depends on these animals
...
Look for the pollinators – butterflies, moths, beetles, ants and nectar feeding birds are
easy to observe
...
These include bulbuls,
parakeets
...
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Birds
such as bulbuls eat small berries along with their seeds
...
They germinate more effectively as their covering is removed in the bird’s intestine
...
Though a plant is rooted to the same spot, evolution has linked plants with animals that help the plant species to spread by dispersing
its seeds
...
These are dispersed by the wind
...
•
Regeneration:
Look for seeds and seedlings growing on the forest floor
...
Only
a few of the surviving young saplings will finally grow into large trees
...
Only those seeds that find a spot that has all
the conditions needed for their germination and growth can end up as large trees
...
•
Forest Animal Communities and interrelationships:
Forest birds form feeding parties of many different species
...
Observe that when
fruit eating birds search for their food in the foliage they disturb the hiding insects,
which are then caught by the insect-dependent birds
...
Thus
birds of different species help each other in finding their food and stay together in
large mixed feeding parties that move from one tree to another
...
When the langurs feed on fruit, a part of the fruit is dropped uneaten on the forest
floor
...
From the top of the tree the monkeys can easily spot an approaching tiger or leopard
more easily than the deer
...
•
Major prey- predator behaviour:
Carnivorous animals are very shy of human beings, as man has killed them for thousands of years
...
They become invisible as their colour and pattern camouflage them in the undergrowth to be able to approach the prey unnoticed
...
For these unsuccessful attempts they have to spend a
large amount of energy to catch the watchful deer
...
Predators like tigers or leopards counter
this by moving very cautiously in the forest
...
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packs
...
Even though they are superb hunters, their prey is frequently
able to escape
...
They can sometimes be only a few paces away in the undergrowth and yet
remain completely invisible
...
However we can
observe their pug marks on the forest floor
...
It tells a tale
...
Chameleons change their colour to suit their surroundings
...
Stick insects look like twigs
...
Each has a reason and is
linked with evolutionary processes
...
Each animal has its own footprint, which can be identified
...
Thus these signs in the
forest can tell us which species live there and indicate their day to day activities
...
There are many different kinds of beautiful calls
...
•
Observe feeding patterns of animals:
Observe the feeding patterns of forest animals unobtrusively
...
Some of these are given below:
•
Tigers feed on sambhar, chital deer and monkeys
...
•
Jackals feed on hare, mice, and birds
...
•
Pangolins feed on ants
...
•
Cheetal feed on grass
...
•
Barking deer feed on fruit and leaf buds
...
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•
•
Squirrels feed on nuts and fruit
...
•
Birds of prey feed on rodents, reptiles, frogs and small birds
...
•
Bulbuls feed on fruit
...
•
Sunbirds feed on flower nectar
...
•
Insects like beetles and bugs feed on plant material
...
•
Ants and termites feed on plant material that is dead
...
•
Butterflies feed on flower nectar in the day
...
•
•
Elephants feed on grass in the monsoon and tree leaves in the winter and summer
...
Habitat use by different species:
Observe how different species of animals use various layers starting from the forest
floor, upwards along the trunk and branches, to the canopy of the trees
...
Among the commoner insects, the termites build their homes out of mud present on
the forest floor
...
Monkeys such as langurs and macaques use the tree canopy for leaves and fruit as
well as the forest floor, where they look for fallen flowers, buds and fruit
...
Eagles hunt for their small prey in trees and on the ground
...
The Giant squirrel is rarely ever seen on the ground
...
It requires forests with an unbroken canopy
...
Both are non-poisonous
...
Babblers most often look for insects and worms by
disturbing the dead leaves on the forest floor
...
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The hornbill looks for fruit in trees and makes a nest in a large hole after carefully
selecting a very tall old tree
...
The shrews look for insect life underground
...
Many of these
animals live in holes under the ground, under rocks or among the dry leaves
...
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B
...
Document the food used
by each animal that is identified
...
Describe the anticipated changes in colour and the condition of grasses: growing phase,
flowering phase, dyeing phase, dry phase
...
m quadrant
on the ground
...
You may find this hard! Repeat the
count for ants, beetles etc
...
This will demonstrate the great abundance of insects in the grassland
...
The predators, mammals and birds of prey
– raptors, are least abundant
...
Read what each species feeds on
...
Observe how beetles behave in the grassland
...
Compare this with
the number of their predators
...
Tunnel web spiders make a tunnel and sit inside
waiting for prey, which are pulled in and eaten
...
Some spiders build a colony which is
like a mass of web material
...
What are they doing? How and where did you find them in the grass? What is their
relationship to the grassland as a habitat?
•
Understanding grassland food chains:
Identify as many plant and animal species
...
Field Work
Chapter8
...
DESERT AND SEMI ARID-AREAS
•
Observe desert and semi-arid landscapes:
Observe the sparse but specialised nature of vegetation in a desert or semi-arid landscape
...
There are
very few compared with other types of ecosystems
...
Document how each species
is using its habitat
...
•
Observe birds of prey that use this ecosystem
...
•
There are rare mammals such as the wolf
...
AQUATIC ECOSYSTEMS
•
Document the nature of aquatic ecosystems:
Visit an aquatic ecosystem such as a pond, lake, river or seacoast
...
A simple kit can be used to study water
quality
...
Studies on the ecology of a pond:
Make observations on a seasonally active pond if possible on several occasions before,
during and after the monsoon
...
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It changes rapidly during the year
...
A monsoon phase, when the
pond changes from a dry to a wet (aquatic) state
...
At the height of the
monsoon, it is in a mature aquatic phase, which is full of life
...
Its periphery becomes dry and is colonised by terrestrial plants
like grasses and herbs
...
Eventually it may only remain in the form of a ditch or depression
containing terrestrial forms and dormant aquatic invertebrates such as insects that must
await the next monsoon
...
This is
the process of succession
...
What do you
see?
•
Describe the pond’s periphery – its soil, vegetation, fauna
...
•
•
Observe the pond
...
Observe the vegetation zones at the waters edge:
Observe the different zones of vegetation - grasses on the periphery, emergent reeds,
floating vegetation and underwater plants in the pond
...
These can be observed under the microscope
...
Shrinking phase: Drying aquatic plant life with dead and dying plant material and
terrestrial plants growing on the exposed mud of the pond
...
Field Work
Chapter8
...
Document its colour and what it contains
...
There are a large number of algae
and zooplankton that form the basic food chains of the aquatic ecosystem
...
Observations on a Lake ecosystem:
Document the way in which different water birds use the various habitats both on the
shore and in the water
...
Each species specialises in certain types of food and
feeds at different depths
...
The length of their beaks indicates the depth of
mud or sand into which they can probe
...
Identify those that are most
abundant
...
Estimate or count the population
(abundance) of different species observed in the aquatic ecosystem
...
Observations at a wetland:
Visit a Wetland
...
Document
and map its vegetation patterns – Underwater/ emergent/ floating/ none
...
Describe the level of algal growth and weeds
...
Develop a map
of the aquatic ecosystem vegetation and its relationship to species of aquatic birds
...
Observe the ducks, waders and other
birds
...
4
...
On each of these different types,
there are several specific species, which have evolved to occupy a separate niche
...
Observe how the various shore birds feed on their prey by probing into the sand
...
Observations at a river:
Depending on the location of the river, the study can demonstrate its ecological status
...
Observe and document how
life is dependent on the river’s integrity
...
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Example: Guidelines for a write up on a RIVER ecosystem
A river is an aquatic ecosystem that is influenced by the monsoon
...
The river ecosystem has abiotic and biotic
components
...
Both these need water
...
Many
species such as amphibia and aquatic insects use both aquatic and terrestrial habitats
...
•
Describe the characteristics of the bed of the river, the depth of the water and the
flow rate in different sectors
...
•
Describe the various habitats of different species of flora and fauna in and around
the river
...
•
Document how different species use the water and the banks of the river
...
•
Observe the food chains
...
Field Work
Chapter8
...
HILL/MOUNTAINS
The ecosystem of the hill you are observing is linked to its altitude, slope, soil characteristics, vegetation and animal life
...
The habitat changes seasonally
...
•
Describe its various plants and animals
...
•
Describe the water cycle, the nitrogen cycle, energy cycle, detritus cycle with specific reference to the hill/ mountain ecosystem
...
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Title: High Marks Ranker
Description: Here i made very easy and simple notes for your best results. when you read it once you will definently like it and will start enjoying reading it.
Description: Here i made very easy and simple notes for your best results. when you read it once you will definently like it and will start enjoying reading it.