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“This document is attributed to Charles Stangor”

Attributed to Charles Stangor
Saylor URL: http://www
...
org/books/

Saylor
...
He has also taught at the
New School for Social Research, Michigan State University, and at the University of Tübingen
in Germany
...
Dr
...
He has published seven books and
over 70 research articles and book chapters and has served as an associate editor of the European
Journal of Social Psychology
...
He has

served as the chair of the executive committee and is currently executive officer for the Society
for Experimental Social Psychology
...
Stangor‘s research interests concern the development of
stereotypes and prejudice and their influences upon individuals who are potential victims of
discrimination
...
Stangor regularly teaches Social Psychology, Research Methods, and at the
graduate level, Fundamentals of Social Psychology and Group Processes
...
Stangor is chair of
the undergraduate committee in the psychology department and has won the distinguished
teaching award from the University of Maryland
...
Stangor also serves as the chair of the
department‘s human subjects committee
...
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Acknowledgments
The development of Introduction to Psychology was made possible through the combined efforts
of many people, each of whom brought special skills to the project
...
Their
thoughtful and insightful feedback throughout development was invaluable in creating this first
edition
...
Janelle Cambron-Mellott, University of Alabama; Birmingham Southern College



Celeste Doerr, Florida State University



Jerry Green, Tarrant County College–NW Campus



Richard Hass, University of Delaware



Adam Hutcheson, University of South Carolina



Matthew I
...
Many thanks to the following reviewers for their contributions:


Eileen J
...
Cavazos, Cameron University



Stephanie B
...
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

Gaithri A
...
Lassonde, Minnesota State University, Mankato



Greg Loviscky, Pennsylvania State University



Michael A
...
Peteet, University of Cincinnati



Brad Pinter, Pennsylvania State University, Altoona



Steven V
...
Williams, Lone Star College, North Harris

Thanks also to Maren Voss, Hagerstown (MD) Community College, for her research and writing
assistance; to Matthew I
...
, who expertly handled the many details of the production process
...
Completion of the book and
supplements required the attention of many people, including Michael Boezi, who signed the
book and supported my efforts from beginning to end; Pam Hersperger, who managed the book
through development; and Gina Huck Siegert, who worked closely with me on all aspects of the
project
...
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Dedication
To Leslie

Attributed to Charles Stangor
Saylor URL: http://www
...
org/books/

Saylor
...
I was able to give a lecture on the sympathetic
nervous system, a lecture on Piaget, and a lecture on social cognition, but how could I link these
topics together for the student? I felt a bit like I was presenting a laundry list of research findings
rather than an integrated set of principles and knowledge
...
How could they be expected to remember and understand all the
many phenomena of psychology? How could they tell what was most important? And why,
given the abundance of information that was freely available to them on the web, should they
care about my approach? My pedagogy needed something to structure, integrate, and motivate
their learning
...
First, I realized that psychology actually did matter to my students, but that I
needed to make it clear to them why it did
...
One of the most fundamental integrating principles of the discipline of
psychology is its focus on behavior, and yet that is often not made clear to students
...
Once I figured this out, I began tying all the
material to this concept: The sympathetic nervous system matters because it has specific and
predictable influences on our behavior
...
And social cognition matters because our
social thinking helps us better relate to the other people in our everyday social lives
...

Second was the issue of empiricism: I emphasized that what seems true might not be true, and
we need to try to determine whether it is
...
Another reason for
Attributed to Charles Stangor
Saylor URL: http://www
...
org/books/

Saylor
...

The length of existing textbooks was creating a real and unnecessary impediment to student
learning
...
My focus on behavior, coupled with a consistent
focus on empiricism, helped in this regard—focusing on these themes helped me identify the
underlying principles of psychology and separate more essential topics from less essential ones
...
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Approach and Pedagogy
I wrote this book to help students organize their thinking about psychology at a conceptual level
...
However, I do hope that they will remember that psychology matters because it
helps us understand behavior and that our knowledge of psychology is based on empirical study
...
I have used three techniques to help
focus students on behavior:
1
...
I begin my focus on behavior by opening each chapter with a chapter
opener showcasing an interesting real-world example of people who are dealing with
behavioral questions and who can use psychology to help them answer those questions
...

2
...
Each chapter contains one or two features designed to link
the principles from the chapter to real-world applications in business, environment,
health, law, learning, and other relevant domains
...

3
...
I have also emphasized empiricism throughout, but without making it a
distraction from the main story line
...
This feature provides
a continuous thread that reminds students of the importance of empirical research
...
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time (dispelling the myth of hindsight bias) and help students understand how research
really works
...

Finally, as with all Flat World Knowledge texts, this textbook also includes learning objectives,
key takeaways, exercises and critical thinking activities, and a marginal glossary of key terms
...
I have tried to focus on the forest rather than the trees and to bring
psychology to life—in ways that really matter—for the students
...


Attributed to Charles Stangor
Saylor URL: http://www
...
org/books/

Saylor
...
The word “psychology‖ comes from the
Greek words “psyche,‖ meaning life, and “logos,‖ meaning explanation
...

Television shows such as Dr
...
Crime dramas such as CSI, Lie to Me, and others feature the
work of forensic psychologists who use psychological principles to help solve crimes
...

Because we are frequently exposed to the work of psychologists in our everyday lives, we all
have an idea about what psychology is and what psychologists do
...
Psychologists do work in forensic fields, and they do provide
counseling and therapy for people in distress
...

Most psychologists work in research laboratories, hospitals, and other field settings where they
study the behavior of humans and animals
...
Other psychologists study such topics as
alcohol and drug addiction, memory, emotion, hypnosis, love, what makes people aggressive or
helpful, and the psychologies of politics, prejudice, culture, and religion
...

Attributed to Charles Stangor
Saylor URL: http://www
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org/books/

Saylor
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We will consider how psychologists
conduct scientific research, with an overview of some of the most important approaches used and
topics studied by psychologists, and also consider the variety of fields in which psychologists
work and the careers that are available to people with psychology degrees
...


1
...


Explain why using our intuition about everyday behavior is insufficient for a complete understanding of the
causes of behavior
...


Describe the difference between values and facts and explain how the scientific method is used to
differentiate between the two
...
Research psychologists use scientific
methods to create new knowledge about the causes of behavior, whereas psychologistpractitioners, such as clinical, counseling, industrial-organizational, and school psychologists,
use existing research to enhance the everyday life of others
...

In a sense all humans are scientists
...
We want to know why things happen, when and if they are likely to happen
again, and how to reproduce or change them
...
We may even collect data (i
...
, any information collected through
formal observation or measurement) to aid us in this undertaking
...
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(Nisbett & Ross, 1980)
...
When our good friends Monisha and Charlie break up, despite the fact that they
appeared to have a relationship made in heaven, we try to determine what happened
...


The Problem of Intuition
The results of these “everyday‖ research projects can teach us many principles of human
behavior
...
We learn that people may become depressed after
they fail at an important task
...
These insights are part of everyday social life
...
[2]
The problem, however, with the way people collect and interpret data in their everyday lives is
that they are not always particularly thorough
...
For example, eyewitnesses to violent crimes are often extremely
confident in their identifications of the perpetrators of these crimes
...
[3] People may also become convinced
of the existence of extrasensory perception (ESP), or the predictive value of astrology, when
there is no evidence for either (Gilovich, 1993)
...
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2006)
...


Research Focus: Unconscious Preferences for the Letters of Our Own Name
A study reported in the Journal of Consumer Research (Brendl, Chattopadhyay, Pelham, & Carvallo,
2005)

[6]

demonstrates the extent to which people can be unaware of the causes of their own behavior
...

The research participants were recruited in pairs and were told that the research was a taste test of
different types of tea
...
For example, for
Jonathan and Elisabeth, the names of the teas would have been Jonoki and Elioki
...
Eighteen packets
were labeled with made-up Japanese names (e
...
, ―Mataku‖ or ―Somuta‖), and two were labeled with the
brand names constructed from the participants‘ names
...


One of the two participants was asked to draw slips of paper to select the two brands that would be tasted
at this session
...
Then, while the teas were being brewed, the participants completed
a task designed to heighten their needs for self-esteem, and that was expected to increase their desire to

Attributed to Charles Stangor
Saylor URL: http://www
...
org/books/

Saylor
...
Specifically, the participants all wrote about an
aspect of themselves that they would like to change
...
After they made their choice, the participants were asked why they chose the tea they
had chosen, and then the true purpose of the study was explained to them
...
Furthermore, the decisions were made
unconsciously; the participants did not know why they chose the tea they chose
...


Once we learn about the outcome of a given event (e
...
, when we read about the results of a
research project), we frequently believe that we would have been able to predict the outcome
ahead of time
...
Of course, both of these contradictory
outcomes cannot be true
...
) The problem is that just reading a description of research
findings leads us to think of the many cases we know that support the findings, and thus makes
them seem believable
...


Attributed to Charles Stangor
Saylor URL: http://www
...
org/books/

Saylor
...
Empirical methods include the
processes of collecting and organizing data and drawing conclusions about those data
...
We can label the scientific method as the set of assumptions, rules, and
procedures that scientists use to conduct empirical research
...
Statements that cannot be objectively
measured or objectively determined to be true or false are not within the domain of scientific
inquiry
...
Values are personal
statements such as “Abortion should not be permitted in this country,‖ “I will go to heaven when
I die,‖ or “It is important to study psychology
...
Examples are “There were more than 21,000 homicides in the
United States in 2009,‖ or “Research demonstrates that individuals who are exposed to highly
stressful situations over long periods of time develop more health problems than those who are
not
...
Nevertheless, as shown in Table 1
...
For
instance, science may be able to objectively measure the impact of unwanted children on a
society or the psychological trauma suffered by women who have abortions
...
This factual
information can and should be made available to help people formulate their values about
abortion and capital punishment, as well as to enable governments to articulate appropriate
policies
...
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important to conduct
...
S
...


Table 1
...
S
...


unemployment insurance in 2010
...


United States in 2009
...


favorite color
...


Smoking increases the incidence of cancer and heart disease
...
(2011)
...
Mountain View, CA:
Cengage
...
Sometimes statements that scientists consider to be factual later, on the
Attributed to Charles Stangor
Saylor URL: http://www
...
org/books/

Saylor
...
Although scientific
procedures do not necessarily guarantee that the answers to questions will be objective and
unbiased, science is still the best method for drawing objective conclusions about the world
around us
...
Although science is not perfect, the requirements of empiricism and
objectivity result in a much greater chance of producing an accurate understanding of human
behavior than is available through other approaches
...
Lower levels of explanation are
more closely tied to biological influences, such as genes, neurons, neurotransmitters, and
hormones, whereas the middle levels of explanation refer to the abilities and characteristics of
individual people, and the highest levels of explanation relate to social groups, organizations, and
cultures (Cacioppo, Berntson, Sheridan, & McClintock, 2000)
...
3 "Levels of Explanation"
...
Studying and helping alleviate depression can be accomplished at
low levels of explanation by investigating how chemicals in the brain influence the experience of
depression
...
[8] At the middle levels of explanation, psychological therapy is directed at helping
individuals cope with negative life experiences that may cause depression
...
The occurrence of psychological disorders, including depression, is
substantially higher for women than for men, and it is also higher in Western cultures, such as in
the United States, Canada, and Europe, than in Eastern cultures, such as in India, China, and
Attributed to Charles Stangor
Saylor URL: http://www
...
org/books/

Saylor
...
, 2009)
...
The study of depression in
psychology helps remind us that no one level of explanation can explain everything
...

Figure 1
...
The questions
psychologists pose are as difficult as those posed by doctors, biologists, chemists, physicists, and
other scientists, if not more so (Wilson, 1998)
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A major goal of psychology is to predict behavior by understanding its causes
...
Individual differences are the variations among people on physical or psychological
dimensions
...
Some
people experience major negative events, such as severe physical injuries or the loss of
significant others, without experiencing much depression, whereas other people experience
severe depression for no apparent reason
...

Because of the many individual difference variables that influence behavior, we cannot always
predict who will become aggressive or who will perform best in graduate school or on the job
...
We can
say, for instance, that people who score higher on an intelligence test will, on average, do better
than people who score lower on the same test, but we cannot make very accurate predictions
about exactly how any one person will perform
...
And these factors occur at different levels of
explanation
...
You should
always be skeptical about people who attempt to explain important human behaviors, such as
violence, child abuse, poverty, anxiety, or depression, in terms of a single cause
...
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Furthermore, these multiple causes are not independent of one another; they are associated such
that when one cause is present other causes tend to be present as well
...
For instance, some people may be
depressed because of biological imbalances in neurotransmitters in their brain
...
As a result, the biological determinants of depression become intertwined with the
social responses of other people, making it difficult to disentangle the effects of each cause
...
The role of unconscious processes was emphasized in the theorizing of the
Austrian neurologist Sigmund Freud (1856–1939), who argued that many psychological
disorders were caused by memories that we have repressed and thus remain outside our
consciousness
...


KEY TAKEAWAYS


Psychology is the scientific study of mind and behavior
...




The hindsight bias leads us to think that we could have predicted events that we actually could not have
predicted
...




Psychologists use the scientific method to collect, analyze, and interpret evidence
...


Attributed to Charles Stangor
Saylor URL: http://www
...
org/books/

Saylor
...


EXERCISES AND CRITICAL THINKING
1
...


Describe the scientific method in a way that someone who knows nothing about science could understand
it
...


Consider a behavior that you find to be important and think about its potential causes at different levels of
explanation
...
E
...
(1980)
...
Englewood Cliffs, NJ:
Prentice Hall
...
(1958)
...
Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum; Kelley, H
...
(1967)
...
In D
...
), Nebraska symposium on motivation (Vol
...
192–240)
...

[3] Cutler, B
...
, & Wells, G
...
(2009)
...
In J
...
Skeem, S
...
Lilienfeld, & K
...

Douglas (Eds
...
100–123)
...
L
...
E
...
Eyewitness identification: Issues in common knowledge and generalization
...
Borgida & S
...
Fiske (Eds
...
159–176)
...

[4] Gilovich, T
...
How we know what isn’t so: The fallibility of human reason in everyday life
...

[5] Fiske, S
...
, & Taylor, S
...
(2007)
...
New York, NY: McGraw-Hill
...
K
...
(2006)
...

[6] Brendl, C
...
, Chattopadhyay, A
...
W
...
(2005)
...
Journal of Consumer Research, 32(3), 405–415
...
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[7] Cacioppo, J
...
, Berntson, G
...
, Sheridan, J
...
, & McClintock, M
...
(2000)
...
Psychological Bulletin, 126(6),
829–843
...
, Simpson, A
...
, Simpson, K
...
(2009)
...
Human Psychopharmacology: Clinical and Experimental, 24(5), 401–408
...
-Y
...
-C
...
E
...
-M
...
Biological variations in depression and anxiety between East and
West
...
, Scott, K
...
, Angermeyer, M
...
, Berglund, P
...
J
...
S
...
C
...
Cross-national associations between gender and mental disorders in the World Health
Organization World Mental Health Surveys
...

[10] Wilson, E
...
(1998)
...
New York, NY: Vintage Books
...
2 The Evolution of Psychology: History, Approaches, and Questions
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
1
...


2
...


3
...


In this section we will review the history of psychology with a focus on the important questions
that psychologists ask and the major approaches (or schools) of psychological inquiry
...
2 "The Most Important
Approaches (Schools) of Psychology", and Figure 1
...
Table 1
...
5 "Timeline Showing Some
of the Most Important Psychologists" both represent a selection of the most important schools
and people; to mention all the approaches and all the psychologists who have contributed to the
field is not possible in one chapter
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The approaches that psychologists have used to assess the issues that interest them have changed
dramatically over the history of psychology
...
[1] There
has also been an increasing influx of women into the field
...


Table 1
...


“structures‖ of psychological experience

Titchener

Attempts to understand why animals and humans have developed the
Functionalism

William James

Focuses on the role of our unconscious thoughts, feelings, and
Psychodynamic

particular psychological aspects that they currently possess

Sigmund Freud, Carl Jung,

memories and our early childhood experiences in determining behavior Alfred Adler, Erik Erickson
Based on the premise that it is not possible to objectively study the
mind, and therefore that psychologists should limit their attention to

Cognitive

the study of behavior itself

Skinner

The study of mental processes, including perception, thinking,

Behaviorism

John B
...
F
...
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Figure 1
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Although it cannot capture every important psychologist, this timeline shows some of the most important
contributors to the history of psychology
...
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Although psychology has changed dramatically over its history, the most important questions
that psychologists address have remained constant
...
Are genes or environment most influential in determining the
behavior of individuals and in accounting for differences among people? Most scientists
now agree that both genes and environment play crucial roles in most human behaviors,
and yet we still have much to learn about how nature (our biological makeup) and nurture
(the experiences that we have during our lives) work together (Harris, 1998; Pinker,
2002)
...
g
...
We will see, for example, that the heritability of intelligence is very
high (about
...
0) and that the heritability of extraversion is about
...
But we
will also see that nature and nurture interact in complex ways, making the question of “Is
it nature or is it nurture?‖ very difficult to answer
...
This question concerns the extent to which people have
control over their own actions
...
And our legal system is premised on the concept of free
will; we punish criminals because we believe that they have choice over their behaviors
and freely choose to disobey the law
...
[3]



Accuracy versus inaccuracy
...
Human
judgment is sometimes compromised by inaccuracies in our thinking styles and by our

Attributed to Charles Stangor
Saylor URL: http://www
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org/books/

Saylor
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For instance, our judgment may be affected by our desires to
gain material wealth and to see ourselves positively and by emotional responses to the
events that happen to us
...
To what extent are we conscious of our own
actions and the causes of them, and to what extent are our behaviors caused by influences
that we are not aware of? Many of the major theories of psychology, ranging from the
Freudian psychodynamic theories to contemporary work in cognitive psychology, argue
that much of our behavior is determined by variables that we are not aware of
...
To what extent are we all similar, and to what extent are
we different? For instance, are there basic psychological and personality differences
between men and women, or are men and women by and large similar? And what about
people from different ethnicities and cultures? Are people around the world generally the
same, or are they influenced by their backgrounds and environments in different ways?
Personality, social, and cross-cultural psychologists attempt to answer these classic
questions
...
These philosophers asked many of the same questions that today‘s
psychologists ask; for instance, they questioned the distinction between nature and nurture and
the existence of free will
...

European philosophers continued to ask these fundamental questions during the Renaissance
...
Descartes
Attributed to Charles Stangor
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A scientist as well as a philosopher,
Descartes dissected animals and was among the first to understand that the nerves controlled the
muscles
...
Descartes believed in the principle ofdualism: that the mind is
fundamentally different from the mechanical body
...

The fundamental problem that these philosophers faced was that they had few methods for
settling their claims
...
But dramatic changes came during the 1800s
with the help of the first two research psychologists: the German psychologist Wilhelm Wundt
(1832–1920), who developed a psychology laboratory in Leipzig, Germany, and the American
psychologist William James (1842–1910), who founded a psychology laboratory at Harvard
University
...

Wundt and his students believed that it was possible to analyze the basic elements of the mind
and to classify our conscious experiences scientifically
...
Its goal was to create a “periodic table‖ of the
“elements of sensations,‖ similar to the periodic table of elements that had recently been created
in chemistry
...
Introspection involves asking research participants to describe exactly what they
experience as they work on mental tasks, such as viewing colors, reading a page in a book, or
Attributed to Charles Stangor
Saylor URL: http://www
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org/books/

Saylor
...
A participant who is reading a book might report, for instance, that
he saw some black and colored straight and curved marks on a white background
...
Wundt
discovered that it took people longer to report what sound they had just heard than to simply
respond that they had heard the sound
...

Perhaps the best known of the structuralists was Edward Bradford Titchener (1867–1927)
...
In his research using introspection, Titchener and his students
claimed to have identified more than 40,000 sensations, including those relating to vision,
hearing, and taste
...
The
research marked the beginning of psychology as a science, because it demonstrated that mental
events could be quantified
...

Even highly trained research participants were often unable to report on their subjective
experiences
...
Thus the structuralists were the first to
realize the importance of unconscious processes—that many important aspects of human
psychology occur outside our conscious awareness, and that psychologists cannot expect
research participants to be able to accurately report on all of their experiences
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animals and humans have developed the particular psychological aspects that they currently
possess(Hunt, 1993)
...
As he put
it in his psychology textbook, “My thinking is first and last and always for the sake of my doing‖
(James, 1890)
...
The functionalists believed
that Darwin‘s theory applied to psychological characteristics too
...

Although functionalism no longer exists as a school of psychology, its basic principles have been
absorbed into psychology and continue to influence it in many ways
...
[7]Evolutionary psychology accepts the functionalists’ basic
assumption, namely that many human psychological systems, including memory, emotion, and
personality, serve key adaptive functions
...

A key component of the ideas of evolutionary psychology is fitness
...
Fitter
organisms pass on their genes more successfully to later generations, making the characteristics
that produce fitness more likely to become part of the organism’s nature than characteristics that
do not produce fitness
...

Attributed to Charles Stangor
Saylor URL: http://www
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org/books/

Saylor
...
[8]
Despite its importance in psychological theorizing, evolutionary psychology also has some
limitations
...
Unlike the
fossils that are used to learn about the physical evolution of species, we cannot know which
psychological characteristics our ancestors possessed or did not possess; we can only make
guesses about this
...
[9] Nevertheless, the evolutionary approach is important to
psychology because it provides logical explanations for why we have many psychological
characteristics
...
Psychodynamic psychology is an approach to understanding human behavior
that focuses on the role of unconscious thoughts, feelings, and memories
...
Freud believed that many of the problems that his patients experienced,
including anxiety, depression, and sexual dysfunction, were the result of the effects of painful
childhood experiences that the person could no longer remember
...
These and others who follow the psychodynamic approach believe that it is possible to
help the patient if the unconscious drives can be remembered, particularly through a deep and
thorough exploration of the person‘s early sexual experiences and current sexual desires
...
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explorations are revealed through talk therapy and dream analysis, in a process
called psychoanalysis
...
Although they
did not conduct much research on their ideas, and although later, more sophisticated tests of their
theories have not always supported their proposals, psychodynamics has nevertheless had
substantial impact on the field of psychology, and indeed on thinking about human behavior
more generally (Moore & Fine, 1995)
...


Behaviorism and the Question of Free Will
Although they differed in approach, both structuralism and functionalism were essentially studies
of the mind
...
Behaviorism is a school of psychology that is based on the
premise that it is not possible to objectively study the mind, and therefore that psychologists
should limit their attention to the study of behavior itself
...
They
argue that there is no point in trying to determine what happens in the box because we can
successfully predict behavior without knowing what happens inside the mind
...

The first behaviorist was the American psychologist John B
...
Watson was
influenced in large part by the work of the Russian physiologist Ivan Pavlov (1849–1936), who
had discovered that dogs would salivate at the sound of a tone that had previously been
associated with the presentation of food
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ideas to explain how events that people and other organisms experienced in their environment
(stimuli) could produce specific behaviors (responses)
...

In his research Watson found that systematically exposing a child to fearful stimuli in the
presence of objects that did not themselves elicit fear could lead the child to respond with a
fearful behavior to the presence of the stimulus (Watson & Rayner, 1920; Beck, Levinson, &
Irons, 2009)
...
Here is a summary of the findings:
The boy was placed in the middle of a room; a white laboratory rat was placed near him and he
was allowed to play with it
...
In later trials, the researchers
made a loud sound behind Albert’s back by striking a steel bar with a hammer whenever the
baby touched the rat
...
After several such pairings of the
two stimuli, the child was again shown the rat
...

In line with the behaviorist approach, the boy had learned to associate the white rat with the loud
noise, resulting in crying
...
F
...

Skinner used the ideas of stimulus and response, along with the application of rewards
or reinforcements, to train pigeons and other animals
...
Skinner even developed a method for studying thoughts and
feelings using the behaviorist approach (Skinner, 1957, 1968, 1972)
...
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The behaviorist research program had important implications for the fundamental questions about nature and
nurture and about free will
...
They also argued that there is no free will, but rather
that our behaviors are determined by the events that we have experienced in our past
...
Furthermore, although we do not cause our own actions, we nevertheless believe that we do because we don‘t
realize all the influences acting on our behavior
...


[13]

In one demonstration of the misperception of our own free will, neuroscientists

Soon, Brass, Heinze, and Haynes (2008)

[14]

placed their research participants in a functional magnetic resonance

imaging (fMRI) brain scanner while they presented them with a series of letters on a computer screen
...
The participants were asked, whenever they decided to, to press either of
two buttons
...
The researchers analyzed the brain images to see if they could predict which of the two buttons the participant
was going to press, even before the letter at which he or she had indicated the decision to press a button
...

Research has found that we are more likely to think that we control our behavior when the desire to act occurs
immediately prior to the outcome, when the thought is consistent with the outcome, and when there are no other
apparent causes for the behavior
...
The participants
pressed a button to stop the movement
...
And Dijksterhuis, Preston, Wegner, and Aarts (2008)

Attributed to Charles Stangor
Saylor URL: http://www
...
org/books/

[16]

found that

Saylor
...
‖
The idea that we are more likely to take ownership for our actions in some cases than in others is also seen in our
attributions for success and failure
...
When an action is met with failure,
on the other hand, we are less likely to perceive this outcome as the result of our free will, and we are more likely to
blame the outcome on luck or our teacher (Wegner, 2003)
...
Although the behaviorists were incorrect in their beliefs that it was not possible to
measure thoughts and feelings, their ideas provided new ideas that helped further our
understanding regarding the nature-nurture debate as well as the question of free will
...


The Cognitive Approach and Cognitive Neuroscience
Science is always influenced by the technology that surrounds it, and psychology is no
exception
...
The analogy between the brain
and the computer, although by no means perfect, provided part of the impetus for a new school
of psychology called cognitive psychology
...
These actions
correspond well to the processes that computers perform
...
Some of the important contributors to cognitive psychology
include the German psychologist Hermann Ebbinghaus (1850–1909), who studied the ability of
people to remember lists of words under different conditions, and the English psychologist Sir
Attributed to Charles Stangor
Saylor URL: http://www
...
org/books/

Saylor
...

Bartlett created short stories that were in some ways logical but also contained some very
unusual and unexpected events
...
The idea that our memory is influenced by what we already know
was also a major idea behind the cognitive-developmental stage model of Swiss psychologist
Jean Piaget (1896–1980)
...
Broadbent
(1926–1993), Daniel Kahneman (1934–), George Miller (1920–), Eleanor Rosch (1938–), and
Amos Tversky (1937–1996)
...

Bartlett found that even when his British research participants were allowed to read the story many times they still
could not remember it well, and he believed this was because it did not fit with their prior knowledge
...
Then they heard war-cries, and they thought: ―Maybe this is a war-party
...
Now canoes came up, and they heard the noise of paddles, and
saw one canoe coming up to them
...
We are going up the river to make war on the people
...
‖
―Arrows are in the canoe,‖ they said
...
I might be killed
...
But you,‖ he said, turning
to the other, ―may go with them
...

And the warriors went on up the river to a town on the other side of Kalama
...
But presently the young man heard one of the warriors

Attributed to Charles Stangor
Saylor URL: http://www
...
org/books/

Saylor
...
‖ Now he thought: ―Oh, they are ghosts
...

So the canoes went back to Egulac and the young man went ashore to his house and made a fire
...
Many of our fellows were
killed, and many of those who attacked us were killed
...
‖
He told it all, and then he became quiet
...
Something black came out of his
mouth
...
The people jumped up and cried
...
(Bartlett, 1932)

[18]

In its argument that our thinking has a powerful influence on behavior, the cognitive approach
provided a distinct alternative to behaviorism
...
For
instance, when a boy turns to a girl on a date and says,“You are so beautiful,‖ a behaviorist
would probably see that as a reinforcing (positive) stimulus
...
She might try to understand why the boy is making this particular statement at this
particular time and wonder if he might be attempting to influence her through the comment
...

Cognitive psychology remains enormously influential today, and it has guided research in such
varied fields as language, problem solving, memory, intelligence, education, human
development, social psychology, and psychotherapy
...
Neuroimaging is the use of various techniques to
provide pictures of the structure and function of the living brain (Ilardi & Feldman,
2001)
...
We have
already discussed the use of one neuroimaging technique, functional magnetic resonance
Attributed to Charles Stangor
Saylor URL: http://www
...
org/books/

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...

Social-Cultural Psychology
A final school, which takes a higher level of analysis and which has had substantial impact on
psychology, can be broadly referred to as the social-cultural approach
...
Social-cultural psychologists are particularly
concerned with how people perceive themselves and others, and how people influence each
other’s behavior
...

An important aspect of social-cultural psychology are social norms—the ways of thinking,
feeling, or behaving that are shared by group members and perceived by them as
appropriate (Asch, 1952; Cialdini, 1993)
...
Many of the most important social norms are
determined by theculture in which we live, and these cultures are studied by cross-cultural
psychologists
...
[23] Cultures influence every aspect of our lives, and it is not inappropriate to
say that our culture defines our lives just as much as does our evolutionary experience (Mesoudi,
2009)
...
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Zealand) and East Asian cultures (including those in China, Japan, Taiwan, Korea, India, and
Southeast Asia)
...
Children in Western cultures are
taught to develop and to value a sense of their personal self, and to see themselves in large part
as separate from the other people around them
...
Adults
in Western cultures are oriented toward promoting their own individual success, frequently in
comparison to (or even at the expense of) others
...
In these cultures children are taught to focus on developing harmonious social
relationships with others
...
When asked to
describe themselves, the members of East Asian cultures are more likely than those from
Western cultures to indicate that they are particularly concerned about the interests of others,
including their close friends and their colleagues
...
[25] Cultures also
differ in terms of personal space, such as how closely individuals stand to each other when
talking, as well as the communication styles they employ
...

In the United States, for instance, there are many different ethnic groups, and the proportion of
the population that comes from minority (non-White) groups is increasing from year to year
...
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broad generalizations about human nature
...


The Many Disciplines of Psychology
Psychology is not one discipline but rather a collection of many subdisciplines that all share at
least some common approaches and that work together and exchange knowledge to form a
coherent discipline (Yang & Chiu, 2009)
...
Table 1
...
You can learn more about these different fields of psychology
and the careers associated with them at http://www
...
org/careers/psyccareers/
...
3 Some Career Paths in Psychology

Psychology field

Description

Career opportunities

This field examines the physiological
bases of behavior in animals and
humans by studying the functioning of
different brain areas and the effects of

Most biopsychologists work in research settings—for

Biopsychology and

hormones and neurotransmitters on

instance, at universities, for the federal government, and in

neuroscience

behavior
...

Clinical and counseling psychologists provide therapy to

These are the largest fields of

patients with the goal of improving their life experiences
...
The focus is on the

They work in hospitals, schools, social agencies, and in

counseling

assessment, diagnosis, causes, and

private practice
...


high, entry to academic programs is highly competitive
...


human-computer interactions) consult for businesses
...
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Psychology field
psychology

Description

Career opportunities

on the cognitive, emotional, and social

schools and community agencies to help improve and

changes that occur across the lifespan
...


Forensic psychologists apply
psychological principles to understand

Forensic psychologists work in the criminal justice

the behavior of judges, attorneys,

system
...


and jury selection
...


and teach at universities
...
These

Industrial-organizational psychology

psychologists help select employees, evaluate employee

Industrial-

applies psychology to the workplace

performance, and examine the effects of different working

organizational and

with the goal of improving the

conditions on behavior
...


performance and reduce accidents
...
The goal is personality psychologists are also in demand in business—
to develop theories that explain the

for instance, in advertising and marketing
...


programs in social psychology
...
They may assess children’s

educational

programs, and the psychology of

psychological and learning problems and develop

psychology

teaching
...


Social and cross-

This field examines people’s

Many social psychologists work in marketing, advertising,

cultural psychology interactions with other people
...
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Psychology field

Description
of study include conformity, group

Career opportunities
psychology fields
...

This field studies the psychological
aspects of sports behavior
...


sports teams, and other areas where sports are practiced
...
Psychological research has provided a substantial amount of knowledge about the principles
of learning and memory
...

The most important thing you can learn in college is how to better study, learn, and remember
...
There are substantial individual
differences in learning and memory, such that some people learn faster than others
...
And you can learn to
learn—learning to effectively study and to remember information is just like learning any other skill, such as playing a
sport or a video game
...
You cannot learn well when you are tired, when you are under stress, or if
you are abusing alcohol or drugs
...
Eat moderately and
nutritiously, and avoid drugs that can impair memory, particularly alcohol
...


[27]

Memory supplements are usually no more effective

than drinking a can of sugared soda, which also releases glucose and thus improves memory slightly
...
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Psychologists have studied the ways that best allow people to acquire new information, to retain it over time, and to
retrieve information that has been stored in our memories
...

To acquire information most effectively, we must actively manipulate it
...
Although simple repetition does help us learn, psychological
research has found that we acquire information most effectively when we actively think about or elaborate on its
meaning and relate the material to something else
...
If you want to
remember the different schools of psychology, for instance, try to think about how each of the approaches is different
from the others
...
In an important study showing the effectiveness of
elaborative encoding, Rogers, Kuiper, and Kirker (1977)

[28]

found that students learned information best when they

related it to aspects of themselves (a phenomenon known as the self-reference effect)
...

An approach known as the method of loci involves linking each of the pieces of information that you need to
remember to places that you are familiar with
...
Then you could put the behaviorists in the bedroom, the structuralists in the living room, and the functionalists in
the kitchen
...

One of the most fundamental principles of learning is known as the spacing effect
...
Cramming for an exam is a particularly ineffective
way to learn
...


[29]

You can use this knowledge to help you learn
...
Do a small amount every day, and
by the end of the week you will have accomplished a lot
...
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Our ability to adequately assess our own knowledge is known asmetacognition
...
To counteract this problem, don‘t just go over your notes again and again
...
Study the information again and then test yourself again after a few minutes
...
Then wait for a half hour and test yourself again
...
Testing yourself by attempting to retrieve information in an active manner is better than simply studying the
material because it will help you determine if you really know it
...
Learning is an important skill, and following the previously
mentioned guidelines will likely help you learn better
...




Some basic questions asked by psychologists include those about nature versus nurture, free will versus determinism,
accuracy versus inaccuracy, and conscious versus unconscious processing
...




The functionalists based their ideas on the work of Darwin, and their approaches led to the field of evolutionary
psychology
...




Cognitive psychologists study how people perceive, process, and remember information
...




The social-cultural approach focuses on the social situation, including how cultures and social norms influence our
behavior
...
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1
...


2
...


3
...


[1] Benjamin, L
...
, Jr
...
B
...
From seance to science: A history of the profession of psychology in America
...

[2] Harris, J
...
The nurture assumption: Why children turn out the way they do
...
(2002)
...
New York, NY: Penguin Putnam
...
M
...
The illusion of conscious will
...

[4] Fiske, S
...
(2003)
...
Hoboken, NJ: John Wiley & Sons
...
(1993)
...
New York, NY: Anchor Books
...
(1890)
...
New York, NY: Dover
...
(1995)
...
New York, NY: Simon and Schuster; Tooby,
J
...
(1992)
...
In J
...
Barkow & L
...
), The adapted mind:
Evolutionary psychology and the generation of culture (p
...
New York, NY: Oxford University Press
...
M
...
The dangerous passion: Why jealousy is as necessary as love and sex
...

[9] Gould, S
...
, & Lewontin, R
...
(1979)
...
In Proceedings of the Royal Society of London (Series B, Vol
...
581–598)
...
E
...
D
...
Psychoanalysis: The major concepts
...

[11] Watson, J
...
, Rayner, R
...
Conditioned emotional reactions
...

P
...
, & Irons, G
...
Finding Little Albert: A journey to John B
...
American Psychologist,
64(7), 605–614
...
(1957)
...
Acton, MA: Copley; Skinner, B
...
The technology of teaching
...
(1972)
...
New York, NY: Vintage Books
...
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...
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45

[13] Libet, B
...
Unconscious cerebral initiative and the role of conscious will in voluntary action
...
, & Hallett, M
...
The timing of the conscious intention to move
...
M
...
The illusion of conscious will
...

[14] Soon, C
...
, Brass, M
...
-J
...
-D
...
Unconscious determinants of free decisions in the human
brain
...

[15] Aarts, H
...
, & Wegner, D
...
(2005)
...
Consciousness and Cognition: An International Journal, 14(3), 439–458
...
, Preston, J
...
M
...
(2008)
...
Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 44(1), 2–9
...
M
...
The mind’s best trick: How we experience conscious will
...

[18] Bartlett, F
...
(1932)
...
Cambridge: Cambridge University Press
...
S
...
(2001)
...
Journal of Clinical Psychology, 57(9), 1067–1088
...
(1969)
...
In L
...
), Advances in experimental social psychology (Vol
...
35–
89)
...

[21] Festinger, L
...
A theory of social comparison processes
...

[22] Asch, S
...
(1952)
...
Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall; Cialdini, R
...
(1993)
...
New York, NY: Harper Collins College
...
, Kitayama, S
...
, & Nisbett, R
...
The cultural matrix of social psychology
...
Gilbert, S
...

Lindzey (Eds
...
, pp
...
New York, NY: McGraw-Hill; Markus, H
...
, Kitayama,
S
...
J
...
Culture and “basic” psychological principles
...
T
...
W
...
), Social
psychology: Handbook of basic principles (pp
...
New York, NY: Guilford Press; Matsumoto, D
...
(2001)
...
New York, NY: Oxford University Press
...
(2009)
...
Psychological Review,
116(4), 929–952
...
K
...
, Gelfand, M
...
, Triandis, H
...
, & Tzeng, O
...
Tightness-looseness revisited: Some preliminary analyses
in Japan and the United States
...


Attributed to Charles Stangor
Saylor URL: http://www
...
org/books/

Saylor
...
-J
...
-Y
...
Mapping the structure and dynamics of psychological knowledge: Forty years of APA
journal citations (1970–2009)
...

[27] Gold, P
...
, Cahill, L
...
L
...
Ginkgo biloba: A cognitive enhancer?Psychological Science in the Public Interest,
3(1), 2–11; McDaniel, M
...
, Maier, S
...
, & Einstein, G
...
(2002)
...

[28] Rogers, T
...
, Kuiper, N
...
, & Kirker, W
...
(1977)
...
Journal of
Personality & Social Psychology, 35(9), 677–688
...
A
...
P
...
New directions in goal-setting theory
...
3 Chapter Summary
Psychology is the scientific study of mind and behavior
...
Some psychologists are researchers and others are practitioners, but all psychologists
use scientific methods to inform their work
...
The hindsight bias leads us to think that we could have predicted events that we could
not actually have predicted
...

Psychologists study behavior at different levels of explanation, ranging from lower biological
levels to higher social and cultural levels
...


Attributed to Charles Stangor
Saylor URL: http://www
...
org/books/

Saylor
...
Some of the most important
historical schools of psychology include structuralism, functionalism, behaviorism, and
psychodynamic psychology
...

Some of the basic questions asked by psychologists, both historically and currently, include
those about the relative roles of nature versus nurture in behavior, free will versus determinism,
accuracy versus inaccuracy, and conscious versus unconscious processing
...
Research has found that people
are frequently unaware of the causes of their own behaviors
...


Attributed to Charles Stangor
Saylor URL: http://www
...
org/books/

Saylor
...
The results of
psychological research are relevant to problems such as learning and memory, homelessness,
psychological disorders, family instability, and aggressive behavior and violence
...
It guides court
rulings with respect to racism and sexism (Brown v
...
[2] Psychological research
helps us understand how driver behavior affects safety (Fajen & Warren, 2003),[3] which
methods of educating children are most effective (Alexander & Winne, 2006; Woolfolk-Hoy,
2005), [4] how to best detect deception (DePaulo et al
...
[6]
Some psychological research is basic research
...
For instance, biopsychologists study how nerves conduct
impulses from the receptors in the skin to the brain, and cognitive psychologists investigate how
different types of studying influence memory for pictures and words
...
Applied research is research that investigates issues that have implications for everyday
life and provides solutions to everyday problems
...

Basic research and applied research inform each other, and advances in science occur more
rapidly when each type of research is conducted (Lewin, 1999)
...
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concerning the role of practice on memory for lists of words is basic in orientation, the results
could potentially be applied to help children learn to read
...
This basic AIDS or volunteering research is then
applied to help change people’s attitudes and behaviors
...
The research
reported in scientific journals has been evaluated, critiqued, and improved by scientists in the
field through the process of peer review
...

Most of these papers are readily available online through your college or university library
...

Some of the most important journals in psychology are provided here for your information
...
The research
articles in these journals are likely to be available in your college library
...

General Psychology



American Journal of Psychology



American Psychologist



Behavioral and Brain Sciences



Psychological Bulletin



Psychological Methods



Psychological Review



Psychological Science
Biopsychology and Neuroscience

Attributed to Charles Stangor
Saylor URL: http://www
...
org/books/

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...
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

Journal of Applied Psychology



Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes



Organizational Psychology



Organizational Research Methods



Personnel Psychology

In this chapter you will learn how psychologists develop and test their research ideas; how they
measure the thoughts, feelings, and behavior of individuals; and how they analyze and interpret
the data they collect
...
Learning
about the principles and practices of psychological research will allow you to critically read,
interpret, and evaluate research
...
For instance, advertising
and marketing researchers study how to make advertising more effective, health and medical
researchers study the impact of behaviors such as drug use and smoking on illness, and computer
scientists study how people interact with computers
...


[1] Brown v
...
S
...
T
...
N
...
, Deaux, K
...
E
...

Social science research on trial: Use of sex stereotyping research in Price Waterhouse v
...
American Psychologist, 46(10),
1049–1060
...
, Dougherty, D
...
(1985)
...
American Psychologist, 40, 355–366
...
R
...
H
...
Behavioral dynamics of steering, obstacle avoidance, and route selection
...


Attributed to Charles Stangor
Saylor URL: http://www
...
org/books/

Saylor
...
A
...
H
...
(2006)
...
Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence
Erlbaum Associates; Woolfolk-Hoy, A
...
(2005)
...
Boston, MA: Allyn & Bacon
...
M
...
J
...
E
...
, Charlton, K
...
(2003)
...
Psychological Bulletin, 129(1), 74–118
...
(2004)
...
Tampa: University of South Florida
...
(1999)
...
Gold, Ed
...


2
...


Describe the principles of the scientific method and explain its importance in conducting and interpreting research
...


Differentiate laws from theories and explain how research hypotheses are developed and tested
...


Discuss the procedures that researchers use to ensure that their research with humans and with animals is ethical
...
Philosophers, religious leaders, and politicians, among others, also strive to provide
explanations for human behavior
...
Rather than accepting the claim
of a philosopher that people do (or do not) have free will, a psychologist would collect data to
empirically test whether or not people are able to actively control their own behavior
...
The
statements made by psychologists are empirical, which means they are based on systematic
collection and analysis of data
...
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All scientists (whether they are physicists, chemists, biologists, sociologists, or psychologists)
are engaged in the basic processes of collecting data and drawing conclusions about those data
...
The scientific method is the set
of assumptions, rules, and procedures scientists use to conduct research
...
The
scientific method proscribes how scientists collect and analyze data, how they draw conclusions
from data, and how they share data with others
...
Because data are reported
objectively, other scientists know exactly how the scientist collected and analyzed the data
...

Most new research is designed to replicate—that is, to repeat, add to, or modify—previous
research findings
...


Laws and Theories as Organizing Principles
One goal of research is to organize information into meaningful statements that can be applied in
many situations
...
There are well-known laws in the physical sciences, such as the law
of gravity and the laws of thermodynamics, and there are some universally accepted laws in
psychology, such as the law of effect and Weber’s law
...


Attributed to Charles Stangor
Saylor URL: http://www
...
org/books/

Saylor
...
A theory is an
integrated set of principles that explains and predicts many, but not all, observed relationships
within a given domain of inquiry
...
The theory
states that children pass through a series of cognitive stages as they grow, each of which must be
mastered in succession before movement to the next cognitive stage can occur
...

Good theories have four important characteristics
...
Second, they are parsimonious, meaning they provide the
simplest possible account of those outcomes
...
It can account for developmental changes in behavior across a wide
variety of domains, and yet it does so parsimoniously—by hypothesizing a simple set of
cognitive stages
...
The stage theory of
cognitive development has been applied not only to learning about cognitive skills, but also to
the study of children’s moral (Kohlberg, 1966) [1] and gender (Ruble & Martin,
1998) [2] development
...
The stage theory of cognitive
development is falsifiable because the stages of cognitive reasoning can be measured and
because if research discovers, for instance, that children learn new tasks before they have
reached the cognitive stage hypothesized to be required for that task, then the theory will be
shown to be incorrect
...
Rather, theories are each limited
in that they make accurate predictions in some situations or for some people but not in other
situations or for other people
...
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Existing theories are modified on the basis of collected data, and the new modified theories then
make new predictions that are tested by new data, and so forth
...
This is part of the accumulation of scientific knowledge
...
Therefore, scientists
use a more precise statement of the presumed relationship among specific parts of a theory—a
research hypothesis—as the basis for their research
...
The research hypothesis states the existence of a relationship between
the variables of interest and the specific direction of that relationship
...
‖ Similarly, in the research
hypothesis “Participating in psychotherapy will reduce anxiety,‖ the variables that are expected
to be related are “participating in psychotherapy‖ and “level of anxiety
...
Conceptual variables are abstract ideas that form the basis of
research hypotheses
...
‖ In other cases the conceptual variables represent more complex ideas,
such as “anxiety,‖ “cognitive development,‖ ―learning,‖ self-esteem,‖ or “sexism
...
For instance, the conceptual variable “participating in psychotherapy‖ could be
represented as the measured variable “number of psychotherapy hours the patient has accrued‖
and the conceptual variable “using marijuana‖ could be assessed by having the research

Attributed to Charles Stangor
Saylor URL: http://www
...
org/books/

Saylor
...

Psychologists use the term operational definition to refer to a precise statement of how a
conceptual variable is turned into a measured variable
...
1 "Diagram of a Research
Hypothesis"
...
The two vertical arrows,
which lead from the conceptual variables to the measured variables, represent the operational
definitions of the two variables
...
The measured variables are then used to draw inferences
about the conceptual variables
...
1 Diagram of a Research Hypothesis

Attributed to Charles Stangor
Saylor URL: http://www
...
org/books/

Saylor
...
The research hypothesis is that more psychotherapy will be related to less reported
anxiety
...
1 "Examples of the Operational Definitions of Conceptual Variables That Have Been
Used in Psychological Research" lists some potential operational definitions of conceptual
variables that have been used in psychological research
...
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contrast to the abstract conceptual variables, the measured variables are very specific
...
First, more specific definitions mean that there is less
danger that the collected data will be misunderstood by others
...


Table 2
...

Physicists are concerned about the potentially harmful outcomes of their experiments with
nuclear materials
...
Medical researchers agonize over the ethics of withholding potentially
beneficial drugs from control groups in clinical trials
...

Attributed to Charles Stangor
Saylor URL: http://www
...
org/books/

Saylor
...
For instance, researchers may require introductory psychology
students to participate in research projects and then deceive these students, at least temporarily,
about the nature of the research
...
And researchers may sometimes use animals in their research,
potentially harming them in the process
...
In the United States, the Department of Health and Human Services provides the
guidelines for ethical standards in research
...
Other
procedures, such as the use of animals in research testing the effectiveness of drugs, are more
controversial
...

Therefore, it is unreasonable to argue that because scientific research has costs, no research
should be conducted
...
[4] In each case, before beginning to conduct the research, scientists
have attempted to determine the potential risks and benefits of the research and have come to the
conclusion that the potential benefits of conducting the research outweigh the potential costs to
the research participants
...




The rights of both the experimenter and participant are considered, and the relationship between them is mutually
beneficial
...
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

The experimenter treats the participant with concern and respect and attempts to make the research experience a
pleasant and informative one
...




The participant is given a chance to have questions about the procedure answered, thus guaranteeing his or her free
choice about participating
...




The experimenter carefully debriefs the participant, explaining the underlying research hypothesis and the purpose of
the experimental procedure in detail and answering any questions
...
(Stangor, 2011)

[5]

This list presents some of the most important factors that psychologists take into consideration
when designing their research
...
One example is the well-known research of Stanley Milgram
(1974) [6] investigating obedience to authority
...
Most participants evidenced
high levels of stress resulting from the psychological conflict they experienced between engaging
in aggressive and dangerous behavior and following the instructions of the experimenter
...

Another goal of ethical research is to guarantee that participants have free choice regarding
whether they wish to participate in research
...
And once an experiment begins,
the research participant is always free to leave the experiment if he or she wishes to
...
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and prisons, when individuals are required by the institutions to take certain tests, or when
employees are told or asked to participate in research
...
In some cases data can be
kept anonymous by not having the respondents put any identifying information on their
questionnaires
...
In this case one technique is to have each
participant use a unique code number to identify his or her data, such as the last four digits of the
student ID number
...

Perhaps the most widespread ethical concern to the participants in behavioral research is the
extent to which researchers employ deception
...
Deception may occur in an active way, such as when the researcher tells the
participants that he or she is studying learning when in fact the experiment really concerns
obedience to authority
...

Some researchers have argued that no deception should ever be used in any research (Baumrind,
1985)
...
Other psychologists defend the use of deception on the grounds that it
is needed to get participants to act naturally and to enable the study of psychological phenomena
that might not otherwise get investigated
...
The codes of ethics of the American Psychological Association
Attributed to Charles Stangor
Saylor URL: http://www
...
org/books/

Saylor
...


Ensuring That Research Is Ethical
Making decisions about the ethics of research involves weighing the costs and benefits of
conducting versus not conducting a given research project
...
Most generally, the ethics of a given research project are determined
through a cost-benefit analysis, in which the costs are compared to the benefits
...

Arriving at a cost-benefit ratio is not simple
...
In addition, what is ethical is defined by
the current state of thinking within society, and thus perceived costs and benefits change over
time
...
S
...

The Institutional Review Board (IRB) is a committee of at least five members whose goal it is to
determine the cost-benefit ratio of research conducted within an institution
...
The
board may suggest modifications to the procedures, or (in rare cases) it may inform the scientist
that the research violates Department of Health and Human Services guidelines and thus cannot
be conducted at all
...
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One important tool for ensuring that research is ethical is the use of informed consent
...
2 "Sample Consent
Form"
...
The informed consent explains as much as possible about the true nature of the
study, particularly everything that might be expected to influence willingness to participate, but
it may in some cases withhold some information that allows the study to work
...
2 Sample Consent Form

Attributed to Charles Stangor
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...
org/books/

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The informed consent form explains the research procedures and informs the participant of his or her rights during
the investigation
...
(2011)
...
Mountain View,
CA: Cengage
...
The debriefing is a procedure designed to fully explain the purposes and
procedures of the research and remove any harmful aftereffects of participation
...
Most
psychological research using animals is now conducted with rats, mice, and birds, and the use of
other animals in research is declining (Thomas & Blackman, 1992)
...


APA Guidelines on Humane Care and Use of Animals in Research
The following are some of the most important ethical principles from the American Psychological Association‘s
guidelines on research with animals
...




Psychologists trained in research methods and experienced in the care of laboratory animals supervise all procedures
involving animals and are responsible for ensuring appropriate consideration of their comfort, health, and humane
treatment
...
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

Psychologists ensure that all individuals under their supervision who are using animals have received instruction in
research methods and in the care, maintenance, and handling of the species being used, to the extent appropriate to
their role
...




Psychologists use a procedure subjecting animals to pain, stress, or privation only when an alternative procedure is
unavailable and the goal is justified by its prospective scientific, educational, or applied value
...




When it is appropriate that an animal‘s life be terminated, psychologists proceed rapidly, with an effort to minimize
pain and in accordance with accepted procedures
...
Although many people accept the value of such research (Plous, 1996), [10] a
minority of people, including animal-rights activists, believes that it is ethically wrong to
conduct research on animals
...

Most scientists, however, reject this view
...
For instance, drugs that can
reduce the incidence of cancer or AIDS may first be tested on animals, and surgery that can save
human lives may first be practiced on animals
...
In contrast to animal-rights activists, then, scientists believe that because there are
many benefits that accrue from animal research, such research can and should continue as long
as the humane treatment of the animals used in the research is guaranteed
...
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KEY TAKEAWAYS


Psychologists use the scientific method to generate, accumulate, and report scientific knowledge
...




Research reports describing scientific studies are published in scientific journals so that other scientists and laypersons
may review the empirical findings
...




Concerns for conducting ethical research are paramount
...
Informed consent and debriefing help provide humane treatment of
participants
...


EXERCISES AND CRITICAL THINKING
1
...


2
...
Explain why you find these concerns to be
troubling
...


Indicate your personal feelings about the use of animals in research
...
(1966)
...
In E
...
Maccoby
(Ed
...
Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press
...
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[2] Ruble, D
...
(1998)
...
In W
...
), Handbook of child psychology (5th ed
...
933–
1016)
...

[3] Popper, K
...
(1959)
...
New York, NY: Basic Books
...
(1994)
...
Psychological
Science, 5, 127–134
...
2 Psychologists Use Descriptive, Correlational, and Experimental Research
Designs to Understand Behavior
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
1
...


2
...


3
...


4
...


Psychologists agree that if their ideas and theories about human behavior are to be taken
seriously, they must be backed up by data
...
These
varying approaches, summarized in Table 2
...
A research design is the specific method a researcher uses to
collect, analyze, and interpret data
...
Descriptive research is research designed to provide a snapshot of the current
state of affairs
...
Experimental research is research in which initial equivalence among research
participants in more than one group is created, followed by a manipulation of a given experience
for these groups and a measurement of the influence of the manipulation
...
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research designs varies according to its strengths and limitations, and it is important to
understand how each differs
...
2 Characteristics of the Three Research Designs

Research
design

Goal

Advantages

Disadvantages

Provides a relatively complete picture
of what is occurring at a given time
...
May be

To create a snapshot of the
Descriptive

Does not assess relationships

Allows the development of questions

unethical if participants do not

current state of affairs

for further study
...


Allows testing of expected
relationships between and among
To assess the relationships

variables and the making of

inferences about the causal

between and among two or
Correlational

Cannot be used to draw

predictions
...


the variables
...
May be expensive and

dependent variable

variables
...


There are three major research designs used by psychologists, and each has its own advantages and disadvantages
...
(2011)
...
Mountain View, CA: Cengage
...
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Descriptive research is designed to create a snapshot of the current thoughts, feelings, or
behavior of individuals
...

Sometimes the data in a descriptive research project are based on only a small set of individuals,
often only one person or a single small group
...

Sometimes case studies involve ordinary individuals, as when developmental psychologist Jean
Piaget used his observation of his own children to develop his stage theory of cognitive
development
...
The assumption is that by carefully studying individuals who are socially
marginal, who are experiencing unusual situations, or who are going through a difficult phase in
their lives, we can learn something about human nature
...
Freud wrote case studies of some of his most
interesting patients and used these careful examinations to develop his important theories of
personality
...
[1]
Another well-known case study is Phineas Gage, a man whose thoughts and emotions were
extensively studied by cognitive psychologists after a railroad spike was blasted through his skull
in an accident
...
, 2005)
...

Attributed to Charles Stangor
Saylor URL: http://www
...
org/books/

Saylor
...
The people chosen to participate in the
research (known as the sample) are selected to be representative of all the people that the
researcher wishes to know about (the population)
...

The results of surveys may sometimes be rather mundane, such as “Nine out of ten doctors prefer
Tymenocin,‖ or “The median income in Montgomery County is $36,712
...
‖ Descriptive research is frequently used
by psychologists to get an estimate of the prevalence (or incidence) of psychological disorders
...
For instance, a developmental psychologist who watches
children on a playground and describes what they say to each other while they play is conducting
descriptive research, as is a biopsychologist who observes animals in their natural habitats
...
The data that are
collected in the strange situation are systematically coded in a coding sheet such as that shown
in Table 2
...


Table 2
...
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Coder name: Olive
Mother puts baby down

4

1

1

1

Stranger enters room

1

2

3

1

1

3

1

1

baby, then leaves again

4

2

1

2

Stranger tries to play with baby

1

3

1

1

Mother reenters and picks up baby

6

6

1

2

Mother leaves room; stranger plays with
baby
Mother reenters, greets and may comfort

Coding categories explained
Proximity

The baby moves toward, grasps, or climbs on the adult
...


Resistance

The baby pushes, hits, or squirms to be put down from the adult’s arms
...


This table represents a sample coding sheet from an episode of the “strange situation,” in which an infant (usually
about 1 year old) is observed playing in a room with two adults—the child’s mother and a stranger
...
More information about the meaning of the coding can
be found in Ainsworth, Blehar, Waters, and Wall (1978)
...
(2011)
...
Mountain View, CA: Cengage
...
Most variables have
distributions similar to that shown in Figure 2
...
A data distribution that is shaped like a bell is known as anormal distribution
...
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Table 2
...
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Student name Height in inches Family income in dollars
Ariane

72

70,000

Logan

72

44,000

Figure 2
...
In this sample the mean (M)
= 67
...
74
...
The arithmetic
average, or arithmetic mean, is the most commonly used measure of central tendency
...
In the data presented
in Figure 2
...
12 inches
...

In some cases, however, the data distribution is not symmetrical
...
Consider, for instance,
Attributed to Charles Stangor
Saylor URL: http://www
...
org/books/

Saylor
...
6 "Family Income Distribution"), which includes an
outlier (a value of $3,800,000)
...

Although it appears from Figure 2
...
The single very extreme income has a disproportionate impact on the mean, resulting
in a value that does not well represent the central tendency
...
The median is the score in the center of the distribution, meaning that 50% of the
scores are greater than the median and 50% of the scores are less than the median
...


Figure 2
...
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The distribution of family incomes is likely to be nonsymmetrical because some incomes can be
very large in comparison to most incomes
...

A final measure of central tendency, known as the mode, represents the value that occurs most
frequently in the distribution
...
6 "Family Income Distribution" that the
mode for the family income variable is $93,000 (it occurs four times)
...
Dispersion refers to the extent to which the scores are all tightly clustered around the
central tendency, like this:

Attributed to Charles Stangor
Saylor URL: http://www
...
org/books/

Saylor
...
7

Or they may be more spread out away from it, like this:
Figure 2
...
You can check that the range of
Attributed to Charles Stangor
Saylor URL: http://www
...
org/books/

Saylor
...
5 "Height Distribution" is 72 – 62 = 10
...
Distributions with a larger
standard deviation have more spread
...
74,
and the standard deviation of the family income variable is s = $745,337
...
Case studies provide detailed information about a single person or a small group of
people, surveys capture the thoughts or reported behaviors of a large population of people, and
naturalistic observation objectively records the behavior of people or animals as it occurs
naturally
...

Despite these advantages, descriptive research has a distinct disadvantage in that, although it
allows us to get an idea of what is currently happening, it is usually limited to static pictures
...
For instance, descriptions of individuals who have suffered a
stressful event, such as a war or an earthquake, can be used to understand the individuals’
reactions to the event but cannot tell us anything about the long-term effects of the stress
...


Correlational Research: Seeking Relationships Among Variables
In contrast to descriptive research, which is designed primarily to provide static pictures,
correlational research involves the measurement of two or more relevant variables and an
assessment of the relationship between or among those variables
...
In the same way, study time and memory errors are also related,
because the more time a person is given to study a list of words, the fewer errors he or she will
Attributed to Charles Stangor
Saylor URL: http://www
...
org/books/

Saylor
...
When there are two variables in the research design, one of them is called the predictor
variable and the other the outcome variable
...
2
...
As you can see in Figure 2
...
A point is plotted for each individual at the intersection of his or her scores for the two
variables
...
10 "Examples of Scatter
Plots", the variables are said to have a linear relationship
...
Examples of positive linear relationships include those between height
and weight, between education and income, and between age and mathematical abilities in
children
...
Negative linear relationships, in contrast, as shown in part (b), occur when
above-average values for one variable tend to be associated with below-average values for the
other variable
...
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task
...

Relationships between variables that cannot be described with a straight line are known
as nonlinear relationships
...
10 "Examples of Scatter Plots" shows a common
pattern in which the distribution of the points is essentially random
...
Parts (d) and
(e) of Figure 2
...
For instance,
part (d) shows the type of relationship that frequently occurs between anxiety and performance
...
Relationships that change in direction and thus are not described by a single
straight line are called curvilinear relationships
...
10 Examples of Scatter Plots

Attributed to Charles Stangor
Saylor URL: http://www
...
org/books/

Saylor
...
Note that the Pearson correlation
coefficient (r) between variables that have curvilinear relationships will likely be close to zero
...
(2011)
...
Mountain View,
CA: Cengage
...
The value of the
correlation coefficient ranges from r= –1
...
00
...
Positive values of r (such as r =
...
67) indicate that the relationship is positive linear (i
...
, the pattern of the dots on the scatter plot
runs from the lower left to the upper right), whereas negative values of r (such as r = –
...
72) indicate negative linear relationships (i
...
, the dots run from the upper left to the lower
Attributed to Charles Stangor
Saylor URL: http://www
...
org/books/

Saylor
...
The strength of the linear relationship is indexed by the distance of the correlation
coefficient from zero (its absolute value)
...
54 is a stronger relationship than r=

...
72 is a stronger relationship than r = –
...
Because the Pearson correlation
coefficient only measures linear relationships, variables that have curvilinear relationships are
not well described by r, and the observed correlation will be close to zero
...
A
research design in which more than one predictor variable is used to predict a single outcome
variable is analyzed through multiple regression(Aiken & West,
1991)
...
For instance, Figure 2
...
The use of multiple regression analysis shows an important advantage
of correlational research designs—they can be used to make predictions about a person’s likely
score on an outcome variable (e
...
, job performance) based on knowledge of other variables
...
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Figure 2
...


An important limitation of correlational research designs is that they cannot be used to draw
conclusions about the causal relationships among the measured variables
...
He has collected, from a sample of fourth-grade children, a measure of how
many violent television shows each child views during the week, as well as a measure of how
aggressively each child plays on the school playground
...

Attributed to Charles Stangor
Saylor URL: http://www
...
org/books/

Saylor
...
Although the
researcher is tempted to assume that viewing violent television causes aggressive play,

Figure 2
...
2

there are other possibilities
...
Perhaps children who have behaved aggressively at
school develop residual excitement that leads them to want to watch violent television shows at
home:

Figure 2
...
2

Although this possibility may seem less likely, there is no way to rule out the possibility of such
reverse causation on the basis of this observed correlation
...
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Figure 2
...
2

Still another possible explanation for the observed correlation is that it has been produced by the
presence of a common-causal variable (also known as a third variable)
...
In
our example a potential common-causal variable is the discipline style of the children’s parents
...
2
...
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In this case, television viewing and aggressive play would be positively correlated (as indicated
by the curved arrow between them), even though neither one caused the other but they were both
caused by the discipline style of the parents (the straight arrows)
...
A spurious relationship is a relationship between two
variables in which a common-causal variable produces and “ explains away‖ the relationship
...
In the example the relationship
between aggression and television viewing might be spurious because by controlling for the
effect of the parents’ disciplining style, the relationship between television viewing and
aggressive behavior might go away
...
Since it is not possible to measure every variable that could cause
both the predictor and outcome variables, the existence of an unknown common-causal variable
is always a possibility
...
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research: Correlation does not demonstrate causation
...
Although correlational research is sometimes
reported as demonstrating causality without any mention being made of the possibility of reverse
causation or common-causal variables, informed consumers of research, like you, are aware of
these interpretational problems
...
One strength is that
they can be used when experimental research is not possible because the predictor variables
cannot be manipulated
...
And we can also use correlational designs to make
predictions—for instance, to predict from the scores on their battery of tests the success of job
trainees during a training session
...
For that, researchers rely on experiments
...
In an experimental research design, the variables of interest are called
the independent variable(or variables) and the dependent variable
...

The dependent variable in an experiment is a measured variable that is expected to be influenced
by the experimental manipulation
...
We
can diagram the research hypothesis by using an arrow that points in one direction
...
2
...
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Research Focus: Video Games and Aggression
Consider an experiment conducted by Anderson and Dill (2000)
...
In this research, male and female undergraduates
from Iowa State University were given a chance to play with either a violent video game (Wolfenstein 3D) or a
nonviolent video game (Myst)
...
Then, after the play, each participant played a competitive game with an opponent in which the
participant could deliver blasts of white noise through the earphones of the opponent
...
The
design of the experiment is shown in Figure 2
...

Figure 2
...
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Two advantages of the experimental research design are (1) the assurance that the independent variable (also
known as the experimental manipulation) occurs prior to the measured dependent variable, and (2) the creation of
initial equivalence between the conditions of the experiment (in this case by using random assignment to
conditions)
...
For one, they guarantee that the independent variable occurs prior
to the measurement of the dependent variable
...
Second, the
influence of common-causal variables is controlled, and thus eliminated, by creating initial equivalence among the
participants in each of the experimental conditions before the manipulation occurs
...
Anderson and Dill first randomly assigned about 100 participants to each of their two groups (Group A and
Group B)
...

Then, after they had created initial equivalence, Anderson and Dill created the experimental manipulation—they had
the participants in Group A play the violent game and the participants in Group B play the nonviolent game
...

Anderson and Dill had from the outset created initial equivalence between the groups
...
The idea is that the only thing that was different between the students in the two groups was the video
game they had played
...
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Despite the advantage of determining causation, experiments do have limitations
...
Therefore, we do not know whether
results that we find in a laboratory setting will necessarily hold up in everyday life
...
If we want to study
the influence of the size of a mob on the destructiveness of its behavior, or to compare the personality characteristics
of people who join suicide cults with those of people who do not join such cults, these relationships must be assessed
using correlational designs, because it is simply not possible to experimentally manipulate these variables
...




Descriptive designs include case studies, surveys, and naturalistic observation
...
Descriptive research is summarized
using descriptive statistics
...
The variables may be presented on a scatter plot to visually show the relationships
...




Common-causal variables may cause both the predictor and outcome variable in a correlational design, producing a
spurious relationship
...




Experimental research involves the manipulation of an independent variable and the measurement of a dependent
variable
...


EXERCISES AND CRITICAL THINKING
1
...
Do you think this represents a causal relationship or a
spurious relationship, and why?

Attributed to Charles Stangor
Saylor URL: http://www
...
org/books/

Saylor
...


Think of two variables (other than those mentioned in this book) that are likely to be correlated, but in which the
correlation is probably spurious
...


Imagine a researcher wants to test the hypothesis that participating in psychotherapy will cause a decrease in reported
anxiety
...
What would be the
independent and dependent variables in the research?

[1] Freud, S
...
Analysis of phobia in a five-year-old boy
...
A
...
Merbaum (Eds
...
3–32)
...
(Original work published 1909)
[2] Kotowicz, Z
...
The strange case of Phineas Gage
...

[3] Damasio, H
...
, Frank, R
...
M
...
R
...
T
...
G
...
The return
of Phineas Gage: Clues about the brain from the skull of a famous patient
...
(pp
...

New York, NY: Psychology Press
...
(1964)
...
New York, NY: Knopf
...
S
...
C
...
, & Wall, S
...
Patterns of attachment: A psychological study of the strange
situation
...

[6] Aiken, L
...
(1991)
...
Newbury Park, CA: Sage
...
A
...
E
...
Video games and aggressive thoughts, feelings, and behavior in the laboratory and in
life
...


2
...


Outline the four potential threats to the validity of research and discuss how they may make it difficult to accurately
interpret research findings
...


Describe how confounding may reduce the internal validity of an experiment
...


Explain how generalization, replication, and meta-analyses are used to assess the external validity of research findings
...
When research is valid, the conclusions drawn by the researcher
are legitimate
...
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anxiety, or that taller people are smarter than shorter people, the research is valid only if the
therapy really works or if taller people really are smarter
...

Often, and despite researchers’ best intentions, some of the research reported on websites as well
as in newspapers, magazines, and even scientific journals is invalid
...
Only by
understanding the potential threats to validity will you be able to make knowledgeable decisions
about the conclusions that can or cannot be drawn from a research project
...


Threats to the Validity of Research
1
...
Although it is claimed that the measured variables measure the conceptual variables of
interest, they actually may not
...


Threats to statistical conclusion validity
...


3
...
Although it is claimed that the independent variable caused the dependent variable, the
dependent variable actually may have been caused by a confounding variable
...


Threats to external validity
...
(Stangor, 2011)

[1]

One threat to valid research occurs when there is a threat to construct validity
...
One requirement for construct
validity is that the measure be reliable, where reliability refers to the consistency of a measured
variable
...
Other measures, including some
psychological tests, may be less reliable, and thus less useful
...
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Normally, we can assume that the researchers have done their best to assure the construct
validity of their measures, but it is not inappropriate for you, as an informed consumer of
research, to question this
...
If the measures do not really measure the
conceptual variables that they are designed to assess (e
...
, if a supposed IQ test does not really
measure intelligence), then they cannot be used to draw inferences about the relationship
between the conceptual variables (Nunnally, 1978)
...
You will see statements in research reports indicating that the results were
“statistically significant‖ or “not statistically significant
...
05‖ or about confidence intervals
...
Statistical significance refers to the confidence with which a scientist can conclude that
data are not due to chance or random error
...
Hence, there is likely a real relationship between or among
the variables in the research design
...

Statistical conclusion validity refers to the extent to which we can be certain that the researcher
has drawn accurate conclusions about the statistical significance of the research
...
These errors can occur either because the
scientist inappropriately infers that the data do support the research hypothesis when in fact they
are due to chance, or when the researcher mistakenly fails to find support for the research
hypothesis
...
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inferences about data are probabilistic and never certain—this is why research never “proves‖ a
theory
...
[3] Internal validity applies primarily to experimental research designs, in which
the researcher hopes to conclude that the independent variable has caused the dependent variable
...

Consider an experiment in which a researcher tested the hypothesis that drinking alcohol makes
members of the opposite sex look more attractive
...

To eliminate the need for deception, the participants were told whether or not their drinks
contained vodka
...
The results of
the experiment showed that, as predicted, the participants who drank the vodka rated the photos
as significantly more attractive
...
That is,
the people who drank alcohol also knew they drank alcohol, and those who did not drink alcohol
knew they did not
...
18 "An Example of
Confounding")
...
If differences in
Attributed to Charles Stangor
Saylor URL: http://www
...
org/books/

Saylor
...


Figure 2
...
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...
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Attributed to Charles Stangor
Saylor URL: http://www
...
org/books/

Saylor
...
In the bottom panel alcohol consumed
and alcohol expectancy are confounded, but in the top panel they are separate (independent)
...

Another threat to internal validity can occur when the experimenter knows the research
hypothesis and also knows which experimental condition the participants are in
...
In one study demonstrating experimenter bias,
Rosenthal and Fode (1963) [4] sent twelve students to test a research hypothesis concerning maze
learning in rats
...
Six of the students were randomly told that the rats they would be
testing had been bred to be highly intelligent, whereas the other six students were led to believe
that the rats had been bred to be unintelligent
...
When the students returned with their data, a startling result
emerged
...

Somehow the students’ expectations influenced their data
...
And this experimenter bias probably occurred entirely out of their
awareness
...
This means that although the experimenters know the research
hypotheses, they do not know which conditions the participants are assigned to
...
In a double-blind experiment, both the
researcher and the research participants are blind to condition
...
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ineffective placebo, and the patients also do not know which they are getting
...

While internal validity refers to conclusions drawn about events that occurred within the
experiment, external validity refers to the extent to which the results of a research design can be
generalized beyond the specific way the original experiment was
conducted
...

Psychologists who use college students as participants in their research may be concerned about
generalization, wondering if their research will generalize to people who are not college students
...
Whenever there is reason to suspect that a
result found for one sample of participants would not hold up for another sample, then research
may be conducted with these other populations to test for generalization
...
[5] For instance,
a researcher might test whether the effects on aggression of viewing violent video games are the
same for Japanese children as they are for American children by showing violent and nonviolent
films to a sample of both Japanese and American schoolchildren
...
19 "A Cross-Cultural Replication")
...
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Figure 2
...
If they are not replicated in the new
culture, then a limiting condition of the original results is found
...
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Unless the researcher has a specific reason to believe that generalization will not hold, it is
appropriate to assume that a result found in one population (even if that population is college
students) will generalize to other populations
...
Rather, the burden of proof rests on those who claim that a result will not
generalize
...
Advances
occur through the accumulation of knowledge that comes from many different tests of the same
theory or research hypothesis
...
The process of repeating previous research, which forms the basis of all scientific
inquiry, is known as replication
...
A meta-analysis is a statistical technique that uses the results of existing studies to
integrate and draw conclusions about those studies
...

A meta-analysis provides a relatively objective method of reviewing research findings because it
(1) specifies inclusion criteria that indicate exactly which studies will or will not be included in
the analysis, (2) systematically searches for all studies that meet the inclusion criteria, and (3)
provides an objective measure of the strength of observed relationships
...


Psychology in Everyday Life: Critically Evaluating the Validity of Websites
The validity of research reports published in scientific journals is likely to be high because the hypotheses, methods,
results, and conclusions of the research have been rigorously evaluated by other scientists, through peer review,

Attributed to Charles Stangor
Saylor URL: http://www
...
org/books/

Saylor
...
For this reason, you will want to use peer-reviewed journal articles as your major
source of information about psychological research
...
The Internet is a vast source of information from which you can learn about almost
anything, including psychology
...

Although you will naturally use the web to help you find information about fields such as psychology, you must also
realize that it is important to carefully evaluate the validity of the information you get from the web
...
The following material may be helpful to you in learning to make these distinctions
...
Ask first about the source of the information
...
com‖ (business), ―
...
org‖ (nonprofit) entity? This information can help you determine the author‘s (or organization‘s)
purpose in publishing the website
...
Is the data being
summarized from objective sources, such as journal articles or academic or government agencies? Does it seem that
the author is interpreting the information as objectively as possible, or is the data being interpreted to support a
particular point of view? Consider what groups, individuals, and political or commercial interests stand to gain from
the site
...

Also, ask whether or not the authors themselves appear to be a trustworthy source of information
...
You can be more certain of the
validity of the information if it is sponsored by a professional organization, such as the American Psychological
Association or the American Psychological Society
...
Is the
information cited such that you can read it in its original form? Reputable websites will probably link to other

Attributed to Charles Stangor
Saylor URL: http://www
...
org/books/

Saylor
...
Try to check the accuracy of the information by
reading at least some of these sources yourself
...
But good material attempts to be fair by acknowledging other possible positions,
interpretations, or conclusions
...


KEY TAKEAWAYS


Research is said to be valid when the conclusions drawn by the researcher are legitimate
...




Construct validity, statistical conclusion validity, internal validity, and external validity are all types of validity that
people who read and interpret research need to be aware of
...




Internal validity refers to the assurance that the independent variable has caused the dependent variable
...




External validity is greater when effects can be replicated across different manipulations, measures, and populations
...


EXERCISES AND CRITICAL THINKING
1
...
, conducted the “Pepsi Challenge” by randomly assigning individuals to
taste either a Pepsi or a Coke
...
The research showed that subjects overwhelmingly
preferred glass “M” over glass “Q,” and the researchers concluded that Pepsi was preferred to Coke
...
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confounding variable is present in this research design? How would you redesign the research to eliminate the
confound?
2
...
Determine the criteria that were used to select the studies and report on
the findings of the research
...
(2011)
...
Mountain View, CA: Cengage
...
C
...
Pyschometric theory
...

[3] Campbell, D
...
, & Stanley, J
...
(1963)
...
Chicago: Rand McNally
...
, & Fode, K
...
(1963)
...
Behavioral Science,
8, 183–189
...
J
...
Cultural psychology
...
T
...
T
...
Lindzey (Eds
...
, Vol
...
1423–1464)
...


2
...

Psychological research may be either basic or applied in orientation
...

The results of psychological research are reported primarily in research reports in scientific
journals
...

The methods used by scientists have developed over many years and provide a common
framework through which information can be collected, organized, and shared
...
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The scientific method is the set of assumptions, rules, and procedures that scientists use to
conduct research
...

Scientific findings are organized by theories, which are used to summarize and make new
predictions, but theories are usually framed too broadly to be tested in a single experiment
...

Scientists use operational definitions to turn the ideas of interest—conceptual variables—into
measured variables
...
These decisions are made through a
cost-benefit analysis, in which the costs are compared to the benefits
...

Descriptive research is designed to provide a snapshot of the current state of affairs
...
The results of descriptive research projects are analyzed using descriptive
statistics
...
It
allows making predictions but cannot be used to draw inferences about the causal relationships
between and among the variables
...

The goal of experimental research is to assess the causal impact of one or more experimental
manipulations on a dependent variable
...
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about the causal relationships among variables
...

Because all research has the potential for invalidity, research never “proves‖ a theory or
hypothesis
...

Threats to statistical conclusion validity involve potential inaccuracies in the statistical testing of
the relationships among variables
...

Threats to external validity involve potential inaccuracy regarding the generality of observed
findings
...


Chapter 3
Brains, Bodies, and Behavior
Did a Neurological Disorder Cause a Musician to Compose Boléro and an Artist to
Paint It 66 Years Later?
In 1986 Anne Adams was working as a cell biologist at the University of Toronto in Ontario, Canada
...
In 1994 she completed her painting Unravelling Boléro, a
translation of Maurice Ravel‘s famous orchestral piece onto canvas
...
1, this artwork is a filled
with themes of repetition
...
Like Ravel‘s music (see the

Attributed to Charles Stangor
Saylor URL: http://www
...
org/books/

Saylor
...

Shortly after finishing the painting, Adams began to experience behavioral problems, including increased difficulty
speaking
...
,
2008)
...


[3]

What Adams did not know at the time was that her brain may have been undergoing the same changes that Ravel‘s
had undergone 66 years earlier
...

Ravel composed Boléro at age 53, when he himself was beginning to show behavioral symptoms that were interfering
with his ability to move and speak
...


[4]

If

Adams and Ravel were both affected by the same disease, this could explain why they both became fascinated with the
repetitive aspects of their arts, and it would present a remarkable example of the influence of our brains on behavior
...
Our behaviors, as well as our thoughts and feelings, are
produced by the actions of our brains, nerves, muscles, and glands
...
We’ll consider the structure
of the brain and also the methods that psychologists use to study the brain and to understand how
it works
...
The nervous system
consists of the central nervous system (CNS), made up of the brain and the spinal cord, and
Attributed to Charles Stangor
Saylor URL: http://www
...
org/books/

Saylor
...
And we will see that our behavior is also influenced in large part by
the endocrine system, the chemical regulator of the body that consists of glands that secrete
hormones
...
We will consider throughout the chapter how our
biology influences important human behaviors, including our mental and physical health, our
reactions to drugs, as well as our aggressive responses and our perceptions of other people
...


[1] Seeley, W
...
, Matthews, B
...
, Crawford, R
...
, Gorno-Tempini, M
...
, Foti, D
...
R
...
L
...

“Unravelling Boléro”: Progressive aphasia, transmodal creativity, and the right posterior neocortex
...

[2] Miller, B
...
, Boone, K
...
L
...
L
...
(2000)
...
British Journal of Psychiatry, 176, 458–463
...
(2008, April 7)
...
New Scientist
...
newscientist
...
html
[4] Amaducci, L
...
, & Boller, F
...
Maurice Ravel and right-hemisphere musical creativity: Influence of disease on
his last musical works? European Journal of Neurology, 9(1), 75–82
...
1 The Neuron Is the Building Block of the Nervous System
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
1
...


2
...


3
...


Attributed to Charles Stangor
Saylor URL: http://www
...
org/books/

Saylor
...
A neuron is a
cell in the nervous system whose function it is to receive and transmit information
...
2 "Components of the Neuron", neurons are made up of three major parts: a cell
body, or soma, which contains the nucleus of the cell and keeps the cell alive; a branching
treelike fiber known as the dendrite, which collects information from other cells and sends the
information to the soma; and a long, segmented fiber known as the axon, which transmits
information away from the cell body toward other neurons or to the muscles and glands
...
2 Components

of the Neuron

Some neurons have hundreds or even thousands of dendrites, and these dendrites may
themselves be branched to allow the cell to receive information from thousands of other cells
...
To
improve the speed of their communication, and to keep their electrical charges from shorting out
Attributed to Charles Stangor
Saylor URL: http://www
...
org/books/

Saylor
...
The myelin sheath is a layer
of fatty tissue surrounding the axon of a neuron that both acts as an insulator and allows faster
transmission of the electrical signal
...


Neurons Communicate Using Electricity and Chemicals
The nervous system operates using an electrochemical process (see Note 3
...
An electrical charge moves through the neuron itself
and chemicals are used to transmit information between neurons
...
If the signal reaches the terminal buttons, they are signaled to emit chemicals known as
neurotransmitters, which communicate with other neurons across the spaces between the cells,
known as synapses
...


The electrical signal moves through the neuron as a result of changes in the electrical charge of
the axon
...

When the segment of the axon that is closest to the cell body is stimulated by an electrical signal
from the dendrites, and if this electrical signal is strong enough that it passes a certain level
or threshold, the cell membrane in this first segment opens its gates, allowing positively charged
sodium ions that were previously kept out to enter
...
Once the action
potential occurs, the number of positive ions exceeds the number of negative ions in this
segment, and the segment temporarily becomes positively charged
...
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As you can see in Figure 3
...
Each of
these gaps is a node of Ranvier
...
When the action potential occurs in
the first segment of the axon, it quickly creates a similar change in the next segment, which then
stimulates the next segment, and so forth as the positive electrical impulse continues all the way
down to the end of the axon
...
In this way the
action potential is transmitted along the axon, toward the terminal buttons
...


Figure 3
...
The action
potential jumps from node to node as it travels down the axon
...
What
this means is that the neuron either fires completely, such that the action potential moves all the
way down the axon, or it does not fire at all
...
Furthermore, the neuron is
prevented from repeated firing by the presence of a refractory period—a brief time after the
Attributed to Charles Stangor
Saylor URL: http://www
...
org/books/

Saylor
...


Neurotransmitters: The Body’s Chemical Messengers
Not only do the neural signals travel via electrical charges within the neuron, but they also travel
via chemical transmission between the neurons
...
The synapses provide a remarkable function because
they allow each axon to communicate with many dendrites in neighboring cells
...

When the electrical impulse from the action potential reaches the end of the axon, it signals the
terminal buttons to release neurotransmitters into the synapse
...
Neurotransmitters travel across the
synaptic space between the terminal button of one neuron and the dendrites of other neurons,
where they bind to the dendrites in the neighboring neurons
...
The dendrites will admit the neurotransmitters only if they are the
right shape to fit in the receptor sites on the receiving neuron
...
5 "The Synapse")
...
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Figure 3
...
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When the nerve impulse reaches the terminal button, it triggers the release of neurotransmitters into the synapse
...


When neurotransmitters are accepted by the receptors on the receiving neurons their effect may
be either excitatory (i
...
, they make the cell more likely to fire) or inhibitory (i
...
, they make the
cell less likely to fire)
...
If
the excitatory effects of the neurotransmitters are greater than the inhibitory influences of the
neurotransmitters, the neuron moves closer to its firing threshold, and if it reaches the threshold,
the action potential and the process of transferring information through the neuron begins
...
This process occurs in part
through the breaking down of the neurotransmitters by enzymes, and in part through reuptake, a
process in which neurotransmitters that are in the synapse are reabsorbed into the transmitting
terminal buttons, ready to again be released after the neuron fires
...
Neurotransmitters regulate our appetite, our memory, our emotions, as well as our
muscle action and movement
...
1 "The Major Neurotransmitters
and Their Functions", some neurotransmitters are also associated with psychological and
physical diseases
...
Anagonist is a drug that has
chemical properties similar to a particular neurotransmitter and thus mimics the effects of the
neurotransmitter
...
As an example,
cocaine is an agonist for the neurotransmitter dopamine
...
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pleasure when it is released by neurons, cocaine creates similar feelings when it is ingested
...
When an
antagonist is ingested, it binds to the receptor sites in the dendrite, thereby blocking the
neurotransmitter
...
When the poison enters the brain, it binds to the dendrites, stops communication
among the neurons, and usually causes death
...


Table 3
...
It’s also

Alzheimer’s disease is associated with an undersupply of

used in the brain to regulate memory,

acetylcholine
...


acetylcholine
...


it)
...
They are related to
the compounds found in drugs such as opium, morphine,

Released in response to behaviors such

and heroin
...


exertion
...
Alcohol stimulates the
release of GABA, which inhibits the nervous system and
makes us feel drunk
...


Attributed to Charles Stangor
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...
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reduce anxiety
...
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Neurotransmitter

Description and function

Notes

The most common neurotransmitter, it’s
released in more than 90% of the
brain’s synapses
...


and seizures
...


prevent their reuptake
...




The peripheral nervous system (PNS) is the collection of neurons that link the CNS to our skin, muscles, and glands
...
Neurons contain a dendrite, a
soma, and an axon
...




The axon is an elongated fiber that transfers information from the soma to the terminal buttons
...




The many different neurotransmitters work together to influence cognition, memory, and behavior
...


EXERCISES AND CRITICAL THINKING
Attributed to Charles Stangor
Saylor URL: http://www
...
org/books/

Saylor
...


Draw a picture of a neuron and label its main parts
...


Imagine an action that you engage in every day and explain how neurons and neurotransmitters might work together
to help you engage in that action
...
2 Our Brains Control Our Thoughts, Feelings, and Behavior
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
1
...


2
...


3
...


If you were someone who understood brain anatomy and were to look at the brain of an animal
that you had never seen before, you would nevertheless be able to deduce the likely capacities of
the animal
...
In each
animal the brain is layered, and the basic structures of the brain are similar (see Figure 3
...
The innermost structures of the brain—the parts nearest
the spinal cord—are the oldest part of the brain, and these areas carry out the same the functions
they did for our distant ancestors
...
Mammals,
including humans, have developed further brain layers that provide more advanced functions—
for instance, better memory, more sophisticated social interactions, and the ability to experience
emotions
...
7 "Cerebral Cortex"), which makes us particularly adept at these processes
...
saylor
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Figure 3
...
saylor
...
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The major brain parts are colored and labeled
...
saylor
...
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119

Source: Adapted from Camazine, S
...
d
...
Medical, science, and nature things: Photography
and digital imagery by Scott Camazine
...
7 Cerebral Cortex

Attributed to Charles Stangor
Saylor URL: http://www
...
org/books/

Saylor
...
The cortex
provides humans with excellent memory, outstanding cognitive skills, and the ability to experience complex
emotions
...
(n
...
Cerebral cortex
...
wikia
...


The Old Brain: Wired for Survival
The brain stem is the oldest and innermost region of the brain
...
8 "The
Brain Stem and the Thalamus")
...
In many
cases the medulla alone is sufficient to maintain life—animals that have the remainder of their
brains above the medulla severed are still able to eat, breathe, and even move
...

Running through the medulla and the pons is a long, narrow network of neurons known as
the reticular formation
...
The reticular formation also plays important roles in walking, eating, sexual
activity, and sleeping
...


Attributed to Charles Stangor
Saylor URL: http://www
...
org/books/

Saylor
...
8 The Brain Stem and the Thalamus

The brain stem is an extension of the spinal cord, including the medulla, the pons, the thalamus, and the reticular
formation
...
9 "The Limbic System")
...
[1] The thalamus also
receives some of the higher brain‘s replies, forwarding them to the medulla and the cerebellum
...
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The thalamus is also important in sleep because it shuts off incoming signals from the senses,
allowing us to rest
...
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...
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123

Figure 3
...

The cerebellum (literally, ―little brain‖) consists of two wrinkled ovals behind the brain stem
...


People who have damage to the cerebellum have difficulty walking, keeping their balance, and
holding their hands steady
...
Also, the cerebellum contributes to

Attributed to Charles Stangor
Saylor URL: http://www
...
org/books/

Saylor
...
[2]
Whereas the primary function of the brain stem is to regulate the most basic aspects of life,
including motor functions, the limbic system is largely responsible for memory and emotions,
including our responses to reward and punishment
...
It
includes the amygdala, the hypothalamus, and the hippocampus
...
The amygdala has connections to other bodily systems related to fear,
including the sympathetic nervous system (which we will see later is important in fear
responses), facial responses (which perceive and express emotions), the processing of smells,
and the release of neurotransmitters related to stress and aggression (Best, 2009)
...
They
found that the once angry animal immediately became passive and no longer responded to fearful
situations with aggressive behavior
...
In addition to helping us experience fear, the amygdala also helps us learn
from situations that create fear
...
[5]
Located just under the thalamus (hence its name) the hypothalamus is a brain structure that
contains a number of small areas that perform a variety of functions, including the important
role of linking the nervous system to the endocrine system via the pituitary gland
...
Olds and Milner (1954) [6] discovered these reward centers accidentally after
they had momentarily stimulated the hypothalamus of a rat
...
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125

being stimulated, the rat continued to move to the exact spot in its cage where the stimulation
had occurred, as if it were trying to re-create the circumstances surrounding its original
experience
...
In one experiment a rat was given the opportunity to
electrically stimulate its own hypothalamus by pressing a pedal
...

The hippocampus consists of two “horns‖ that curve back from the amygdala
...
If the hippocampus is damaged, a
person cannot build new memories, living instead in a strange world where everything he or she
experiences just fades away, even while older memories from the time before the damage are
untouched
...

Some animals have hard shells, others run extremely fast, and some have acute hearing
...

You might think that we should be able to determine the intelligence of an animal by looking at
the ratio of the animal’s brain weight to the weight of its entire body
...
The elephant’s brain is one thousandth of its weight, but the whale‘s brain is only one tenthousandth of its body weight
...
Despite these
comparisons, elephants do not seem 10 times smarter than whales, and humans definitely seem
smarter than mice
...
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The key to the advanced intelligence of humans is not found in the size of our brains
...
[8] In humans, the cerebral cortex is wrinkled and folded,
rather than smooth as it is in most other animals
...
The folding of the
cerebral cortex is referred to as corticalization
...
The cortex contains about 20 billion nerve cells and 300 trillion synaptic
connections (de Courten-Myers, 1999)
...
The glia come in different forms
and have different functions
...
The glia are essential partners of neurons, without which the
neurons could not survive or function (Miller, 2005)
...
If we look at the cortex starting at the front
of the brain and moving over the top (see Figure 3
...
Following the frontal lobe is the parietal lobe, which extends from the
middle to the back of the skull and which is responsible primarily for processing information
about touch
...
Finally, in front of the occipital lobe (pretty much between the ears) is
the temporal lobe, responsible primarily for hearing and language
...
10 The Two Hemispheres

Attributed to Charles Stangor
Saylor URL: http://www
...
org/books/

Saylor
...
Furthermore, there are specific cortical areas that control different processes
...
Furthermore, they discovered an important and
unexpected principle of brain activity
...
This finding follows from
a general principle about how the brain is structured, called contralateral control
...

Fritsch and Hitzig also found that the movement that followed the brain stimulation only
occurred when they stimulated a specific arch-shaped region that runs across the top of the brain
from ear to ear, just at the front of the parietal lobe (see Figure 3
...
Fritsch and Hitzig had discovered the motor cortex, the part of the cortex that
Attributed to Charles Stangor
Saylor URL: http://www
...
org/books/

Saylor
...
More recent research has mapped the motor cortex even more fully, by providing mild
electronic stimulation to different areas of the motor cortex in fully conscious patients while
observing their bodily responses (because the brain has no sensory receptors, these patients feel
no pain)
...
11 "The Sensory Cortex and the Motor Cortex", this
research has revealed that the motor cortex is specialized for providing control over the body, in
the sense that the parts of the body that require more precise and finer movements, such as the
face and the hands, also are allotted the greatest amount of cortical space
...
11 The Sensory Cortex and the Motor Cortex

Attributed to Charles Stangor
Saylor URL: http://www
...
org/books/

Saylor
...
Thus the hand and fingers have
as much area in the cerebral cortex as does the entire trunk of the body
...
Again, the more sensitive the body region, the more area is dedicated to it in
the sensory cortex
...


Attributed to Charles Stangor
Saylor URL: http://www
...
org/books/

Saylor
...
Thevisual cortex is the area
located in the occipital lobe (at the very back of the brain) that processes visual information
...
The temporal lobe, located on the lower side of each hemisphere, contains
the auditory cortex, which is responsible for hearing and language
...
[12]
As you can see in Figure 3
...
The remainder
of the cortex is made up of association areas in which sensory and motor information is
combined and associated with our stored knowledge
...
The
association areas are involved in higher mental functions, such as learning, thinking, planning,
judging, moral reflecting, figuring, and spatial reasoning
...
For instance, if an infant suffers
damage to facial recognition areas in the temporal lobe, it is likely that he or she will never be
able to recognize faces (Farah, Rabinowitz, Quinn, & Liu, 2000)
...
The brain’s neurons have a remarkable capacity to
reorganize and extend themselves to carry out particular functions in response to the needs of the
organism, and to repair damage
...
Neuroplasticity refers to the brain’s ability to
change its structure and function in response to experience or damage
...

Attributed to Charles Stangor
Saylor URL: http://www
...
org/books/

Saylor
...
On the other hand, neuroplasticity continues to be
observed even in adults (Kolb & Fantie, 1989)
...
For instance, accomplished
musicians have a larger auditory cortex compared with the general population (Bengtsson et al
...
[16] These observations reflect the changes in the brain
that follow our experiences
...
When a tumor in the left hemisphere of the brain
impairs language, the right hemisphere will begin to compensate to help the person recover the
ability to speak (Thiel et al
...
[17] And if a person loses a finger, the area of the sensory
cortex that previously received information from the missing finger will begin to receive input
from adjacent fingers, causing the remaining digits to become more sensitive to touch (Fox,
1984)
...
[19]These new neurons originate deep in the brain and
may then migrate to other brain areas where they form new connections with other neurons
(Gould, 2007)
...


Research Focus: Identifying the Unique Functions of the Left and Right Hemispheres
Using Split-Brain Patients
We have seen that the left hemisphere of the brain primarily senses and controls the motor movements on the right
side of the body, and vice versa
...
Gazzaniga, Bogen, and
Sperry (1965)

[21]

studied a patient, known as W
...
, who had undergone an operation to relieve severe seizures
...
saylor
...
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132

surgery the region that normally connects the two halves of the brain and supports communication between the
hemispheres, known as thecorpus callosum, is severed
...
Because the left and right hemispheres are separated, each hemisphere develops a mind of its own,
with its own sensations, concepts, and motivations (Gazzaniga, 2005)
...
J
...
12 "Visual
and Verbal Processing in the Split-Brain Patient")
...
J
...
By doing so, they assured
that—because the two hemispheres had been separated—the image of the shape was experienced only in the right
brain hemisphere (remember that sensory input from the left side of the body is sent to the right side of the brain)
...
J
...
On the other hand, W
...
could easily read written material presented in the right visual field (and
thus experienced in the left hemisphere) but not when it was presented in the left visual field
...
12Visual and Verbal Processing in the Split-Brain Patient

Attributed to Charles Stangor
Saylor URL: http://www
...
org/books/

Saylor
...
In split-brain patients, the severed corpus callosum does not permit information to be transferred
between hemispheres, which allows researchers to learn about the functions of each hemisphere
...
In the sample on the right the patient could not read the passage because the right brain
hemisphere cannot process language
...
In most people the ability to speak, write, and understand language is located in the left
hemisphere
...
J
...
The left
hemisphere is also better at math and at judging time and rhythm
...
The right hemisphere, on the other hand, has
only very limited verbal abilities, and yet it excels in perceptual skills
...
This is why W
...

could pick out the image when he saw it on the left, but not the right, visual field
...
That would be drastically oversimplifying the
concept of brain differences
...
, 2005)
...


[24]

This fact is puzzling, in part because the number of left-handers is so

low, and in part because other animals, including our closest primate relatives, do not show any type of handedness
...


[25]

Attributed to Charles Stangor
Saylor URL: http://www
...
org/books/

Saylor
...
Ultrasound scans show that 9 out of 10 fetuses suck the thumb of
their right hand, suggesting that the preference is determined before birth (Hepper, Wells, & Lynch, 2005),
mechanism of transmission has been linked to a gene on the X chromosome (Jones & Martin, 2000)
...


[28]

But culture also plays a role
...
For example,
India has about half as many left-handers as the United States (Ida & Mandal, 2003)
...

One problem for lefties is that the world is designed for right-handers
...
This may explain in part why left-handers suffer
somewhat more accidents than do right-handers (Dutta & Mandal, 2006)
...
Throughout history, a number of prominent artists have been left-handed, including
Leonardo da Vinci, Michelangelo, Pablo Picasso, and Max Escher
...


[31]

Left-handed people are also better at envisioning three-dimensional objects, which may explain

why there is such a high number of left-handed architects, artists, and chess players in proportion to their numbers
(Coren, 1992)
...


[34]

In sports in which handedness may matter, such as tennis, boxing, fencing, or judo, left-handers may have an
advantage
...
Right-handers,
however, play very few games against left-handers, which may make them more vulnerable
...
saylor
...
org

135

disproportionately high number of left-handers are found in sports where direct one-on-one action predominates
...

The fact that left-handers excel in some sports suggests the possibility that they may have also had an evolutionary
advantage because their ancestors may have been more successful in important skills such as hand-to-hand combat
(Bodmer & McKie, 1994)
...


KEY TAKEAWAYS


The old brain—including the brain stem, medulla, pons, reticular formation, thalamus, cerebellum, amygdala,
hypothalamus, and hippocampus—regulates basic survival functions, such as breathing, moving, resting, feeding,
emotions, and memory
...




The frontal lobe is primarily responsible for thinking, planning, memory, and judgment
...
The temporal lobe is primarily responsible for hearing and language
...
Other areas of the cortex act as association areas, responsible for
integrating information
...
The brain can
generate new neurons through neurogenesis
...
Body parts requiring the most control and dexterity take up the most
space in the motor cortex
...
Body parts that are the most sensitive occupy the
greatest amount of space in the sensory cortex
...


Attributed to Charles Stangor
Saylor URL: http://www
...
org/books/

Saylor
...




Studies with split-brain patients as research participants have been used to study brain lateralization
...


EXERCISES AND CRITICAL THINKING
1
...


Consider your own experiences and speculate on which parts of your brain might be particularly well developed as a
result of these experiences
...


Which brain hemisphere are you likely to be using when you search for a fork in the silverware drawer? Which brain
hemisphere are you most likely to be using when you struggle to remember the name of an old friend?

4
...
M
...
W
...
Exploring the thalamus and its role in cortical function (2nd ed
...

[2] Bower, J
...
, & Parsons, J
...
(2003)
...
Scientific American, 289, 50–57
...
(2009)
...
In Anatomy of the mind (chap
...
Retrieved from Welcome to the World of
Ben Best website:http://www
...
com/science/anatmind/anatmd9
...
, & Bucy, P
...
(1939)
...
Archives of Neurology &
Psychiatry (Chicago), 42, 979–1000
...
, Doyère, V
...
K
...
E
...
Long-term potentiation in the amygdala: A cellular mechanism
of fear learning and memory
...

[6] Olds, J
...
(1954)
...
Journal of Comparative and Physiological Psychology, 47, 419–427
...
saylor
...
org

137

[7] Olds, J
...
Self-stimulation of the brain: Its use to study local effects of hunger, sex, and drugs
...

[8] Gibson, K
...
(2002)
...
Brain Behavior and
Evolution 59, 10–20
...
M
...
The human cerebral cortex: Gender differences in structure and function
...

[10] Miller, G
...
Neuroscience: The dark side of glia
...

[11] Fritsch, G
...
(2009)
...
Epilepsy & Behavior, 15(2), 123–130
...
(2007)
...
Annual Review of Psychology, 58, 25–45
...
J
...
, Quinn, G
...
, & Liu, G
...
(2000)
...
Cognitive Neuropsychology, 17(1–3), 117–123
...
, & Fantie, B
...
Development of the child’s brain and behavior
...
R
...
Fletcher-Janzen
(Eds
...
17–39)
...

[15] Bengtsson, S
...
, Nagy, Z
...
, Forsman, L
...
, & Ullén, F
...
Extensive piano practicing has regionally
specific effects on white matter development
...

[16] Münte, T
...
, Altenmüller, E
...
(2002)
...
Nature Reviews
Neuroscience, 3(6), 473–478
...
, Habedank, B
...
, Kessler, J
...
, Haupt, W
...
, & Heiss, W
...
(2006)
...
Brain and Language, 98(1), 57–65
...
L
...
The brain’s dynamic way of keeping in touch
...

[19] Van Praag, H
...
, Gage, F
...
, & Gazzaniga, M
...
(2004)
...
In The cognitive
neurosciences (3rd ed
...
127–137)
...

[20] Gould, E
...
How widespread is adult neurogenesis in mammals? Nature Reviews Neuroscience 8, 481–488
...
1038/nrn2147
[21] Gazzaniga, M
...
, Bogen, J
...
, & Sperry, R
...
(1965)
...
Brain, 88(2), 221–236
...
saylor
...
org

138

[22] Gazzaniga, M
...
(2005)
...
Nature Reviews Neuroscience, 6(8),
653–659
...
, Kasher, A
...
, Batori, G
...
, Gil, M
...
(2005)
...
Brain and Cognition, 57(2), 214–217
...
, Reimers, S
...
T
...
Hand preference for writing and associations with selected demographic
and behavioral variables in 255,100 subjects: The BBC Internet study
...

[25] Harris, L
...
(1990)
...
In S
...
), Left-handedness: Behavioral implications and anomalies
...
C
...
Right hand, left
hand: The origins of asymmetry in brains, bodies, atoms, and cultures
...

[26] Hepper, P
...
, Wells, D
...
, & Lynch, C
...
Prenatal thumb sucking is related to postnatal
handedness
...

[27] Jones, G
...
, & Martin, M
...
A note on Corballis (1997) and the genetics and evolution of handedness: Developing a
unified distributional model from the sex-chromosomes gene hypothesis
...

[28] McKeever, W
...
, Cerone, L
...
, Suter, P
...
, & Wu, S
...
(2000)
...
Laterality: Asymmetries of Body, Brain, and Cognition,
5(2), 111–120
...
, & Mandal, M
...
(2003)
...
Laterality: Asymmetries of
Body, Brain, and Cognition, 8(2), 121–133
...
, & Mandal, M
...
(2006)
...
Laterality: Asymmetries of Body, Brain, and
Cognition, 11, 368–372
...
P
...
(1998)
...
A series of
books in psychology
...
H
...

[32] Coren, S
...
The left-hander syndrome: The causes and consequences of left-handedness
...

[33] Geschwind, N
...
(2007)
...
Cambridge, MA: MIT Press
...
, Vélez, A
...
, & le Moal, M
...
Association between left-handedness and allergy: A
reappraisal
...


Attributed to Charles Stangor
Saylor URL: http://www
...
org/books/

Saylor
...
, & McKie, R
...
The book of man: The quest to discover our genetic heritage
...


3
...


Compare and contrast the techniques that scientists use to view and understand brain structures and functions
...
But there are a variety of empirical methods that allow scientists to look at
brains in action, and the number of possibilities has increased dramatically in recent years with
the introduction of new neuroimaging techniques
...
Each of the different techniques has
some advantages, and when we put them together, we begin to get a relatively good picture of
how the brain functions and which brain structures control which activities
...
When Albert Einstein died in 1955, his brain
was removed and stored for later analysis
...
Diamond was interested in the
role of glia, and she hypothesized that the ratio of glial cells to neurons was an important
determinant of intelligence
...

However, Diamond was able to find support for only part of her research hypothesis
...

Diamond admits a limitation in her study is that she had only one Einstein to compare with 11
ordinary men
...
saylor
...
org

140

An advantage of the cadaver approach is that the brains can be fully studied, but an obvious
disadvantage is that the brains are no longer active
...
The brains of living human beings may be damaged, for instance, as a result of strokes,
falls, automobile accidents, gunshots, or tumors
...
In rare
occasions, brain lesions may be created intentionally through surgery, such as that designed to
remove brain tumors or (as in split-brain patients) to reduce the effects of epilepsy
...
In so
doing, they hope to be able to draw inferences about the likely functions of human brains from
the effects of the lesions in animals
...
For instance,
when an individual suffers a stroke, a blood clot deprives part of the brain of oxygen, killing the
neurons in the area and rendering that area unable to process information
...
For instance, if the stroke influences the occipital
lobe, then vision may suffer, and if the stroke influences the areas associated with language or
speech, these functions will suffer
...

It is now known that a good part of our moral reasoning abilities are located in the frontal lobe,
and at least some of this understanding comes from lesion studies
...
[2] Although remarkably Gage was able to return to work
after the wounds healed, he no longer seemed to be the same person to those who knew him
...
Although
there are questions about the interpretation of this case study (Kotowicz, 2007),[3] it did provide
early evidence that the frontal lobe is involved in emotion and morality (Damasio et al
...
[4]
More recent and more controlled research has also used patients with lesions to investigate the
source of moral reasoning
...
, 2007) [5] asked
Attributed to Charles Stangor
Saylor URL: http://www
...
org/books/

Saylor
...
[6]
In one of the scenarios the participants were asked if they would be willing to kill one person in
order to prevent five other people from being killed
...
14 "The Frontal
Lobe and Moral Judgment", they found that the individuals with lesions in the frontal lobe were
significantly more likely to agree to do the harm than were individuals from the two other
groups
...
14 The Frontal Lobe and Moral Judgment

Koenigs and his colleagues (2007)

[7]

found that the frontal lobe is important in moral judgment
...


Recording Electrical Activity in the Brain
In addition to lesion approaches, it is also possible to learn about the brain by studying the
electrical activity created by the firing of its neurons
...
saylor
...
org

142

is to place detectors in the brain to study the responses of specific neurons
...
[8]
A less invasive approach, and one that can be used on living humans, is
electroencephalography (EEG)
...
An EEG can show if a person is asleep, awake, or anesthetized
because the brain wave patterns are known to differ during each state
...
A particular advantage of EEG is that the
participant can move around while the recordings are being taken, which is useful when
measuring brain activity in children who often have difficulty keeping still
...


Peeking Inside the Brain: Neuroimaging
Although the EEG can provide information about the general patterns of electrical activity within
the brain, and although the EEG allows the researcher to see these changes quickly as they occur
in real time, the electrodes must be placed on the surface of the skull and each electrode
measures brain waves from large areas of the brain
...

But techniques exist to provide more specific brain images
...
The patient lies on a bed within a large
cylindrical structure containing a very strong magnet
...
The fMRI detects the amount of blood
flow in each brain region, and thus is an indicator of neural activity
...
saylor
...
org

143

Very clear and detailed pictures of brain structures (see, e
...
, Figure 3
...
Often, the images take the form of cross-sectional “slices‖ that are obtained
as the magnetic field is passed across the brain
...
When the research participant is asked to engage in tasks
while in the scanner (e
...
, by playing a game with another person), the images can show which
parts of the brain are associated with which types of tasks
...
The research participant simply enters the machine and the scans begin
...
fMRI is now the most commonly
used method of learning about brain structure
...
Transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS) is a procedure in which magnetic pulses are
applied to the brain of living persons with the goal of temporarily and safely deactivating a small
brain region
...
Then the electrical stimulation is
provided to the brain before or while the participant is working on a cognitive task, and the
effects of the stimulation on performance are assessed
...

The primary advantage of TMS is that it allows the researcher to draw causal conclusions about
the influence of brain structures on thoughts, feelings, and behaviors
...
Current research has used TMS to study the brain areas
responsible for emotion and cognition and their roles in how people perceive intention and
Attributed to Charles Stangor
Saylor URL: http://www
...
org/books/

Saylor
...
, 2010; Van den Eynde et al
...
[9] TMS is also used as a treatment for a variety of
psychological conditions, including migraine, Parkinson’s disease, and major depressive
disorder
...
Naomi Eisenberger and her colleagues (2003)

[10]

tested the hypothesis that people who were

excluded by others would report emotional distress and that images of their brains would show that they experienced
pain in the same part of the brain where physical pain is normally experienced
...
The participants were told that they would be playing a
computer ―Cyberball‖ game with two other players who were also in fMRI machines (the two opponents did not
actually exist, and their responses were controlled by the computer)
...
In the first part of the experiment, the
participants were told that as a result of technical difficulties, the link to the other two scanners could not yet be
made, and thus at first they could not engage in, but only watch, the game play
...
Then, during a second inclusion scan, the participants played the game, supposedly with the
two other players
...
In the third, exclusion, scan,
however, the participants initially received seven throws from the other two players but were then excluded from the
game because the two players stopped throwing the ball to the participants for the remainder of the scan (45 throws)
...
Because these brain regions are known from prior research to be active
for individuals who are experiencing physical pain, the authors concluded that these results show that the
physiological brain responses associated with being socially excluded by others are similar to brain responses
experienced upon physical injury
...

People who feel that they are excluded, or even those who observe other people being excluded, not only experience

Attributed to Charles Stangor
Saylor URL: http://www
...
org/books/

Saylor
...


KEY TAKEAWAYS


Studying the brains of cadavers can lead to discoveries about brain structure, but these studies are limited due to the
fact that the brain is no longer active
...




Electrophysiological recording may be used in animals to directly measure brain activity
...




Functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) measures blood flow in the brain during different activities, providing
information about the activity of neurons and thus the functions of brain regions
...


EXERCISE AND CRITICAL THINKING
1
...


[1] Diamond, M
...
(1999)
...
Retrieved
from http://www
...
org/neuro/diamond_einstein
...
(2000)
...
Cambridge, MA: MIT Press
...
(2007)
...
History of the Human Sciences, 20(1), 115–131
...
, Grabowski, T
...
, Galaburda, A
...
, Damasio, A
...
, Cacioppo, J
...
, & Berntson, G
...
(2005)
...
In Social neuroscience: Key readings (pp
...
New
York, NY: Psychology Press
...
, Young, L
...
, Tranel, D
...
, Hauser, M
...
(2007)
...
Nature, 446(7138), 908–911
...
(2008)
...
Science, 320, 734–737
...
saylor
...
org

146

[7] Koenigs, M
...
, Adolphs, R
...
, Cushman, F
...
, & Damasio, A
...
Damage to the prefontal
cortex increases utilitarian moral judgments
...

[8] Kanwisher, N
...
Domain specificity in face perception
...

[9] Kalbe, E
...
, Sack, A
...
, Nowak, D
...
, Dafotakis, M
...
,…Kessler, J
...
Dissociating cognitive from
affective theory of mind: A TMS study
...
, Claudino, A
...
, Mogg, A
...
, Stahl, D
...
(2010)
...
Biological Psychiatry, 67(8), 793–795; Young, L
...
A
...
, Pascual-Leone, A
...
(2010)
...
PNAS Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of
the United States of America, 107(15), 6753–6758
...
I
...
D
...
D
...
Does rejection hurt? An fMRI study of social
exclusion
...

[11] Chen, Z
...
D
...
, & Newton, N
...
(2008)
...
Psychological Science, 19(8), 789–795; Wesselmann, E
...
, Bagg, D
...
D
...
“I feel your
pain”: The effects of observing ostracism on the ostracism detection system
...


Attributed to Charles Stangor
Saylor URL: http://www
...
org/books/

Saylor
...
4 Putting It All Together: The Nervous System and the Endocrine System
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
1
...


2
...


Now that we have considered how individual neurons operate and the roles of the different brain
areas, it is time to ask how the body manages to “put it all together
...


Electrical Control of Behavior: The Nervous System
The nervous system (see Figure 3
...
The central nervous system (CNS), made up of
the brain and spinal cord, is the major controller of the body’s functions, charged with
interpreting sensory information and responding to it with its own directives
...
Everything that we see, hear, smell, touch, and
taste is conveyed to us from our sensory organs as neural impulses, and each of the commands
that the brain sends to the body, both consciously and unconsciously, travels through this system
as well
...
saylor
...
org

148

Figure 3
...
A sensory (or afferent) neuron carries
information from the sensory receptors, whereas a motor (or efferent) neuron transmits
information to the muscles and glands
...
Interneurons allow the brain to combine the multiple sources of available information to
create a coherent picture of the sensory information being conveyed
...
It is the central throughway of information for the body
...
saylor
...
org

149

while descending tracts of motor neurons relay motor commands back to the body
...
A reflex is an involuntary and nearly instantaneous movement in response to a
stimulus
...
18 "The Reflex")
...


Figure 3
...
saylor
...
org

150

The central nervous system can interpret signals from sensory neurons and respond to them extremely quickly via
the motor neurons without any need for the brain to be involved
...


If the central nervous system is the command center of the body, theperipheral nervous system
(PNS) represents the front line
...
As you can see inFigure 3
...

The autonomic nervous system (ANS) is the division of the PNS that governs the internal
activities of the human body, including heart rate, breathing, digestion, salivation, perspiration,
urination, and sexual arousal
...

The somatic nervous system (SNS) is the division of the PNS that controls the external aspects of
the body, including the skeletal muscles, skin, and sense organs
...

The autonomic nervous system itself can be further subdivided into
thesympathetic and parasympathetic systems (see Figure 3
...
The sympathetic division of the ANS is involved in preparing the body for behavior,
particularly in response to stress, by activating the organs and the glands in the endocrine
system
...
The sympathetic and the parasympathetic divisions normally function in opposition to
each other, such that the sympathetic division acts a bit like the accelerator pedal on a car and the
parasympathetic division acts like the brake
...
saylor
...
org

151

Figure 3
...
saylor
...
org

152

The autonomic nervous system has two divisions: The sympathetic division acts to energize the body, preparing it
for action
...


Our everyday activities are controlled by the interaction between the sympathetic and
parasympathetic nervous systems
...
Similarly, after we eat a big
meal, the parasympathetic system automatically sends more blood to the stomach and intestines,
allowing us to efficiently digest the food
...
saylor
...
org

153

all hungry before a stressful event, such as a sports game or an exam (when the sympathetic
division was primarily in action), but suddenly finding yourself starved afterward, as the
parasympathetic takes over
...


The Body’s Chemicals Help Control Behavior: The Endocrine System
The nervous system is designed to protect us from danger through its interpretation of and
reactions to stimuli
...

A gland in the endocrine system is made up of groups of cells that function to secrete hormones
...
When the hormones released by one gland arrive at receptor tissues or other glands,
these receiving receptors may trigger the release of other hormones, resulting in a series of
complex chemical chain reactions
...
And the endocrine system plays a vital role in emotions
...
The major glands in the endocrine system are shown in Figure 3
...


Attributed to Charles Stangor
Saylor URL: http://www
...
org/books/

Saylor
...
20 The Major Glands of the Endocrine System

Attributed to Charles Stangor
Saylor URL: http://www
...
org/books/

Saylor
...


The pituitary gland, a small pea-sized gland located near the center of the brain, is responsible
for controlling the body’s growth, but it also has many other influences that make it of primary
importance to regulating behavior
...
The
pituitary gland also controls ovulation and the menstrual cycle in women
...
‖
Other glands in the endocrine system include the pancreas, which secretes hormones designed to
keep the body supplied with fuel to produce and maintain stores of energy; the pineal gland,
located in the middle of the brain, which secretes melatonin, a hormone that helps regulate the
wake-sleep cycle; and the thyroid and parathyroid glands, which are responsible for determining
how quickly the body uses energy and hormones, and controlling the amount of calcium in the
blood and bones
...
Theadrenal glands produce
hormones that regulate salt and water balance in the body, and they are involved in metabolism,
the immune system, and sexual development and function
...

Epinephrine and norepinephrine stimulate the sympathetic division of the ANS, causing
increased heart and lung activity, dilation of the pupils, and increases in blood sugar, which give
the body a surge of energy to respond to a threat
...
A quick-acting nervous system is essential for immediate
activation of the adrenal glands, while the endocrine system mobilizes the body for action
...
Testosterone regulates body changes associated
Attributed to Charles Stangor
Saylor URL: http://www
...
org/books/

Saylor
...
The ovaries, the female sex
glands, are located in the pelvis
...
Estrogen is involved in the development of female sexual
features, including breast growth, the accumulation of body fat around the hips and thighs, and
the growth spurt that occurs during puberty
...

Recent research has pinpointed some of the important roles of the sex hormones in social
behavior
...
They also obtained descriptions of the
fraternities from university officials, fraternity officers, yearbook and chapter house photographs,
and researcher field notes
...
They found that the fraternities with the highest average testosterone levels
were also more wild and unruly, and one of these fraternities was known across campus for the
crudeness of its behavior
...
Banks and Dabbs (1996) [2] found that juvenile delinquents and prisoners who had
high levels of testosterone also acted more violently, and Tremblay et al
...
Although
testosterone levels are higher in men than in women, the relationship between testosterone and
aggression is not limited to males
...
[4]
It must be kept in mind that the observed relationships between testosterone levels and
aggressive behavior that have been found in these studies do not prove that testosterone causes
aggression—the relationships are only correlational
...
saylor
...
org

157

and decreases the testosterone levels of losers (Gladue, Boechler, & McCaul, 1989; Mazur,
Booth, & Dabbs, 1992), [5] and perhaps this is why excited soccer fans sometimes riot when their
team wins
...
A study about hormonal influences on social-cognitive functioning (Macrae,
Alnwick, Milne, & Schloerscheidt, 2002) [6]found that women were more easily able to perceive
and categorize male faces during the more fertile phases of their menstrual cycles
...

At this point you can begin to see the important role the hormones play in behavior
...
In the chapters to come we will consider the important roles
that hormones play in many other behaviors, including sleeping, sexual activity, and helping and
harming others
...




The CNS is made up of bundles of nerves that carry messages to and from the PNS



The peripheral nervous system is composed of the autonomic nervous system (ANS) and the peripheral nervous system
(PNS)
...

These divisions are activated by glands and organs in the endocrine system
...




The spinal cord may bypass the brain by responding rapidly using reflexes
...




Hormones produced by the pituitary and adrenal glands regulate growth, stress, sexual functions, and chemical
balance in the body
...


Attributed to Charles Stangor
Saylor URL: http://www
...
org/books/

Saylor
...


EXERCISES AND CRITICAL THINKING
1
...
What physiological reactions did you experience in the situation,
and what aspects of the endocrine system do you think created those reactions?

2
...
What hormones do you think might
have been involved in creating those emotions?

[1] Dabbs, J
...
, Jr
...
F
...
(1996)
...

rambunctious
...

[2] Banks, T
...
M
...
(1996)
...
Journal of
Social Psychology, 136(1), 49–56
...
E
...
, Boulerice, B
...
, Soussignan, R
...
, Paquette, D
...
(1998)
...
International Journal of Behavioral
Development, 22(4), 753–777
...
(2003)
...
Aggressive Behavior, 29(2), 107–115
...
A
...
, & McCaul, K
...
(1989)
...
Aggressive
Behavior, 15(6), 409–422; Mazur, A
...
, & Dabbs, J
...
(1992)
...
Social Psychology
Quarterly, 55(1), 70–77
...
N
...
A
...
B
...
M
...
Person perception across the menstrual cycle:
Hormonal influences on social-cognitive functioning
...


3
...

The body is controlled by the nervous system, consisting of the central nervous system (CNS)
and the peripheral nervous system (PNS) and the endocrine system, which is made up of glands
that create and control hormones
...
saylor
...
org

159

Neurons are the cells in the nervous system
...

The nervous system operates using an electrochemical process
...

Within the neuron, the electrical charge occurs in the form of an action potential
...

Neurons are separated by junction areas known as synapses
...
More than 100 chemical substances
produced in the body have been identified as neurotransmitters, and these substances have a wide
and profound effect on emotion, cognition, and behavior
...

The brains of all animals are layered, and generally quite similar in overall form
...
It controls the most basic
functions of life, including breathing, attention, and motor responses
...

Above the brain stem are other parts of the old brain involved in the processing of behavior and
emotions, including the thalamus, the cerebellum, and the limbic system
...

The cerebral cortex contains about 20 billion nerve cells and 300 trillion synaptic connections,
and it’s supported by billions more glial cells that surround and link to the neurons
...
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cortex is divided into two hemispheres, and each hemisphere is divided into four lobes, each
separated by folds known as fissures
...
The
parietal lobe is responsible for processing information about touch
...
The cortex
also includes the motor cortex, the somatosensory cortex, the visual cortex, the auditory cortex,
and the association areas
...

Psychologists study the brain using cadaver and lesion approaches, as well as through
neuroimaging techniques that include electroencephalography (EEG), functional magnetic
resonance imaging (fMRI), and transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS)
...
Interneurons, by far the most
common of neurons, are located primarily within the CNS and responsible for communicating
among the neurons
...
The sympathetic division of the ANS is involved in preparing the body
for behavior by activating the organs and the glands in the endocrine system
...

Glands in the endocrine system include the pituitary gland, the pancreas, the adrenal glands, and
the male and female sex glands
...
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hormones estrogen and progesterone play important roles in behavior and contribute to gender
differences
...
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Chapter 4
Sensing and Perceiving
Misperception by Those Trained to Accurately Perceive a Threat
On September 6, 2007, the Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation (APEC) leaders‘ summit was being held in downtown
Sydney, Australia
...
S
...
Bush, were attending the
summit
...

As a prank, eight members of the Australian television satire The Chaser’s War on Everything assembled a false
motorcade made up of two black four-wheel-drive vehicles, a black sedan, two motorcycles, body guards, and
chauffeurs (see the video below)
...
The motorcade drove through Sydney‘s central business district and entered the security zone of the meeting
...
Licciardello
stepped out onto the street and complained, in character as bin Laden, about not being invited to the APEC Summit
...


Chaser APEC Motorcade Stunt
Motorcade Stunt performed by the Chaser pranksters in 2007
...
The
group‘s only realistic attempt to fool police was its Canadian-flag marked vehicles
...
The required APEC 2007 Official Vehicle stickers had the name of the group‘s show printed on them, and this
text: ―This dude likes trees and poetry and certain types of carnivorous plants excite him
...

The Chaser pranksters later explained the primary reason for the stunt
...
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discussed
...
The show‘s lawyers approved the stunt, under the
assumption that the motorcade would be stopped at the APEC meeting
...
[1] In most cases the system is successful, but
as you can see from the above example, it is not perfect
...
Sensation and perception work seamlessly together to allow us to experience the
world through our eyes, ears, nose, tongue, and skin, but also to combine what we are currently
learning from the environment with what we already know about it to make judgments and to
choose appropriate behaviors
...

Psychologists work closely with mechanical and electrical engineers, with experts in defense and
military contractors, and with clinical, health, and sports psychologists to help them apply this
knowledge to their everyday practices
...
[2]
We will begin the chapter with a focus on the six senses of seeing, hearing,
smelling, touching, tasting, and monitoring the body’s positions (proprioception)
...
We do not directly experience stimuli, but rather we experience
those stimuli as they are created by our senses
...

Attributed to Charles Stangor
Saylor URL: http://www
...
org/books/

Saylor
...


[1] Gibson, E
...
, & Pick, A
...
(2000)
...
New York, NY: Oxford
University Press
...
R
...
H
...
Behavioral dynamics of steering, obstacle avoidance, and route selection
...


4
...


Review and summarize the capacities and limitations of human sensation
...


Explain the difference between sensation and perception and describe how psychologists measure sensory and
difference thresholds
...
Our eyes detect light energy and our ears pick up
sound waves
...
Our tongues react to the molecules
of the foods we eat, and our noses detect scents in the air
...
[1]
In many ways our senses are quite remarkable
...
The human ear can detect sounds as low as 20 hertz (vibrations per second) and
as high as 20,000 hertz, and it can hear the tick of a clock about 20 feet away in a quiet room
...
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...
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drop of perfume diffused in a three-room apartment
...
[2]

Link
To get an idea of the range of sounds that the human ear can sense, try testing your hearing here:
http://test-my-hearing
...
Dogs, bats, whales,
and some rodents all have much better hearing than we do, and many animals have a far richer
sense of smell
...
3
"Ultraviolet Light and Bird Vision") and can also sense the pull of the earth’s magnetic field
...
The fact that different organisms have different
sensations is part of their evolutionary adaptation
...


Measuring Sensation
Psychophysics is the branch of psychology that studies the effects of physical stimuli on sensory
perceptions and mental states
...

The measurement techniques developed by Fechner and his colleagues are designed in part to
help determine the limits of human sensation
...
The absolute threshold of a sensation is defined as the intensity of a stimulus that
allows an organism to just barely detect it
...
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either the same or different
...
On
each of the trials your task is to indicate either “yes‖ if you heard a sound or “no‖ if you did not
...

The problem for you is that the very faint signals create uncertainty
...
Your
task is to determine whether the neural activity that you are experiencing is due to the
background noise alone or is a result of a signal within the noise
...
Signal detection analysis is a technique used to determine the ability of the perceiver to
separate true signals from background noise (Macmillan & Creelman, 2005; Wickens,
2002)
...
4 "Outcomes of a Signal Detection Analysis", each
judgment trial creates four possible outcomes: A hit occurs when you, as the listener, correctly
say “yes‖ when there was a sound
...
In
the other two cases you respond “no‖—either a miss (saying “no‖ when there was a signal) or
a correct rejection (saying “no‖ when there was in fact no signal)
...
4 Outcomes of a Signal Detection Analysis

Attributed to Charles Stangor
Saylor URL: http://www
...
org/books/

Saylor
...
Two of the possible decisions
(hits and correct rejections) are accurate; the other two (misses and false alarms) are errors
...
One measure,
known as sensitivity, refers to the true ability of the individual to detect the presence or absence
of signals
...
The other measure, response bias, refers to a behavioral tendency to respond
“yes‖ to the trials, which is independent of sensitivity
...
You can see that in this case making a false alarm by alerting the other soldiers to the
Attributed to Charles Stangor
Saylor URL: http://www
...
org/books/

Saylor
...

Therefore, you might well adopt a very lenient response bias in which whenever you are at all
unsure, you send a warning signal
...

Another application of signal detection occurs when medical technicians study body images for
the presence of cancerous tumors
...
The ultimate decisions that the technicians make are
based on the quality of the signal (clarity of the image), their experience and training (the ability
to recognize certain shapes and textures of tumors), and their best guesses about the relative costs
of misses versus false alarms
...

The difference threshold (or just noticeable difference [JND]), refers to the change in a stimulus
that can just barely be detected by the organism
...
Weber’s law maintains that the just noticeable difference of a
stimulus is a constant proportion of the original intensity of the stimulus
...
But if you added that same teaspoon to a
cup of coffee that already had 5 teaspoons of sugar in it, then you probably wouldn‘t taste the
difference as much (in fact, according to Weber’s law, you would have to add 5 more teaspoons
to make the same difference in taste)
...
Our tendency
to perceive cost differences between products is dependent not only on the amount of money we
Attributed to Charles Stangor
Saylor URL: http://www
...
org/books/

Saylor
...
I
would venture to say that if you were about to buy a soda or candy bar in a convenience store
and the price of the items ranged from $1 to $3, you would think that the $3 item cost “a lot
more‖ than the $1 item
...
Probably you would think that the cost of the two
systems was “about the same,‖ even though buying the cheaper one would still save you $2
...
5 "Absolute Threshold", you will see that the absolute threshold is the point where we become
aware of a faint stimulus
...
But can subliminal stimuli (events that occur below the
absolute threshold and of which we are not conscious) have an influence on our behavior?

Attributed to Charles Stangor
Saylor URL: http://www
...
org/books/

Saylor
...
5Absolute Threshold

As the intensity of a stimulus increases, we are more likely to perceive it
...


Attributed to Charles Stangor
Saylor URL: http://www
...
org/books/

Saylor
...
[4] But whether the presentation of
subliminal stimuli can influence the products that we buy has been a more controversial topic in
psychology
...
To be sure they paid attention to
the display, the students were asked to note whether the strings contained a small b
...
These words were presented so quickly (for only about one fiftieth of a second)
that the participants could not see them
...
The researchers found that the
students who had been exposed to the “Lipton Ice‖ words (and particularly those who indicated
that they were already thirsty) were significantly more likely to say that they would drink Lipton
Ice than were those who had been exposed to the control words
...
People
cannot counterargue with, or attempt to avoid being influenced by, messages received outside
awareness
...

Although it has been proven to work in some research, subliminal advertising’s effectiveness is
still uncertain
...
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...
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leading research studies that had tested the influence of subliminal advertising on consumer
choice
...
And Saegert (1987, p
...

Taken together then, the evidence for the effectiveness of subliminal advertising is weak, and its
effects may be limited to only some people and in only some conditions
...
But even if subliminal advertising is not all that
effective itself, there are plenty of other indirect advertising techniques that are used and that do
work
...
And there is the ever more frequent “product placement‖ techniques, where
images of brands (cars, sodas, electronics, and so forth) are placed on websites and in popular
television shows and movies
...

Another example of processing that occurs outside our awareness is seen when certain areas of
the visual cortex are damaged, causing blindsight, a condition in which people are unable to
consciously report on visual stimuli but nevertheless are able to accurately answer questions
about what they are seeing
...
They report that they cannot see anything
...
For example, people with blindsight are
able to correctly determine an object’s location and direction of movement, as well as identify
simple geometrical forms and patterns (Weiskrantz, 1997)
...
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...
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reports of the visual experiences are not possible, there is still a parallel and implicit process at
work, enabling people to perceive certain aspects of the stimuli
...
Perception is the
process of interpreting and organizing the incoming information in order that we can understand it and react
accordingly
...




Although our experiences of the world are rich and complex, humans—like all species—have their own adapted
sensory strengths and sensory limitations
...




Our judgments in detection tasks are influenced by both the absolute threshold of the signal as well as our current
motivations and experiences
...




The difference threshold, or just noticeable difference, is the ability to detect the smallest change in a stimulus about
50% of the time
...




Research has found that stimuli can influence behavior even when they are presented below the absolute threshold
(i
...
, subliminally)
...


EXERCISES AND CRITICAL THINKING
1
...
Based on what you have learned
about sensation, perception, and psychophysics, why do you think soldiers might mistakenly fire on their own soldiers?

2
...
But if
we pick up two packages, one that weighs 3 pounds 1 ounce and one that weighs 3 pounds 2 ounces, we can’t tell the
difference
...
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3
...
Notice the variety and levels of what you can see, hear, and feel
...
A
...
G
...
On specification and the senses
...

[2] Galanter, E
...
Contemporary Psychophysics
...
Brown, E
...
H
...
Mandler (Eds
...
New York, NY: Holt, Rinehart and Winston
...
A
...
D
...
Detection theory: A user’s guide (2nd ed)
...
D
...
Elementary signal detection theory
...

[4] Dijksterhuis, A
...
Automaticity and the unconscious
...
T
...
T
...
Lindzey (Eds
...
, Vol
...
228–267)
...

[5] Karremans, J
...
, Stroebe, W
...
(2006)
...
Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 42(6), 792–798
...
(1996)
...
Psychology and Marketing, 13, 517–530
...
(1987)
...
Psychology and
Marketing, 4(2), 107–120
...
L
...
A
...
D
...
Priming effects of television food advertising on eating behavior
...

[9] Weiskrantz, L
...
Consciousness lost and found: A neuropsychological exploration
...


4
...


Identify the key structures of the eye and the role they play in vision
...


Summarize how the eye and the visual cortex work together to sense and perceive the visual stimuli in the
environment, including processing colors, shape, depth, and motion
...
A large part of our cerebral cortex is devoted to
seeing, and we have substantial visual skills
...
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...
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the process of transduction
...

The air around us is filled with a sea of electromagnetic energy; pulses of energy waves that can
carry information from place to place
...
6 "The Electromagnetic
Spectrum", electromagnetic waves vary in their wavelength—the distance between one wave
peak and the next wave peak, with the shortest gamma waves being only a fraction of a
millimeter in length and the longest radio waves being hundreds of kilometers long
...


Figure 4
...


The Sensing Eye and the Perceiving Visual Cortex
Attributed to Charles Stangor
Saylor URL: http://www
...
org/books/

Saylor
...
7 "Anatomy of the Human Eye", light enters the eye through
the cornea, a clear covering that protects the eye and begins to focus the incoming light
...
The pupil is
surrounded by the iris, the colored part of the eye that controls the size of the pupil by
constricting or dilating in response to light intensity
...

Complete adaptation to the dark may take up to 20 minutes
...
As our eyes move from near
objects to distant objects, a process known as visual
accommodation occurs
...
Rays from the top of the image strike
the bottom of the retina and vice versa, and rays from the left side of the image strike the right
part of the retina and vice versa, causing the image on the retina to be upside down and
backward
...


Figure 4
...
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...
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177

Light enters the eye through the transparent cornea, passing through the pupil at the center of the iris
...
Receptor cells on the retina
send information via the optic nerve to the visual cortex
...
As you can see in Figure 4
...
Eyeglasses and contact lenses correct this problem
Attributed to Charles Stangor
Saylor URL: http://www
...
org/books/

Saylor
...


Figure 4
...
For people who are
nearsighted (center), images from far objects focus too far in front of the retina, whereas for people who are
farsighted (right), images from near objects focus too far behind the retina
...


The retina contains layers of neurons specialized to respond to light (see Figure 4
...
As light falls on the retina, it first activates receptor cells known
as rods and cones
...
The optic nerve is a collection of millions of ganglion neurons that sends vast
amounts of visual information, via the thalamus, to the brain
...


Figure 4
...
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...
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179

When light falls on the retina, it creates a photochemical reaction in the rods and cones at the back of the retina
...


Rods are visual neurons that specialize in detecting black, white, and gray colors
...
The rods do not provide a lot of detail about the images we
see, but because they are highly sensitive to shorter-waved (darker) and weak light, they help us
see in dim light, for instance, at night
...
Cones are visual neurons that are
specialized in detecting fine detail and colors
...
The cones are located primarily in and around
the fovea, which is the central point of the retina
...
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180

To demonstrate the difference between rods and cones in attention to detail, choose a word in
this text and focus on it
...

As you can see in Figure 4
...
Although the principle of contralateral control might lead you to expect that the left eye
would send information to the right brain hemisphere and vice versa, nature is smarter than that
...
This is an adaptational
advantage to an organism that loses sight in one eye, because even if only one eye is functional,
both hemispheres will still receive input from it
...
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...
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Figure 4
...


The visual cortex is made up of specialized neurons that turn the sensations they receive from the
optic nerve into meaningful images
...
12
Attributed to Charles Stangor
Saylor URL: http://www
...
org/books/

Saylor
...
When both of our eyes are open, we don’t experience a problem
because our eyes are constantly moving, and one eye makes up for what the other eye misses
...
The ability of the visual system to cope
with the blind spot is another example of how sensation and perception work together to create
meaningful experience
...
12 Blind Spot Demonstration

You can get an idea of the extent of your blind spot (the place where the optic nerve leaves the retina) by trying this
demonstration
...
You should be able to
see the elephant image to the right (don’t look at it, just notice that it is there)
...
Now slowly move so that you are closer to the image while you keep looking at
the cross
...


Perception is created in part through the simultaneous action of thousands of
feature detector neurons—specialized neurons, located in the visual cortex, that respond to the
strength, angles, shapes, edges, and movements of a visual stimulus (Kelsey, 1997; Livingstone
& Hubel, 1988)
...
When faced with a red square, for instance, the parallel line feature detectors, the
Attributed to Charles Stangor
Saylor URL: http://www
...
org/books/

Saylor
...
This
activation is then passed on to other parts of the visual cortex where other neurons compare the
information supplied by the feature detectors with images stored in memory
...
, 1999)
...
13 The Necker Cube

The Necker cube is an example of how the visual system creates perceptions out of sensations
...
Which cube we see varies depending on the momentary outcome of perceptual processes
in the visual cortex
...
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...
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184

2001; Haxby et al
...
[4] When researchers disrupted face recognition areas of the cortex
using the magnetic pulses of transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS), people were temporarily
unable to recognize faces, and yet they were still able to recognize houses (McKone, Kanwisher,
& Duchaine, 2007; Pitcher, Walsh, Yovel, & Duchaine, 2007)
...
The shade of a color, known as hue, is conveyed by
the wavelength of the light that enters the eye (we see shorter wavelengths as more blue and
longer wavelengths as more red), and we detect brightness from the intensity or height of the
wave (bigger or more intense waves are perceived as brighter)
...
14 Low- and High-Frequency Sine Waves and Low- and High-Intensity Sine Waves and Their
Corresponding Colors

Attributed to Charles Stangor
Saylor URL: http://www
...
org/books/

Saylor
...


In his important research on color vision, Hermann von Helmholtz (1821–1894) theorized that
color is perceived because the cones in the retina come in three types
...
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...
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186

wavelengths), and a third reacts primarily to red light (long wavelengths)
...
According to this Young-Helmholtz trichromatic color theory, what
color we see depends on the mix of the signals from the three types of cones
...

The different functions of the three types of cones are apparent in people who
experience color blindness—the inability to detect either green and/or red colors
...
15)
...
15

People with normal color vision can see the number 42 in the first image and the number 12 in the second (they are
vague but apparent)
...


Attributed to Charles Stangor
Saylor URL: http://www
...
org/books/

Saylor
...
wikimedia
...
PNG and http://commons
...
org/wiki/File:Ishiha
ra_23
...


The trichromatic color theory cannot explain all of human vision, however
...
And people with color blindness, who cannot see either green or red, nevertheless
can still see yellow
...
Evidence for the opponent-process theory comes from the fact that some neurons in the
retina and in the visual cortex are excited by one color (e
...
, red) but inhibited by another color
(e
...
, green)
...
If you stare at
the flag on the left side of Figure 4
...
S
...
When we stare at the green stripes, our green receptors habituate and begin to
process less strongly, whereas the red receptors remain at full strength
...
Similar processes create blue after
yellow and white after black
...
16 U
...
Flag

Attributed to Charles Stangor
Saylor URL: http://www
...
org/books/

Saylor
...
Stare at the flag
for a few seconds, and then move your gaze to the blank space next to it
...
wikipedia
...
svg
...
When
light rays enter the eye, the red, blue, and green cones on the retina respond in different degrees,
and send different strength signals of red, blue, and green through the optic nerve
...
[7]

Perceiving Form
One of the important processes required in vision is the perception of form
...
The idea
of the gestalt is that the “whole is more than the sum of its parts
...
1 "Summary
of Gestalt Principles of Form Perception"
...
1 Summary of Gestalt Principles of Form Perception

Principle

Description

Example

We structure

At right, you may see a vase

input such that

or you may see two faces,

we always see a

Image

but in either case, you will

Figure and figure (image)

organize the image as a

ground

figure against a ground
...
saylor
...
1

Saylor
...


Figure 4
...
rows
...
saylor
...
1

Saylor
...


Example

Image

of proximity suggest that
you might see only four
...
1

At right, most people see a
line of dots that moves from
We tend to

the lower left to the upper

perceive stimuli

right, rather than a line that

in smooth,

moves from the left and then

continuous ways

suddenly turns down
...


possible path
...
saylor
...
1

Saylor
...


complete, whole
object
...
Without depth perception, we would be unable to drive a car, thread a needle, or simply
navigate our way around the supermarket (Howard & Rogers, 2001)
...
[9]
Psychologists Eleanor Gibson and Richard Walk (1960) [10] tested the ability to perceive depth in
6- to 14-month-old infants by placing them on a visual cliff,a mechanism that gives the
perception of a dangerous drop-off, in which infants can be safely tested for their perception of
depth (Figure 4
...
The infants were placed on one side of the “cliff,‖ while their
Attributed to Charles Stangor
Saylor URL: http://www
...
org/books/

Saylor
...
Gibson and Walk found that most infants either
crawled away from the cliff or remained on the board and cried because they wanted to go to
their mothers, but the infants perceived a chasm that they instinctively could not cross
...
[11] On the other hand, studies have also found that infants
improve their hand-eye coordination as they learn to better grasp objects and as they gain more
experience in crawling, indicating that depth perception is also learned (Adolph, 2000)
...

Binocular depth cues are depth cues that are created by retinal image disparity—that is, the
space between our eyes, and thus which require the coordination of both eyes
...

The visual cortex automatically merges the two images into one, enabling us to perceive depth
...
The perceptual system quickly, easily, and
unconsciously turns the disparity into 3-D
...
The visual cortex uses the size
of the convergence angle between the eyes to judge the object’s distance
...
When you close one eye, you no longer feel the tension—convergence is a binocular depth
cue that requires both eyes to work
...
As the lens changes its
curvature to focus on distant or close objects, information relayed from the muscles attached to
the lens helps us determine an object’s distance
...

Attributed to Charles Stangor
Saylor URL: http://www
...
org/books/

Saylor
...
Monocular depth cues are depth cues that help us perceive depth using
only one eye (Sekuler & Blake, 2006)
...
2 "Monocular Depth Cues That Help Us Judge Depth at a Distance"
...
2 Monocular Depth Cues That Help Us Judge Depth at a Distance

Name

Description

Example

Image

The fence posts at
right appear farther
away not only
because they become
We tend to see objects smaller but also
higher up in our field
of vision as farther
Position

because they appear
higher up in the

away
...


Assuming that the
objects in a scene are

At right, the cars in

the same size, smaller

the distance appear

objects are perceived

smaller than those

Relative size as farther away
...
saylor
...


Saylor
...
When they
appear closer
together, we
Linear

Parallel lines appear to determine they are

perspective

converge at a distance
...


Figure 4
...
Normally, light

according to their

comes from above, so

shadowing
...


images will reverse
...


Attributed to Charles Stangor
Saylor URL: http://www
...
org/books/

yellow moon
...
org

195

Name

Description

Example

Image

The artist who
painted the picture on
Objects that appear

the right used aerial

hazy, or that are

perspective to make

covered with smog or

the clouds more hazy

Aerial

dust, appear farther

and thus appear

perspective

away
...


Perceiving Motion
Many animals, including human beings, have very sophisticated perceptual skills that allow them
to coordinate their own motion with the motion of moving objects in order to create a collision
with that object
...
The brain detects motion partly from the
changing size of an image on the retina (objects that look bigger are usually closer to us) and in
part from the relative brightness of objects
...

The beta effect refers to the perception of motion that occurs when different images are
presented next to each other in succession (see Note 4
...

The visual cortex fills in the missing part of the motion and we see the object moving
...
A related effect is
thephi phenomenon, in which we perceive a sensation of motion caused by the appearance and
disappearance of objects that are near each other
...
The beta effect and the phi
phenomenon are other examples of the importance of the gestalt—our tendency to “see more
than the sum of the parts
...
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...
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196

In the beta effect, our eyes detect motion from a series of still images, each with the object in a different place
...
In the phi phenomenon, the perception of motion is based
on the momentary hiding of an image
...
wikimedia
...
gif
Beta effect:http://upload
...
org/wikipedia/commons/0/09/Phi_phenomenom_no_watermark
...
Only a small fraction of the
electromagnetic spectrum is visible to humans
...




Light enters the eye through the transparent cornea and passes through the pupil at the center of the iris
...
Receptor cells on the retina are
excited or inhibited by the light and send information to the visual cortex through the optic nerve
...
Color blindness occurs when people lack function in the red- or greensensitive cones
...




The Young-Helmholtz trichromatic color theory proposes that color perception is the result of the signals sent by the
three types of cones, whereas the opponent-process color theory proposes that we perceive color as three sets of
opponent colors: red-green, yellow-blue, and white-black
...




Motion is perceived as a function of the size and brightness of objects
...


EXERCISES AND CRITICAL THINKING
1
...


Attributed to Charles Stangor
Saylor URL: http://www
...
org/books/

Saylor
...


Imagine for a moment what your life would be like if you couldn’t see
...
S
...
Is it warm? Is it real? Or just low spatial frequency? Science, 290, 1299
...
A
...
Detection of visual information
...
R
...
N
...
Wells (Eds
...
New York, NY: Springer Verlag; Livingstone, M
...
(1998)
...
Science, 240, 740–749
...
, George, N
...
-P
...
, Renault, B
...
J
...
Perception’s shadow:
Long-distance synchronization of human brain activity
...

[4] Downing, P
...
, Jiang, Y
...
, & Kanwisher, N
...
A cortical area selective for visual processing of
the human body
...
V
...
I
...
L
...
, Schouten, J
...
,
& Pietrini, P
...
Distributed and overlapping representations of faces and objects in ventral temporal
cortex
...

[5] McKone, E
...
, & Duchaine, B
...
(2007)
...
, Walsh, V
...
, & Duchaine, B
...
TMS evidence
for the involvement of the right occipital face area in early face processing
...

[6] Geldard, F
...
(1972)
...
New York, NY: John Wiley & Sons
...
R
...
C
...
Color vision
...

[8] Howard, I
...
, & Rogers, B
...
(2001)
...
1)
...

[9] Witherington, D
...
(2005)
...
Infancy, 7(2), 143–161
...
J
...
D
...
The “visual cliff
...

[11] Campos, J
...
, Langer, A
...
(1970)
...
Science, 170(3954), 196–197
...
E
...
Specificity of learning: Why infants fall over a veritable cliff
...

[13] Sekuler, R
...
, (2006)
...
New York, NY: McGraw-Hill
...
saylor
...
org

198

4
...


Draw a picture of the ear and label its key structures and functions, and describe the role they play in hearing
...


Describe the process of transduction in hearing
...
Sound waves that are
collected by our ears are converted into neural impulses, which are sent to the brain where they
are integrated with past experience and interpreted as the sounds we experience
...
But the ear is particularly sensitive to sounds in the same frequency as the human voice
...
In a fraction of a second, our auditory system receives the
sound waves, transmits them to the auditory cortex, compares them to stored knowledge of other
voices, and identifies the identity of the caller
...
Vibrating objects (such as the
human vocal chords or guitar strings) cause air molecules to bump into each other and produce
sound waves, which travel from their source as peaks and valleys much like the ripples that
expand outward when a stone is tossed into a pond
...

As with light waves, we detect both the wavelength and the amplitude of sound waves
...
saylor
...
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199

sound
...

The amplitude, or height of the sound wave, determines how much energy it contains and is
perceived as loudness (the degree of sound volume)
...

Loudness is measured using the unit of relative loudness known as the decibel
...
Each
increase in 10 decibels represents a tenfold increase in the loudness of the sound (see Figure 4
...
The sound of a typical conversation (about 60 decibels) is 1,000
times louder than the sound of a faint whisper (30 decibels), whereas the sound of a jackhammer
(130 decibels) is 10 billion times louder than the whisper
...
29 Sounds in Everyday Life

Attributed to Charles Stangor
Saylor URL: http://www
...
org/books/

Saylor
...
Prolonged exposure to sounds above 80 decibels can
cause hearing loss
...
At the end of the canal,
the sound waves strike the tightly stretched, highly sensitive membrane known as
thetympanic membrane (or eardrum), which vibrates with the waves
...
saylor
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201

malleus), anvil (or incus), and stirrup (or stapes)—to the cochlea, a snail-shaped liquid-filled
tube in the inner ear
...

The movements of the fluid in the cochlea bend the hair cells of the inner ear, much in the same
way that a gust of wind bends over wheat stalks in a field
...
The cochlea contains about 16,000 hair cells, each of which
holds a bundle of fibers known as cilia on its tip
...
To put things in perspective, cilia
swaying at the width of an atom is equivalent to the tip of the Eiffel Tower swaying by half an
inch (Corey et al
...
[1]

Figure 4
...
saylor
...
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202

Sound waves enter the outer ear and are transmitted through the auditory canal to the eardrum
...


Although loudness is directly determined by the number of hair cells that are vibrating, two
different mechanisms are used to detect pitch
...
For example, a tone measuring 600 hertz will be transduced into 600
nerve impulses a second
...
To reach the necessary speed, the neurons work together in a
sort of volley system in which different neurons fire in sequence, allowing us to detect sounds up
to about 4,000 hertz
...
saylor
...
org

203

Not only is frequency important, but location is critical as well
...

The place theory of hearing proposes that different areas of the cochlea respond to different
frequencies
...
Lower tones excite areas near the narrow tip of the cochlea, at the opposite end
...

Just as having two eyes in slightly different positions allows us to perceive depth, so the fact that
the ears are placed on either side of the head enables us to benefit from stereophonic, or threedimensional, hearing
...
Although the distance between our two ears is only
about 6 inches, and sound waves travel at 750 miles an hour, the time and intensity differences
are easily detected (Middlebrooks & Green, 1991)
...
It is for this reason that dogs (and people, too) tend to cock their heads
when trying to pinpoint a sound, so that the ears receive slightly different signals
...
[3] Conductive hearing loss is caused by physical damage to the ear (such as to the
eardrums or ossicles) that reduce the ability of the ear to transfer vibrations from the outer ear to
the inner ear
...
[4] The
cilia are extremely fragile, and by the time we are 65 years old, we will have lost 40% of them,
particularly those that respond to high-pitched sounds (Chisolm, Willott, & Lister, 2003)
...
People who constantly operate noisy machinery without using
Attributed to Charles Stangor
Saylor URL: http://www
...
org/books/

Saylor
...
Sounds
that are 85 decibels or more can cause damage to your hearing, particularly if you are exposed to
them repeatedly
...
People who experience tinnitus (a ringing or a buzzing sensation) after being
exposed to loud sounds have very likely experienced some damage to their cilia
...

While conductive hearing loss can often be improved through hearing aids that amplify the
sound, they are of little help to sensorineural hearing loss
...
A cochlear implant is a device made up of a series of electrodes
that are placed inside the cochlea
...
The latest implants utilize place theory, enabling different spots on
the implant to respond to different levels of pitch
...
[6]
KEY TAKEAWAYS


Sound waves vibrating through mediums such as air, water, or metal are the stimulus energy that is sensed by the ear
...




Sound waves enter the outer ear (the pinna) and are sent to the eardrum via the auditory canal
...
The vibrations are
detected by the cilia (hair cells) and sent via the auditory nerve to the auditory cortex
...
The place theory of hearing
suggests that we hear different pitches because different areas of the cochlea respond to higher and lower pitches
...
saylor
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

Conductive hearing loss is caused by physical damage to the ear or eardrum and may be improved by hearing aids or
cochlear implants
...


EXERCISE AND CRITICAL THINKING
1
...
P
...
, Holt, J
...
, Kwan, K
...
, Lin, S
...
, Vollrath, M
...
, Amalfitano, A
...
-S
...
TRPA1
is a candidate for the mechano-sensitive transduction channel of vertebrate hair cells
...
Retrieved
fromhttp://www
...
com/nature/journal/v432/n7018/full/nature03066
...
C
...
M
...
Sound localization by human listeners
...

[3] Kochkin, S
...
MarkeTrak VII: Hearing loss population tops 31 million people
...

[4] Tennesen, M
...
Gone today, hear tomorrow
...

[5] Chisolm, T
...
, Willott, J
...
, & Lister, J
...
(2003)
...
International Journal of Audiology, 42(Suppl
...

[6] Dettman, S
...
, Pinder, D
...
J
...
, Dowell, R
...
, & Leigh, J
...
(2007)
...
Ear and Hearing, 28(2, Suppl
...
F
...
S
...
The design and function of cochlear implants
...


4
...


Summarize how the senses of taste and olfaction transduce stimuli into perceptions
...


Describe the process of transduction in the senses of touch and proprioception
...
saylor
...
org

206

3
...
Explain why pain matters and how it may be controlled
...
These other senses are touch, taste, smell, and our sense of body
position and movement (proprioception)
...
Many children are picky eaters for a reason—they are biologically
predisposed to be very careful about what they eat
...

Our ability to taste begins at the taste receptors on the tongue
...
Umami is a meaty taste associated with meats, cheeses, soy, seaweed, and mushrooms,
and particularly found in monosodium glutamate (MSG), a popular flavor enhancer (Ikeda,
1909/2002; Sugimoto & Ninomiya, 2005)
...

Most taste buds are located in the top outer edges of the tongue, but there are also receptors at the
back of the tongue as well as on the walls of the mouth and at the back of the throat
...
[2] Human tongues are covered with 2,000 to 10,000 taste buds, and each
bud contains between 50 and 100 taste receptor cells
...
[3] On average, taste buds live for about 5 days, after which
Attributed to Charles Stangor
Saylor URL: http://www
...
org/books/

Saylor
...
As we get older, however, the rate of creation
decreases making us less sensitive to taste
...

The area of the sensory cortex that responds to taste is in a very similar location to the area that
responds to smell, a fact that helps explain why the sense of smell also contributes to our
experience of the things we eat
...
Our experience of texture in a food (the
way we feel it on our tongues) also influences how we taste it
...
The olfactory receptor cells are topped with tentacle-like protrusions
that contain receptor proteins
...
31 "Smell Receptors")
...
31 Smell Receptors

Attributed to Charles Stangor
Saylor URL: http://www
...
org/books/

Saylor
...


We have approximately 1,000 types of odor receptor cells (Bensafi et al
...
[5] The receptors come in many different shapes and respond selectively to different
smells
...
Just as the 10
digits from 0 to 9 can combine in many different ways to produce an endless array of phone
numbers, odor molecules bind to different combinations of receptors, and these combinations are
decoded in the olfactory cortex
...
32 "Age Differences in Smell",
women tend to have a more acute sense of smell than men
...
By ages 60 to 70, the sense of smell has become
sharply diminished
...
Infants thrive when they are cuddled and
attended to, but not if they are deprived of human contact (Baysinger, Plubell, & Harlow, 1973;
Attributed to Charles Stangor
Saylor URL: http://www
...
org/books/

Saylor
...
[6] Touch communicates
warmth, caring, and support, and is an essential part of the enjoyment we gain from our social
interactions with close others (Field et al
...
[7]
The skin, the largest organ in the body, is the sensory organ for touch
...
When you touch different parts of the body, you will find that some areas are more
ticklish, whereas other areas respond more to pain, cold, or heat
...
Other sensations
are created by a combination of the other four
...

The experience of heat is caused by the stimulation of hot and cold receptors
...

The experience of wetness is caused by repeated stimulation of cold and pressure receptors
...

Proprioception is accomplished by specialized neurons located in the skin, joints, bones, ears,
and tendons, which send messages about the compression and the contraction of muscles
throughout the body
...

The ability to keep track of where the body is moving is also provided by thevestibular system, a
set of liquid-filled areas in the inner ear that monitors the head’s position and movement,
maintaining the body’s balance
...
33 "The Vestibular System", the
Attributed to Charles Stangor
Saylor URL: http://www
...
org/books/

Saylor
...
These sacs connect
the canals with the cochlea
...
The vestibular system sends signals to the
neural structures that control eye movement and to the muscles that keep the body upright
...
33 The Vestibular System

The vestibular system includes the semicircular canals (brown) that transduce the rotational movements of the
body and the vestibular sacs (blue) that sense linear accelerations
...

The burn when we touch a hot radiator and the sharp stab when we step on a nail lead us to
Attributed to Charles Stangor
Saylor URL: http://www
...
org/books/

Saylor
...
People who cannot experience
pain are in serious danger of damage from wounds that others with pain would quickly notice
and attend to
...
One set of smaller nerve fibers carries pain from the body to the
brain, whereas a second set of larger fibers is designed to stop or start (as a gate would) the flow
of pain (Melzack & Wall, 1996)
...
[9]
Experiencing pain is a lot more complicated than simply responding to neural messages,
however
...
We feel pain less when we are busy focusing on a
challenging activity (Bantick, Wise, Ploghaus, Clare, Smith, & Tracey, 2002), [10] which can help
explain why sports players may feel their injuries only after the game
...
[11] And pain is soothed by
the brain’s release of endorphins, natural hormonal pain killers
...
[12]
KEY TAKEAWAYS


The ability to taste, smell, and touch are important because they help us avoid harm from environmental toxins
...




In olfaction, transduction occurs as airborne chemicals that are inhaled through the nostrils are detected by receptors
in the olfactory membrane
...




On average, women have a better sense of smell than men, and the ability to smell diminishes with age
...
But only the sensation of pressure has its own specialized receptors
...
saylor
...
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

Proprioception is our ability to sense the positions and movements of our body parts
...




The vestibular system, composed of structures in the inner ear, monitors the head’s position and movement,
maintaining the body’s balance
...


EXERCISES AND CRITICAL THINKING
1
...
Which of the six taste sensations do these foods have, and why do you
think that you like these particular flavors?

2
...


Why is experiencing pain a benefit for human beings?

[1] Ikeda, K
...
[New seasonings]
...
Translated andshortened to 75% by Y
...

Ninomiya from the Journal of the Chemical Society of Tokyo, 30, 820–836
...
, &
Ninomiya, Y
...
Introductory remarks on umami research: Candidate receptors and signal transduction mechanisms on
umami
...
1), Pi21–i22
...
G
...
Taste buds: Development and evolution
...

[3] Kelling, S
...
, & Halpern, B
...
(1983)
...
Science, 219, 412–414
...
, Zelano, C
...
, Mainland, J
...
, & Sobel, N
...
Olfaction: From sniff to percept
...
S
...
), The cognitive neurosciences (3rd ed
...

[5] Malnic, B
...
, Sato, T
...
B
...
Combinatorial receptor codes for odors
...

[6] Baysinger, C
...
, Plubell, P
...
, & Harlow, H
...
(1973)
...
Behavior Research Methods & Instrumentation, 5(3), 269–272; Feldman, R
...
Maternal-infant contact and
child development: Insights from the kangaroo intervention
...
L’Abate (Ed
...
323–351)
...
,
Bascom, B
...
, & Scripcaru, V
...
Sensory functions of institutionalized Romanian infants: A pilot
study
...


Attributed to Charles Stangor
Saylor URL: http://www
...
org/books/

Saylor
...
, Lasko, D
...
, Henteleff, T
...
, Talpins, S
...
(1997)
...
Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 27(3), 333–338;
Keltner, D
...
Born to be good: The science of a meaningful life
...

[8] Melzack, R
...
(1996)
...
London, England: Penguin
...
(2000)
...
New York, NY: Columbia University Press
...
J
...
G
...
, Clare, S
...
M
...
(2002)
...
Brain: A Journal of Neurology, 125(2), 310–319
...
, Velker, B
...
(2004)
...
Humor: International Journal of Humor Research, 17(1-2), 85–119
...
F
...
, Grant, M
...
H
...
Competition alters the perception of noxious stimuli in male
and female athletes
...


4
...


Describe how sensation and perception work together through sensory interaction, selective attention, sensory
adaptation, and perceptual constancy
...


Give examples of how our expectations may influence our perception, resulting in illusions and potentially inaccurate
judgments
...
But by and large, we do not experience
sensation—we experience the outcome of perception—the total package that the brain puts
together from the pieces it receives through our senses and that the brain creates for us to
experience
...
[1]

How the Perceptual System Interprets the Environment

Attributed to Charles Stangor
Saylor URL: http://www
...
org/books/

Saylor
...
One of these is sensory interaction—the working together of different senses to create
experience
...
It is also involved when we enjoy a movie because of the way the
images and the music work together
...
One example of sensory interaction is
shown in the McGurk effect—an error in perception that occurs when we misperceive sounds
because the audio and visual parts of the speech are mismatched
...
69 "Video Clip: The McGurk Effect"
...
You can experience it here
...
g
...
g
...
Most
people do not experience synesthesia, but those who do link their perceptions in unusual ways,
for instance, by experiencing color when they taste a particular food or by hearing sounds when
they see certain objects (Ramachandran, Hubbard, Robertson, & Sagiv, 2005)
...
View Note 4
...
You may find that, like
many other people who view it for the first time, you miss something important because you
selectively attend to only one aspect of the video (Simons & Chabris, 1999)
...
saylor
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215

fact that the Chaser group’s motorcade was a fake—they focused on some aspects of the
situation, such as the color of the cars and the fact that they were there at all, and completely
ignored others (the details of the security information)
...


Selective attention also allows us to focus on a single talker at a party while ignoring other
conversations that are occurring around us (Broadbent, 1958; Cherry, 1953)
...
But selective attention is not complete; we also at the same time monitor what’s happening
in the channels we are not focusing on
...
This cocktail party phenomenon shows us
that although selective attention is limiting what we processes, we are nevertheless at the same
time doing a lot of unconscious monitoring of the world around us—you didn’t know you were
attending to the background sounds of the party, but evidently you were
...
When you step into a swimming pool, the water
initially feels cold, but after a while you stop noticing it
...
The ability to adapt to
the things that don’t change around us is essential to our survival, as it leaves our sensory
receptors free to detect the important and informative changes in our environment and to respond
accordingly
...
Our
sensory receptors are alert to novelty and are fatigued after constant exposure to the same
stimulus
...
saylor
...
org

216

If sensory adaptation occurs with all senses, why doesn’t an image fade away after we stare at it
for a period of time? The answer is that, although we are not aware of it, our eyes are constantly
flitting from one angle to the next, making thousands of tiny movements (called saccades) every
minute
...
What would happen if we could stop the movement of our eyes?
Psychologists have devised a way of testing the sensory adaptation of the eye by attaching an
instrument that ensures a constant image is maintained on the eye’s inner surface
...
Because the
projector follows the exact movements of the eye, the same image is always projected,
stimulating the same spot, on the retina
...
The image will begin to vanish, then reappear, only to disappear again, either in pieces
or as a whole
...
[6]
One of the major problems in perception is to ensure that we always perceive the same object in
the same way, despite the fact that the sensations that it creates on our receptors changes
dramatically
...
Consider our image of a door as it swings
...
But we
never perceive the door as changing shape as it swings—perceptual mechanisms take care of the
problem for us by allowing us to see a constant shape
...
Imagine that you are wearing blue jeans and
a bright white t-shirt
...
When you go indoors, the
light shining on the clothes will be significantly dimmer, but you will still perceive the t-shirt as
bright
...
[7] In the same way, a green leaf on a cloudy
day may reflect the same wavelength of light as a brown tree branch does on a sunny day
...

Attributed to Charles Stangor
Saylor URL: http://www
...
org/books/

Saylor
...
Illusions occur when the perceptual
processes that normally help us correctly perceive the world around us are fooled by a
particular situation so that we see something that does not exist or that is incorrect
...
34
"Optical Illusions as a Result of Brightness Constancy (Left) and Color Constancy
(Right)" presents two situations in which our normally accurate perceptions of visual constancy
have been fooled
...
34 Optical Illusions as a Result of Brightness Constancy (Left) and Color Constancy (Right)

Look carefully at the snakelike pattern on the left
...
Square A in the right-hand image looks very different from square B,
even though they are exactly the same
...

Adelson,http://commons
...
org/wiki/File:Grey_square_optical_illusion
...


Another well-known illusion is the Mueller-Lyer illusion (see Figure 4
...
The line segment in the bottom arrow looks longer to us than the one on the top, even
though they are both actually the same length
...
saylor
...
org

218

the failure of monocular depth cues—the bottom line looks like an edge that is normally farther
away from us, whereas the top one looks like an edge that is normally closer
...
35 The Mueller-Lyre Illusion

The Mueller-Lyre illusion makes the line segment at the top of the left picture appear shorter than the one at the
bottom
...


The moon illusion refers to the fact that the moon is perceived to be about 50% larger when it is
near the horizon than when it is seen overhead, despite the fact that both moons are the same size
and cast the same size retinal image
...
36 "The Moon Illusion") create the illusion that things that are lower and more
hazy are farther away
...
If we look at a horizon moon
through a tube of rolled up paper, taking away the surrounding horizon cues, the moon will
immediately appear smaller
...
saylor
...
org

219

The Ponzo illusion operates on the same principle
...
37 "The Ponzo
Illusion", the top yellow bar seems longer than the bottom one, but if you measure them you’ll
see that they are exactly the same length
...
The topmost bar therefore appears longer
...
37 The Ponzo Illusion

The Ponzo illusion is caused by a failure of the monocular depth cue of linear perspective: Both bars are the same
size even though the top one looks larger
...
But the fact that some illusions exist in some cases does not mean that the perceptual
system is generally inaccurate—in fact, humans normally become so closely in touch with their
Attributed to Charles Stangor
Saylor URL: http://www
...
org/books/

Saylor
...
[8] The close relationship
between people and their environments means that, although illusions can be created in the lab
and under some unique situations, they may be less common with active observers in the real
world (Runeson, 1988)
...
People who are warned that they are about to taste something
bad rate what they do taste more negatively than people who are told that the taste won’t be so
bad (Nitschke et al
...
[11]Similarly,
participants who see images of the same baby rate it as stronger and bigger when they are told it
is a boy as opposed to when they are told it is a girl (Stern & Karraker, 1989), [12] and research
participants who learn that a child is from a lower-class background perceive the child’s scores
on an intelligence test as lower than people who see the same test taken by a child they are told is
from an upper-class background (Darley & Gross, 1983)
...
And even experts can be fooled: Professional referees tended to assign more
penalty cards to soccer teams for videotaped fouls when they were told that the team had a
history of aggressive behavior than when they had no such expectation (Jones, Paull, & Erskine,
2002)
...
When we are hungry, foodrelated words tend to grab our attention more than non-food-related words (Mogg, Bradley,
Hyare, & Lee, 1998), [16] we perceive objects that we can reach as bigger than those that we
cannot reach (Witt & Proffitt, 2005),[17] and people who favor a political candidate’s policies
Attributed to Charles Stangor
Saylor URL: http://www
...
org/books/

Saylor
...
[18] Even our culture influences perception
...
They found that
(consistent with their overall individualistic orientation) the American students tended to focus
more on the foreground image, while Asian students (consistent with their interdependent
orientation) paid more attention to the image’s context
...


Psychology in Everyday Life: How Understanding Sensation and Perception Can Save
Lives
Human factors is the field of psychology that uses psychological knowledge, including the principles of sensation and
perception, to improve the development of technology
...


For instance, modern televisions and computer monitors were developed on the basis of the trichromatic

color theory, using three color elements placed close enough together so that the colors are blended by the eye
...


[21]

Human factors also has made substantial contributions to airline safety
...


[22]

During takeoff, travel, and landing, the pilot

simultaneously communicates with ground control, maneuvers the plane, scans the horizon for other aircraft, and
operates controls
...

Psychologist Conrad Kraft (1978)

[23]

hypothesized that as planes land, with no other distance cues visible, pilots may

be subjected to a type of moon illusion, in which the city lights beyond the runway appear much larger on the retina
than they really are, deceiving the pilot into landing too early
...
saylor
...
org

222

safety measures, where copilots must call out the altitude progressively during the descent, which has probably
decreased the number of landing accidents
...
38 presents the design of an airplane instrument panel before and after it was redesigned by human factors
psychologists
...
The controls were more or less the same in color, and the gauges were
not easy to read
...
38) shows a marked improvement in usability
...
Screens make
use of LCD and 3-D graphics
...

Figure 4
...
Displays that are easy to see
in darker conditions quickly become unreadable when the sun shines directly on them
...
Furthermore, perceptual contrast is important
...
Human factors
psychologists used these principles to determine the appropriate stimulus intensity needed on these displays so that
pilots would be able to read them accurately and quickly under a wide range of conditions
...


[24]

KEY TAKEAWAYS


Sensory interaction occurs when different senses work together, for instance, when taste, smell, and touch together
produce the flavor of food
...


Attributed to Charles Stangor
Saylor URL: http://www
...
org/books/

Saylor
...




Perceptual constancy allows us to perceive an object as the same, despite changes in sensation
...




Our emotions, motivations, desires, and even our culture can influence our perceptions
...


Consider the role of the security personnel at the APEC meeting who let the Chaser group’s car enter the security area
...


2
...


[1] Goodale, M
...
(2006)
...
Psychologist, 19(11), 660–663
...
B
...
G
...
G
...
The role of vection, eye movements, and postural instability in the etiology
of motion sickness
...

[3] Ramachandran, V
...
, Hubbard, E
...
, Robertson, L
...
, & Sagiv, N
...
The emergence of the human mind: Some clues
from synesthesia
...
147–190)
...

[4] Simons, D
...
, & Chabris, C
...
(1999)
...
Perception,
28(9), 1059–1074
...
E
...
Perception and communication
...
C
...
Some experiments
on the recognition of speech, with one and with two ears
...

[6] Yarbus, A
...
(1967)
...
New York, NY: Plenum Press
...
J
...
Rules for color constancy
...

[8] Calvo, P
...
(Eds
...
Handbook of cognitive science: An embodied approach
...

[9] Runeson, S
...
The distorted room illusion, equivalent configurations, and the specificity of static optic arrays
...

[10] Nitschke, J
...
, Dixon, G
...
, Sarinopoulos, I
...
J
...
D
...
E
...
J
...
Altering
expectancy dampens neural response to aversive taste in primary taste cortex
...


Attributed to Charles Stangor
Saylor URL: http://www
...
org/books/

Saylor
...
, & Dal Martello, M
...
(2002)
...
Psychological Science, 13, 213–218
...
, & Karraker, K
...
(1989)
...
Sex Roles, 20(9–10),
501–522
...
M
...
H
...
A hypothesis-confirming bias in labeling effects
...

[14] Plassmann, H
...
, Shiv, B
...
(2008)
...
Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 105(3), 1050–1054
...
V
...
C
...
(2002)
...
Journal of Sports Sciences, 20, 991–1000
...
, Bradley, B
...
, Hyare, H
...
(1998)
...
Behavior Research
& Therapy, 36(2), 227–237
...
K
...
R
...
See the ball, hit the ball: Apparent ball size is correlated with batting
average
...

[18] Caruso, E
...
, Mead, N
...
, & Balcetis, E
...
Political partisanship influences perception of biracial candidates’ skin
tone
...

[19] Chua, H
...
, Boland, J
...
, & Nisbett, R
...
(2005)
...
Proceedings
of the National Academy of Sciences, 102, 12629–12633
...
W
...
(2008)
...
Boca Raton, FL: CRC Press
...
, & Strayer, D
...
Preface to the special section on driver distraction
...

[22] Nickerson, R
...
(1998)
...
Applied Psychology: An International Review, 47, 155–173
...
(1978)
...
In H
...

Pick, H
...
Leibowitz, J
...
Singer, A
...
W
...
), Psychology: From research to practice
...

[24] Silverstein, L
...
, Krantz, J
...
, Gomer, F
...
, Yeh, Y
...
W
...
The effects of spatial sampling and luminance
quantization on the image quality of color matrix displays
...
D
...
M
...
The development and evaluation of color systems for airborne applications: Phase I

Attributed to Charles Stangor
Saylor URL: http://www
...
org/books/

Saylor
...
Report DOT/FAA/PM085019)
...


4
...

The study of sensation and perception is exceedingly important for our everyday lives because
the knowledge generated by psychologists is used in so many ways to help so many people
...

Psychophysics is the branch of psychology that studies the effects of physical stimuli on sensory
perceptions
...
Weber’s law maintains that the JND of a stimulus
is a constant proportion of the original intensity of the stimulus
...
The eye is
a specialized system that includes the cornea, pupil, iris, lens, and retina
...

Images are perceived, in part, through the action of feature detector neurons
...
The Young-Helmholtz trichromatic color theory and the opponent-process color theory are
theories of how the brain perceives color
...
saylor
...
org

226

Depth is perceived using both binocular and monocular depth cues
...
The beta effect and the phi phenomenon are important in detecting
motion
...

Important structures of the ear include the pinna, eardrum, ossicles, cochlea, and the oval
window
...
The place theory of hearing
proposes that different areas of the cochlea respond to different frequencies
...
Sounds that exceed 130 decibels are dangerous, even if you are
exposed to them infrequently
...

We have approximately 1,000 types of odor receptor cells and it is estimated that we can detect
10,000 different odors
...
The ability to keep
track of where the body is moving is provided by the vestibular system
...

Although our perception is very accurate, it is not perfect
...

Attributed to Charles Stangor
Saylor URL: http://www
...
org/books/

Saylor
...
saylor
...
org

228

Chapter 5
States of Consciousness
An Unconscious Killing
During the night of May 23, 1987, Kenneth Parks, a 23-year old Canadian with a wife, a baby daughter, and heavy
gambling debts, got out of his bed, climbed into his car, and drove 15 miles to the home of his wife‘s parents in the
suburbs of Toronto
...
Parks then drove to a police station and stumbled into the building, holding up his bloody hands and saying, ―I
think I killed some people…my hands
...
Only then did police discover that he had indeed assaulted his in-laws
...
He said that he remembered going to sleep in
his bed, then awakening in the police station with bloody hands, but nothing in between
...


[1]

Not surprisingly, no one believed this explanation at first
...
Parks was
examined by a team of sleep specialists, who found that the pattern of brain waves that occurred while he slept was
very abnormal (Broughton, Billings, Cartwright, & Doucette, 1994)
...
They also agreed that such a combination of stressors was unlikely to happen again, so he
was not likely to undergo another such violent episode and was probably not a hazard to others
...
He walked out of the courtroom a
free man (Wilson, 1998)
...
[4] The experience of consciousness is fundamental to human nature
...


Attributed to Charles Stangor
Saylor URL: http://www
...
org/books/

Saylor
...
For instance, Sigmund Freud’s personality theories
differentiated between the unconscious and the conscious aspects of behavior, and present-day
psychologists distinguish betweenautomatic (unconscious) and controlled (conscious) behaviors
and betweenimplicit (unconscious) and explicit (conscious) memory (Petty, Wegener, Chaiken,
& Trope, 1999; Shanks, 2005)
...
For instance, the French philosopher René Descartes (1596–1650) was a proponent
of dualism, the idea that the mind, a nonmaterial entity, is separate from (although connected to)
the physical body
...
In fact, psychologists believe that
consciousness is the result of the activity of the many neural connections in the brain, and that
we experience different states of consciousness depending on what our brain is currently doing
(Dennett, 1991; Koch & Greenfield, 2007)
...
Although we may understand and believe that some of our
behaviors are caused by forces that are outside our awareness (i
...
, unconscious), we
nevertheless believe that we have control over, and are aware that we are engaging in, most of
our behaviors
...
And yet psychologists are increasingly certain that
a great deal of our behavior is caused by processes of which we are unaware and over which we
have little or no control (Libet, 1999; Wegner, 2003)
...
[8] Consciousness allows us to plan activities and to monitor our progress toward the goals
Attributed to Charles Stangor
Saylor URL: http://www
...
org/books/

Saylor
...
And consciousness is fundamental to our sense of morality—we believe
that we have the free will to perform moral actions while avoiding immoral behaviors
...
In these cases we may engage in behaviors that help us escape from
consciousness, for example through the use of alcohol or other psychoactive drugs (Baumeister,
1998)
...
If we
drink too much coffee or beer, the caffeine or alcohol influences the activity in our brain, and our
consciousness may change
...
We also lose consciousness when we sleep, and it is with this altered state of
consciousness that we begin our chapter
...
(2009)
...
Retrieved
from http://www
...
com/pulmonary/Sleep/sleep-murder
...
J
...
, Cartwright, R
...
(1994)
...
Sleep: Journal of
Sleep Research & Sleep Medicine, 17(3), 253–264
...
(1998)
...
New York, NY: Robinson Publishing
...
(2004)
...
Englewood, CO: Roberts & Co
...
, Wegener, D
...
, & Trope, Y
...
Dual-process theories in social psychology
...
(2005)
...
In K
...
), Handbook of cognition (pp
...
London, England: Sage
...
C
...
Consciousness explained
...
, & Greenfield, S
...

How does consciousness happen? Scientific American, 76–83
...
(1999)
...
M
...
The mind’s
best trick: How we experience conscious will
...


Attributed to Charles Stangor
Saylor URL: http://www
...
org/books/

Saylor
...
, Baumeister, R
...
(2008)
...
Consciousness and Cognition, 17(3), 628
...
(1998)
...
In The handbook of social psychology (4th ed
...
2, pp
...
New York, NY: McGrawHill
...
1 Sleeping and Dreaming Revitalize Us for Action
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
1
...


2
...


3
...


The lives of all organisms, including humans, are influenced by regularly occurring cycles of
behaviors known as biological rhythms
...
Women also experience a 28-day
cycle that guides their fertility and menstruation
...

Many biological rhythms are coordinated by changes in the level and duration of ambient light,
for instance, as winter turns into summer and as night turns into day
...
Light also has a profound effect on humans
...
[1]
Sleep is also influenced by ambient light
...
‖ The suprachiasmatic nucleus analyzes the strength and duration of the
Attributed to Charles Stangor
Saylor URL: http://www
...
org/books/

Saylor
...
In response, the pineal gland secretes melatonin, a powerful hormone that
facilitates the onset of sleep
...

[2]

Galen Bodenhausen (1990) argued that people may be more likely to rely on their stereotypes (i
...
, their beliefs
about the characteristics of social groups) as a shortcut to making social judgments when they are tired than when
they have more energy
...
The accused
students were identified as members of particular social groups, and they were accused of committing offenses that
were consistent with stereotypes of these groups
...
Each of these offenses had been judged via pretesting in the same student population
to be stereotypically (although, of course, unfairly) associated with each social group
...

Participants also completed a measure designed to assess their circadian rhythms—whether they were more active
and alert in the morning (Morning types) or in the evening (Evening types)
...
m
...
m
...
2
"Circadian Rhythms and Stereotyping", the participants were more likely to rely on their negative stereotypes of the
person they were judging at the time of day in which they reported being less active and alert
...


Sleep Stages: Moving Through the Night
Attributed to Charles Stangor
Saylor URL: http://www
...
org/books/

Saylor
...
The patterns
of sleep have been tracked in thousands of research participants who have spent nights sleeping
in research labs while their brain waves were recorded by monitors, such as
an electroencephalogram, or EEG(Figure 5
...

Sleep researchers have found that sleeping people undergo a fairly consistent pattern of sleep
stages, each lasting about 90 minutes
...
4 "Stages of Sleep", these
stages are of two major types: Rapid eye movement (REM) sleep is a sleep stage characterized
by the presence of quick fast eye movements and dreaming
...
During REM sleep, our awareness of external events is dramatically
reduced, and consciousness is dominated primarily by internally generated images and a lack of
overt thinking (Hobson, 2004)
...
The second major sleep type, non-rapid eye movement (nonREM) sleep is a deep sleep, characterized by very slow brain waves, that is further subdivided
into three stages: N1, N2, and N3
...
[4]

Figure 5
...
saylor
...
org

234

During a typical night, our sleep cycles move between REM and non-REM sleep, with each cycle repeating at about
90-minute intervals
...


As you can see in Figure 5
...
When we are awake, our brain activity is characterized by the presence of very
fast beta waves
...
During stage N1 sleep, some muscle tone is lost, as
well as most awareness of the environment
...


Figure 5
...
saylor
...
org

235

Attributed to Charles Stangor
Saylor URL: http://www
...
org/books/

Saylor
...


Normally, if we are allowed to keep sleeping, we will move from stage N1 to stage N2 sleep
...
This stage typically represents about half of the total sleep time in normal
adults
...

Stage N3, also known as slow wave sleep, is the deepest level of sleep, characterized by an
increased proportion of very slow delta waves
...
The
sleepwalking murders committed by Mr
...
Some skeletal
muscle tone remains, making it possible for affected individuals to rise from their beds and
engage in sometimes very complex behaviors, but consciousness is distant
...
If smoke enters the room or if we hear
the cry of a baby we are likely to react, even though we are sound asleep
...

After falling initially into a very deep sleep, the brain begins to become more active again, and
we normally move into the first period of REM sleep about 90 minutes after falling asleep
...
People who are awakened during REM sleep almost
always report that they were dreaming, while those awakened in other stages of sleep report
dreams much less often
...
Activity in the limbic system,
including the amygdala, is increased during REM sleep, and the genitals become aroused, even if
the content of the dreams we are having is not sexual
...


Attributed to Charles Stangor
Saylor URL: http://www
...
org/books/

Saylor
...
5
"EEG Recordings of Brain Patterns During Sleep")
...
Dreams also tend to become more elaborate
and vivid as the night goes on
...


Sleep Disorders: Problems in Sleeping
According to a recent poll (National Sleep Foundation, 2009), [5] about one-fourth of American
adults say they get a good night‘s sleep only a few nights a month or less
...
Most cases of insomnia are temporary, lasting from a few days to several weeks,
but in some cases insomnia can last for years
...
Changes in
sleep patterns, such as jet lag, changes in work shift, or even the movement to or from daylight
savings time can produce insomnia
...
Ironically, the problem may be compounded by people’s anxiety over insomnia itself: Their
fear of being unable to sleep may wind up keeping them awake
...

People who have difficulty sleeping may turn to drugs to help them sleep
...
In some cases they may also promote dependence
...

Attributed to Charles Stangor
Saylor URL: http://www
...
org/books/

Saylor
...
Do not spend time in bed during the
day
...




Think positively about your sleeping—try not to get anxious just because you are losing a
little sleep
...




Create a sleep-promoting environment that is dark, cool, and comfortable
...




Consume less or no caffeine, particularly late in the day
...




Exercise, but not within 3 hours before bedtime
...




Keep a sleep diary to identify your sleep habits and patterns that you can share with your
doctor
...
[6] In addition to preventing restorative sleep, sleep apnea can also cause high
blood pressure and may raise the risk of stroke and heart attack (Yaggi et al
...
[7]
Most sleep apnea is caused by an obstruction of the walls of the throat that occurs when we fall
asleep
...
Sleep apnea caused by obstructions is usually treated with an air
machine that uses a mask to create a continuous pressure that prevents the airway from

Attributed to Charles Stangor
Saylor URL: http://www
...
org/books/

Saylor
...
If all other treatments have failed,
sleep apnea may be treated with surgery to open the airway
...
‖ The syndrome may also be accompanied by attacks of cataplexy, in which the
individual loses muscle tone, resulting in a partial or complete collapse
...
[8]
Narcolepsy is in part the result of genetics—people who suffer from the disease lack
neurotransmitters that are important in keeping us alert (Taheri, Zeitzer, & Mignot, 2002) [9]—
and is also the result of a lack of deep sleep
...

Narcolepsy can be treated with stimulants, such as amphetamines, to counteract the daytime
sleepiness, or with antidepressants to treat a presumed underlying depression
...
Many sufferers find relief by taking a number of planned short naps
during the day, and some individuals may find it easier to work in jobs that allow them to sleep
during the day and work at night
...
[10] One example is somnamulism(sleepwalking), in which the person leaves the bed and
moves around while still asleep
...
About 4% of adults experience somnambulism
(Mahowald & Schenck, 2000)
...
saylor
...
org

240

Sleep terrors is a disruptive sleep disorder, most frequently experienced in childhood, that may
involve loud screams and intense panic
...
In extreme cases, sleep terrors may result in bodily harm or property damage as
the sufferer moves about abruptly
...
[12]
Other sleep disorders include bruxism, in which the sufferer grinds his teeth during
sleep; restless legs syndrome, in which the sufferer reports an itching, burning, or otherwise
uncomfortable feeling in his legs, usually exacerbated when resting or asleep; and periodic limb
movement disorder, which involves sudden involuntary movement of limbs
...

Although many sleep disorders occur during non-REM sleep, REM sleep behavior
disorder (Mahowald & Schenck, 2005) [13] is a condition in which people (usually middle-aged
or older men) engage in vigorous and bizarre physical activities during REM sleep in response to
intense, violent dreams
...


The Heavy Costs of Not Sleeping
Our preferred sleep times and our sleep requirements vary throughout our life cycle
...
[14] There are also individual differences in need for
sleep
...
The most recent study by the National Sleep Foundation suggests that adults
should get between 7 and 9 hours of sleep per night (Figure 5
...


Attributed to Charles Stangor
Saylor URL: http://www
...
org/books/

Saylor
...
8 Average Hours of Required Sleep per Night

Attributed to Charles Stangor
Saylor URL: http://www
...
org/books/

Saylor
...
S
...
7 hours of sleep per night, which is less than the recommended range
propose by the National Sleep Foundation
...
(2008)
...
Washington, DC: Author
...
sleepfoundation
...
PDF
...
We tend to stay up late to enjoy activities in the evening
but then are forced to get up early to go to work or school
...
Getting enough sleep is a luxury that many of us seem
to be unable or unwilling to afford, and yet sleeping is one of the most important things we can
do for ourselves
...

Attributed to Charles Stangor
Saylor URL: http://www
...
org/books/

Saylor
...
Many road
accidents involve sleep deprivation, and people who are sleep deprived show decrements in
driving performance similar to those who have ingested alcohol (Hack, Choi, Vijayapalan,
Davies, & Stradling, 2001; Williamson & Feyer, 2000)
...

Good sleep is also important to our health and longevity
...
Sleep deprivation suppresses immune
responses that fight off infection, and can lead to obesity, hypertension, and memory impairment
(Ferrie et al
...
[17] Sleeping well can even save our lives
...

(2003) [18]found that older adults who had better sleep patterns also lived longer
...
saylor
...
org

244

Figure 5
...
At the request of his worried parents, he was monitored by a U
...
Navy psychiatrist, Lt
...
John J
...
This
chart maps the progression of his behavioral changes over the 11 days
...
saylor
...
org

245

Source: Adapted from Ross, J
...
(1965)
...
Archives of Neurology, 12, 399–
403
...
When people are awakened from REM sleep, they normally report that
they have been dreaming, suggesting that people normally dream several times a night but that
most dreams are forgotten on awakening (Dement, 1997)
...
[20]
Many cultures regard dreams as having great significance for the dreamer, either by revealing
something important about the dreamer’s present circumstances or predicting his future
...
Freud believed that the primary function of dreams was wish fulfillment, or the
idea that dreaming allows us to act out the desires that we must repress during the day
...
e
...
e
...
Freud believed that the real
meaning of dreams is often suppressed by the unconscious mind in order to protect the individual
from thoughts and feelings that are hard to cope with
...

Although Freud and others have focused on the meaning of dreams, other theories about the
causes of dreams are less concerned with their content
...
, 2008; Zhang (2004)
...
saylor
...
org

246

(2005) [23] found that rats that had been deprived of REM sleep after learning a new task were
less able to perform the task again later than were rats that had been allowed to dream, and these
differences were greater on tasks that involved learning unusual information or developing new
behaviors
...
Thus
dreaming may be an important part of the learning that we do while sleeping (Hobson, PaceSchott, and Stickgold, 2000)
...
According to this approach, the
signals from the brain stem are sent to the cortex, just as they are when we are awake, but
because the pathways from the cortex to skeletal muscles are disconnected during REM sleep,
the cortex does not know how to interpret the signals
...

Although researchers are still trying to determine the exact causes of dreaming, one thing
remains clear—we need to dream
...

KEY TAKEAWAYS


Consciousness, our subjective awareness of ourselves and our environment, is functional because it allows us to plan
activities and monitor our goals
...




Human and animal behavior is influenced by biological rhythms, including annual, monthly, and circadian rhythms
...
Non-REM sleep has three substages, known as stage N1,
N2, and N3
...


Attributed to Charles Stangor
Saylor URL: http://www
...
org/books/

Saylor
...
Sleep disorders, including insomnia, sleep apnea, and
narcolepsy, may make it hard for us to sleep well
...
Some theories of dreaming, such Freud’s, are based on the content of the
dreams
...
The activationsynthesis theory of dreaming is based only on neural activity
...


If you happen to be home alone one night, try this exercise: At nightfall, leave the lights and any other powered
equipment off
...


Review your own sleep patterns
...


Review some of the dreams that you have had recently
...


[1] McGinniss, P
...
Seasonal affective disorder (SAD)—Treatment and drugs
...
Retrieved
from http://www
...
com/health/seasonal-affective-disorder/DS00195/DSECTION=treatments%2Dand%2Ddrugs
[2] Bodenhausen, G
...
(1990)
...
Psychological Science, 1, 319–322
...
(2004)
...
Nature, 430, 69–95
...
, & Kleitman, N
...
Cyclic variations in EEG during sleep
...

[5] National Sleep Foundation
...
Sleep in America Poll
...
Retrieved
fromhttp://www
...
org/sites/default/files/2009%20Sleep%20in%20America%20SOF%20EMBARGOED
...
I
...
, Hanak, V
...
A
...
Complex sleep apnea syndrome: Is it a unique clinical
syndrome? Sleep, 29(9), 1203–1209
...
journalsleep
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aspx?pid=26630
[7] Yaggi, H
...
, Concato, J
...
N
...
H
...
M
...
(2005)
...
The New England Journal of Medicine, 353(19), 2034–2041
...
1056/NEJMoa043104
[8] National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute
...
Who is at risk for narcolepsy? Retrieved
from http://www
...
nih
...
html

Attributed to Charles Stangor
Saylor URL: http://www
...
org/books/

Saylor
...
, Zeitzer, J
...
, & Mignot, E
...
The role of hypocretins (Orexins) in sleep regulation and narcolepsy
...

[10] Mahowald, M
...
(2000)
...
Principles and Practice of Sleep Medicine, 724–741
...
, & Schenck, C
...
REM sleep parasomnias
...

[12] Mahowald, M
...
(2000)
...
Principles and Practice of Sleep Medicine, 724–741
...
, & Schenck, C
...
REM sleep behavior disorder
...

[14] Mercer, P
...
, & Cowell, J
...
Differences in reported sleep need among adolescents
...
(2008)
...
Washington, DC: Author
...
sleepfoundation
...
PDF
[15] Hack, M
...
, Choi, S
...
, Vijayapalan, P
...
J
...
, & Stradling, J
...
S
...
Comparison of the effects of sleep
deprivation, alcohol and obstructive sleep apnoea (OSA) on simulated steering performance
...
, & Feyer, A
...
Moderate sleep deprivation produces impairments in cognitive and motor performance
equivalent to legally prescribed levels of alcohol intoxication
...

[16] Smith-Coggins, R
...
R
...
, & Buccino, K
...
(1994)
...
Annals of Emergency Medicine, 24(5), 928–934
...
E
...
J
...
P
...
, Miller, M
...
, Kumari, M
...
G
...
A prospective
study of change in sleep duration: Associations with mortality in the Whitehall II cohort
...

(2005)
...
London, England: Informa Healthcare
...
A
...
C
...
J
...
H
...
E
...
R
...
F
...
(2003)
...
Psychosomatic Medicine, 65(1), 63–73
...
(1997) What all undergraduates should know about how their sleeping lives affect their waking lives
...
Retrieved fromhttp://www
...
edu/~dement/sleepless
...
, Agargun, M
...
, & Friedman, J
...
Relation of dreams to waking concerns
...
W
...
, & Schredl, M
...
Dreams as the expression of conceptions and
concerns: A comparison of German and American college students
...

[21] Freud, S
...
(1988)
...
Birmingham, AL: The Classics of
Medicine Library
...
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org

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[22] Alvarenga, T
...
, Patti, C
...
, Andersen, M
...
, Silva, R
...
, Calzavara, M
...
, Lopez, G
...
,…Tufik, S
...
Paradoxical sleep
deprivation impairs acquisition, consolidation and retrieval of a discriminative avoidance task in rats
...
(2004)
...
Journal of Theoretics, 6(6), 1–7
...
, Desgranges, B
...
, & Eustache, F
...
The relationships between memory systems and sleep
stages
...

[24] Payne, J
...
(2004)
...
Learning &
Memory, 11(6), 671
...
A
...
F
...
(2000)
...
Behavioral and Brain Sciences, 23(6), 793–842, 904–1018, 1083–1121
...
A
...
(1977)
...
American Journal of Psychiatry, 134, 1335–1348; Hobson, J
...
(2004)
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New York, NY: Pi Press
...
2 Altering Consciousness With Psychoactive Drugs
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
1
...


2
...


A psychoactive drug is a chemical that changes our states of consciousness, and particularly our
perceptions and moods
...
Psychoactive drugs are also frequently
prescribed as sleeping pills, tranquilizers, and antianxiety medications, and they may be taken,
illegally, for recreational purposes
...
1 "Psychoactive Drugs by Class",
the four primary classes of psychoactive drugs are stimulants, depressants, opioids,
and hallucinogens
...
Some psychoactive drugs are agonists, which
Attributed to Charles Stangor
Saylor URL: http://www
...
org/books/

Saylor
...


Table 5
...


energy

Amphetamines

Moderate

smoked or injected Moderate

Low

to high

Moderate

Moderate

Moderate

Moderate

Moderate

Moderate

Depressants
Impaired

Depressants change

judgment, loss of

consciousness by

coordination,

increasing the

dizziness, nausea,

production of the

and eventually a

neurotransmitter GABA

loss of

and decreasing the
production of the

Calming effects,

neurotransmitter

sleep, pain relief,

acetylcholine, usually at

slowed heart rate

Alcohol

the level of the thalamus and respiration

Attributed to Charles Stangor
Saylor URL: http://www
...
org/books/

consciousness
Sluggishness,

Barbiturates and

slowed speech,

benzodiazepines

drowsiness, in

Saylor
...


or death
Brain damage and
Toxic inhalants

death

Opioids
Side effects
include nausea,
vomiting,
tolerance, and
Opium

addiction
...
‖ tolerance

Heroin

morphine

Hallucinogens
The chemical

Mild intoxication;

compositions of the

enhanced

hallucinogens are

Marijuana

perception

similar to the
neurotransmitters
serotonin and
epinephrine, and they

Altered

act primarily by

consciousness;

LSD, mescaline,

enhanced

mimicking them
...
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In some cases the effects of psychoactive drugs mimic other naturally occurring states of
consciousness
...
In other cases psychoactive drugs
are taken for recreational purposes with the goal of creating states of consciousness that are
pleasurable or that help us escape our normal consciousness
...
1 "Psychoactive Drugs by Class")
...
Psychoactive drugs create negative effects not so much
through their initial use but through the continued use, accompanied by increasing doses, that
ultimately may lead to drug abuse
...
As the use of the drug increases, the user may develop
a dependence, defined as a need to use a drug or other substance regularly
...
Cigarette smokers who try to
quit, for example, experience physical withdrawal symptoms, such as becoming tired and
irritable, as well as extreme psychological cravings to enjoy a cigarette in particular situations,
such as after a meal or when they are with friends
...
When the user powerfully craves the drug and is
driven to seek it out, over and over again, no matter what the physical, social, financial, and
legal cost, we say that he or she has developed an addiction to the drug
...
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It is a common belief that addiction is an overwhelming, irresistibly powerful force, and that
withdrawal from drugs is always an unbearably painful experience
...
For one, even drugs that we do not generally think
of as being addictive, such as caffeine, nicotine, and alcohol, can be very difficult to quit using,
at least for some people
...

Even for a highly addictive drug like cocaine, only about 15% of users become addicted
(Robinson & Berridge, 2003; Wagner & Anthony, 2002)
...
Patients who have become physically dependent on morphine administered during
the course of medical treatment for a painful injury or disease are able to be rapidly weaned off
the drug afterward, without becoming addicts
...

This does not mean that using recreational drugs is not dangerous
...
These drugs are generally illegal and carry
with them potential criminal consequences if one is caught and arrested
...
Snorting ( “sniffing‖) drugs can lead to
a loss of the sense of smell, nosebleeds, difficulty in swallowing, hoarseness, and chronic runny
nose
...
Furthermore, the quality and contents of illegal drugs are generally unknown,
and the doses can vary substantially from purchase to purchase
...

Another problem is the unintended consequences of combining drugs, which can produce serious
side effects
...
For instance,
ingesting alcohol or benzodiazepines along with the usual dose of heroin is a frequent cause of
Attributed to Charles Stangor
Saylor URL: http://www
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org/books/

Saylor
...
[3]
Although all recreational drugs are dangerous, some can be more deadly than others
...
Drugs
with lower ratios are more dangerous because the difference between the normal and the lethal
dose is small
...
On the other hand, marijuana has a safety ratio of
1,000
...
The safety ratios of common recreational drugs are shown in Table 5
...


Table 5
...


X, liquid G, fantasy

8

Isobutyl nitrite

Depressant and toxic inhalant

Poppers, rush, locker room

8

Alcohol

Active compound is ethanol

10

Active ingredient in over-theDXM (Dextromethorphan)

counter cold and cough medicines

Methamphetamine

May be injected or smoked

Attributed to Charles Stangor
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org/books/

10
Meth, crank

10

Saylor
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Source: Gable, R
...
Comparison of acute lethal toxicity of commonly abused psychoactive substances
...


Speeding Up the Brain With Stimulants: Caffeine, Nicotine, Cocaine, and
Amphetamines

Attributed to Charles Stangor
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...
org/books/

Saylor
...
Because more of these
neurotransmitters remain active in the brain, the result is an increase in the activity of the
sympathetic division of the autonomic nervous system (ANS)
...
For these reasons, stimulants are frequently used to help people stay awake
and to control weight
...
A major problem is the “crash‖ that results when the drug
loses its effectiveness and the activity of the neurotransmitters returns to normal
...

Caffeine is a bitter psychoactive drug found in the beans, leaves, and fruits of plants, where it
acts as a natural pesticide
...
In North America, more than 80% of adults consume caffeine daily
(Lovett, 2005)
...
Although the U
...
Food
and Drug Administration lists caffeine as a safe food substance, it has at least some
characteristics of dependence
...
Most experts feel that using small amounts of caffeine during
pregnancy is safe, but larger amounts of caffeine can be harmful to the fetus (U
...
Food and
Drug Administration, 2007)
...
Nicotine is the main cause for the dependence-forming properties of tobacco
use, and tobacco use is a major health threat
...
Nicotine content in cigarettes has
slowly increased over the years, making quitting smoking more and more difficult
...

Attributed to Charles Stangor
Saylor URL: http://www
...
org/books/

Saylor
...
For instance, the
prescription drug Chantix acts as an antagonist, binding to nicotine receptors in the synapse,
which prevents users from receiving the normal stimulant effect when they smoke
...
In this way Chantix dampens
nicotine withdrawal symptoms and cravings
...
In the long run,
however, the psychological enjoyment of smoking may lead to relapse
...
In the late 19th and
early 20th centuries, it was a primary constituent in many popular tonics and elixirs and,
although it was removed in 1905, was one of the original ingredients in Coca-Cola
...

Cocaine has a variety of adverse effects on the body
...
It can cause headaches,
abdominal pain, and nausea
...
The intensity and duration of cocaine‘s effects, which include
increased energy and reduced fatigue, depend on how the drug is taken
...
Injecting or
smoking cocaine produces a faster, stronger high than snorting it
...
The high from snorting cocaine may last 30 minutes,
whereas the high from smoking “ crack‖ cocaine may last only 10 minutes
...
[6]Cocaine has a
safety ratio of 15, making it a very dangerous recreational drug
...
Amphetamine is used in prescription medications to treat
attention deficit disorder (ADD) and narcolepsy, and to control appetite
...
But amphetamine ( “speed‖) is
Attributed to Charles Stangor
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...
org/books/

Saylor
...
The methylated version of
amphetamine, methamphetamine (“meth‖ or “crank‖), is currently favored by users, partly
because it is available in ampoules ready for use by injection (Csaky & Barnes, 1984)
...

Amphetamines may produce a very high level of tolerance, leading users to increase their intake,
often in “ jolts‖ taken every half hour or so
...
Continued use of stimulants may result in severe psychological depression
...
MDMA is a very strong stimulant that very successfully prevents the reuptake
of serotonin, dopamine, and norepinephrine
...
MDMA also affects the
temperature-regulating mechanisms of the brain, so in high doses, and especially when combined
with vigorous physical activity like dancing, it can cause the body to become so drastically
overheated that users can literally “burn up‖ and die from hyperthermia and dehydration
...
A depressant is a psychoactive drug that reduces the activity of the CNS
...
Depressants change consciousness by increasing the
production of the neurotransmitter GABA and decreasing the production of the neurotransmitter
acetylcholine, usually at the level of the thalamus and the reticular formation
...
[8]
Attributed to Charles Stangor
Saylor URL: http://www
...
org/books/

Saylor
...
Alcohol is the
oldest and most widely used drug of abuse in the world
...
In
higher doses, alcohol acts on the cerebellum to interfere with coordination and balance,
producing the staggering gait of drunkenness
...
High enough blood levels such as
those produced by “guzzling‖ large amounts of hard liquor at parties can be fatal
...

Alcohol use is highly costly to societies because so many people abuse alcohol and because
judgment after drinking can be substantially impaired
...
[9]Alcohol increases the likelihood that people will respond aggressively to provocations
(Bushman, 1993, 1997; Graham, Osgood, Wells, & Stockwell, 2006)
...
Alcohol use also
leads to rioting, unprotected sex, and other negative outcomes
...
[11] When people are
intoxicated, they become more self-focused and less aware of the social situation
...
For instance, we
might normally notice the presence of a police officer or other people around us, which would
remind us that being aggressive is not appropriate
...
The narrowing of attention that occurs when we are intoxicated also prevents us
from being cognizant of the negative outcomes of our aggression
...
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Cooper, 1990)
...
If we expect that
alcohol will make us more aggressive, then we tend to become more aggressive when we drink
...

Brand names include Luminal (Phenobarbital), Mebaraland, Nembutal, Seconal, and Sombulex
...
[13]
Related to barbiturates, benzodiazepines are a family of depressants used to treat anxiety,
insomnia, seizures, and muscle spasms
...
In the United States, benzodiazepines are among the
most widely prescribed medications that affect the CNS
...

Toxic inhalants are also frequently abused as depressants
...
Related drugs are the nitrites (amyl and butyl nitrite; “ poppers,‖ “rush,‖
“ locker room‖) and anesthetics such as nitrous oxide (laughing gas) and ether
...


Opioids: Opium, Morphine, Heroin, and Codeine
Opioids are chemicals that increase activity in opioid receptor neurons in the brain and in the
digestive system, producing euphoria, analgesia, slower breathing, and constipation
...
‖ Natural opioids are derived from the opium poppy, which is widespread
in Eurasia, but they can also be created synthetically
...
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Opium is the dried juice of the unripe seed capsule of the opium poppy
...
Morphine and heroin are stronger, more
addictive drugs derived from opium, while codeine is a weaker analgesic and less addictive
member of the opiate family
...
When heroin was produced a few decades later, it was
also initially thought to be a more potent, less addictive painkiller but was soon found to be much
more addictive than morphine
...
The
danger of heroin is demonstrated in the fact that it has the lowest safety ratio (6) of all the drugs
listed in Table 5
...

The opioids activate the sympathetic division of the ANS, causing blood pressure and heart rate
to increase, often to dangerous levels that can lead to heart attack or stroke
...
Symptoms of opioid withdrawal include diarrhea, insomnia, restlessness, irritability, and
vomiting, all accompanied by a strong craving for the drug
...
In addition, because many users take these drugs
intravenously and share contaminated needles, they run a very high risk of being infected with
diseases
...


Hallucinogens: Cannabis, Mescaline, and LSD
The drugs that produce the most extreme alteration of consciousness are
the hallucinogens,psychoactive drugs that alter sensation and perception and that may create
hallucinations
...
‖ Drugs in this class
include lysergic acid diethylamide (LSD, or “Acid‖), mescaline, and phencyclidine (PCP), as
well as a number of natural plants including cannabis (marijuana), peyote, and psilocybin
...
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chemical compositions of the hallucinogens are similar to the neurotransmitters serotonin and
epinephrine, and they act primarily as agonists by mimicking the action of serotonin at the
synapses
...
The precise effects a user experiences are a function not only of the drug itself, but
also of the user‘s preexisting mental state and expectations of the drug experience
...
The hallucinations that may
be experienced when taking these drugs are strikingly different from everyday experience and
frequently are more similar to dreams than to everyday consciousness
...
Until it was banned in the United
States under the Marijuana Tax Act of 1938, it was widely used for medical purposes
...
[14] While medical marijuana is now legal in several American
states, it is still banned under federal law, putting those states in conflict with the federal
government
...
It acts to enhance perception of sights, sounds, and smells, and may produce a
sensation of time slowing down
...
[15]
Although the hallucinogens are powerful drugs that produce striking “ mind-altering‖ effects,
they do not produce physiological or psychological tolerance or dependence
...


Why We Use Psychoactive Drugs

Attributed to Charles Stangor
Saylor URL: http://www
...
org/books/

Saylor
...
Perhaps this
should not be surprising, because many people find using drugs to be fun and enjoyable
...


Research Focus: Risk Tolerance Predicts Cigarette Use
Because drug and alcohol abuse is a behavior that has such important negative consequences for so many people,
researchers have tried to understand what leads people to use drugs
...


In their research they compared risk-taking behavior in adolescents who reported having tried a cigarette at least
once with those who reported that they had never tried smoking
...
Eighty percent of the adolescents indicated that they
had never tried even a puff of a cigarette, and 20% indicated that they had had at least one puff of a cigarette
...
, 2002)
...
With each pump the balloon appears bigger on the screen,
and more money accumulates in a temporary ―bank account
...
At any point during each balloon trial, the participant can stop pumping up the balloon, click on a button,
transfer all money from the temporary bank to the permanent bank, and begin with a new balloon
...
The number of pumps that participants take is used as a measure of

Attributed to Charles Stangor
Saylor URL: http://www
...
org/books/

Saylor
...
Low-tolerance people tend to make a few pumps and then collect the money, whereas more
risky people pump more times into each balloon
...
found that the tendency to take risks
was indeed correlated with cigarette use: The participants who indicated that they had puffed on a cigarette had
significantly higher risk-taking scores on the BART than did those who had never tried smoking
...
Vaughan, Corbin, and
Fromme (2009) [18] found that college students who expressed positive academic values and
strong ambitions had less alcohol consumption and alcohol-related problems, and cigarette
smoking has declined more among youth from wealthier and more educated homes than among
those from lower socioeconomic backgrounds (Johnston, O‘Malley, Bachman, & Schulenberg,
2004)
...
Children try drugs when their friends convince
them to do it, and these decisions are based on social norms about the risks and benefits of
various drugs
...
, 2004)
...
[21]

Figure 5
...
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Despite the fact that young people have experimented with cigarettes, alcohol, and other
dangerous drugs for many generations, it would be better if they did not
...
, 2003)
...


KEY TAKEAWAYS


Psychoactive drugs are chemicals that change our state of consciousness
...




Using psychoactive drugs may create tolerance and, when they are no longer used, withdrawal
...




Stimulants, including caffeine, nicotine, and amphetamine, increase neural activity by blocking the reuptake of
dopamine, norepinephrine, and serotonin in the CNS
...
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266



Depressants, including, alcohol, barbiturates, and benzodiazepines, decrease consciousness by increasing the
production of the neurotransmitter GABA and decreasing the production of the neurotransmitter acetylcholine
...




Hallucinogens, including cannabis, mescaline, and LSD, create an extreme alteration of consciousness as well as the
possibility of hallucinations
...
People who are more likely to
take risks are also more likely to use drugs
...


Do people you know use psychoactive drugs? Which ones? Based on what you have learned in this section, why do you
think that they are used, and do you think that their side effects are harmful?

2
...
What are the potential implications
of the research for drug use? Can you see any weaknesses in the study caused by the fact that the results are based on
correlational analyses?

[1] Robinson, T
...
, & Berridge, K
...
(2003)
...
Annual Review of Psychology, 54, 25–53; Wagner, F
...
, & Anthony, J
...

(2002)
...
Neuropsychopharmacology, 26(4), 479–488
...
N
...
H
...
W
...
Drug use by U
...
Army enlisted men in Vietnam: A follow-up on their
return home
...

[3] McCance-Katz, E
...
, & Jatlow, P
...
Concurrent use of cocaine and alcohol is more potent and potentially more
toxic than use of either alone—A multiple-dose study 1
...

[4] Lovett, R
...
Coffee: The demon drink? New Scientist, 2518
...
newscientist
...
ns?id=mg18725181
...
S
...
(2007)
...
Retrieved
fromhttp://www
...
gov/downloads/Drugs/ResourcesForYou/Consumers/BuyingUsingMedicineSafely/UnderstandingOver-theCounterMedicines/UCM205286
...
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267

[6] National Institute on Drug Abuse
...
Cocaine abuse and addiction
...
nida
...
gov/researchreports/cocaine/cocaine
...
Z
...
A
...
Cutting’s handbook of pharmacology (7th ed
...

[8] Csaky, T
...
, & Barnes, B
...
(1984)
...
East Norwalk, CT: Appleton-CenturyCrofts
...
, Ross, L
...
, McDuffie, D
...
(1996)
...
Psychology of Women Quarterly, 20(1), 147–169
...
J
...
Human aggression while under the influence of alcohol and other drugs: An integrative research
review
...
J
...
(1997)
...
New York, NY: Plenum Press; Graham, K
...
W
...
, & Stockwell,
T
...
To what extent is intoxication associated with aggression in bars? A multilevel analysis
...

[11] Steele, C
...
, & Southwick, L
...
Alcohol and social behavior: I
...
Journal of
Personality and Social Psychology, 48(1), 18–34
...
J
...
M
...
Effects of alcohol on human aggression: An integrative research
review
...

[13] Medline Plus
...
Barbiturate intoxication and overdose
...
nlm
...
gov/medlineplus/ency/article/000951
...
(2006)
...
Journal of Ethnopharmacology,
105, 1–25
...
(2009)
...
Retrieved
from http://www
...
gov/infofacts/HSYouthTrends
...
W
...
M
...
A
...
T
...
Differences in risk-taking propensity across innercity adolescent ever- and never-smokers
...


Attributed to Charles Stangor
Saylor URL: http://www
...
org/books/

Saylor
...
W
...
P
...
W
...
B
...
E
...
L
...
A
...
Evaluation of a
behavioral measure of risk taking: The Balloon Analogue Risk Task (BART)
...

[18] Vaughan, E
...
, Corbin, W
...
, & Fromme, K
...
Academic and social motives and drinking behavior
...
23(4), 564–576
...
D
...
M
...
G
...
E
...
Monitoring the future: National results on
adolescent drug use
...

[20] Johnston, L
...
, O’Malley, P
...
, Bachman, J
...
, & Schulenberg, J
...
(2004)
...
Ann Arbor, MI: Institute for Social Research, University of Michigan (conducted for the National Institute
on Drug Abuse, National Institute of Health)
...
, Reed, M
...
, Lange, J
...
(2006)
...
The American Journal of Drug and Alcohol Abuse, 32(2),
275–285
...
T
...
C
...
K
...
S
...
A
...
, Nelson, E
...
,…Martin, N
...
(2003)
...
Journal of the American Medical Association, 289(4), 427–433
...
3 Altering Consciousness Without Drugs
LEARNING OBJECTIVE
1
...


Although the use of psychoactive drugs can easily and profoundly change our experience of
consciousness, we can also—and often more safely—alter our consciousness without drugs
...
In this section
we consider the changes in consciousness that occur through hypnosis, sensory deprivation,
and meditation, as well as through other non-drug-induced mechanisms
...
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Changing Behavior Through Suggestion: The Power of Hypnosis
Franz Anton Mesmer (1734–1815) was an Austrian doctor who believed that all living bodies
were filled with magnetic energy
...
The
patients frequently lapsed into a trancelike state (they were said to be “mesmerized‖) and
reported feeling better when they awoke (Hammond, 2008)
...
James Braid,
a Scottish physician, coined the term hypnosis in 1843, basing it on the Greek word
for sleep(Callahan, 1997)
...
[3] Hypnosis became famous in part through its use by Sigmund
Freud in an attempt to make unconscious desires and emotions conscious and thus able to be
considered and confronted (Baker & Nash, 2008)
...
Hilgard (1965) [5] found that
about 20% of the participants he tested were entirely unsusceptible to hypnosis, whereas about
15% were highly responsive to it
...
[6]
People who want to become hypnotized are motivated to be good subjects, to be open to
suggestions by the hypnotist, and to fulfill the role of a hypnotized person as they perceive it
Attributed to Charles Stangor
Saylor URL: http://www
...
org/books/

Saylor
...
[7] The hypnotized state results from a combination of conformity, relaxation,
obedience, and suggestion (Fassler, Lynn, & Knox, 2008)
...
Kinnunen, Zamansky, and
Block (1994) [9] used measures of skin conductance (which indicates emotional response by
measuring perspiration, and therefore renders it a reliable indicator of deception) to test whether
hypnotized people were lying about having been hypnotized
...

One common misconception about hypnosis is that the hypnotist is able to“take control‖ of
hypnotized patients and thus can command them to engage in behaviors against their will
...
[11] In fact, people who
have not been hypnotized are often just as suggestible as those who have been (Orne & Evans,
1965)
...
Hilgard and Cooper (1965)[13] investigated this question and
found that they could lead people who were very highly susceptible through hypnosis to show at
least some signs of posthypnotic amnesia (e
...
, forgetting where they had learned information
that had been told to them while they were under hypnosis), but that this effect was not strong or
common
...
The idea is that
some memories have been stored but can no longer be retrieved, and that hypnosis can aid in the
retrieval process
...
[14] Furthermore, the
suggestibility produced through hypnosis may lead people to erroneously recall experiences that
Attributed to Charles Stangor
Saylor URL: http://www
...
org/books/

Saylor
...
[15] Many states and jurisdictions have
therefore banned the use of hypnosis in criminal trials because the “evidence‖ recovered through
hypnosis is likely to be fabricated and inaccurate
...
The effectiveness of hypnosis in these areas is
controversial, although at least some successes have been reported
...
Hypnosis is also effective in improving the experiences
of patients who are experiencing anxiety disorders, such as PTSD (Cardena, 2000; Montgomery,
David, Winkel, Silverstein, & Bovbjerg, 2002),[18] and for reducing pain (Montgomery,
DuHamel, & Redd, 2000; Paterson & Jensen, 2003)
...
Sensory deprivation is used for
relaxation or meditation purposes, and in physical and mental health-care programs to produce
enjoyable changes in consciousness
...

Although the simplest forms of sensory deprivation require nothing more than a blindfold to
block the person‘s sense of sight or earmuffs to block the sense of sound, more complex devices
have also been devised to temporarily cut off the senses of smell, taste, touch, heat, and gravity
...
The tank is filled with water that is the same temperature as the human
body, and salts are added to the water so that the body floats, thus reducing the sense of gravity
...

Attributed to Charles Stangor
Saylor URL: http://www
...
org/books/

Saylor
...
In a typical session for
alternative healing and meditative purposes, a person may rest in an isolation tank for up to an
hour
...
[22]
Although relatively short sessions of sensory deprivation can be relaxing and both mentally and
physically beneficial, prolonged sensory deprivation can lead to disorders of perception,
including confusion and hallucinations (Yuksel, Kisa, Avdemin, & Goka, 2004)
...
[24]

Meditation
Meditation refers to techniques in which the individual focuses on something specific, such as an
object, a word, or one’s breathing, with the goal of ignoring external distractions, focusing on
one’s internal state, and achieving a state of relaxation and well-being
...
Many meditative techniques are very simple
...
You might want to try it out for yourself (Note 5
...


Video Clip: Try Meditation
Here is a simple meditation exercise you can do in your own home
...
Cahn and Polich (2006) [25]found that experienced meditators in a
Attributed to Charles Stangor
Saylor URL: http://www
...
org/books/

Saylor
...
[26] These studies
suggest that the action of the sympathetic division of the autonomic nervous system (ANS) is
suppressed during meditation, creating a more relaxed physiological state as the meditator moves
into deeper states of relaxation and consciousness
...
, 2004)
...
, 2004)
...
Lutz and others (2004) [30]demonstrated that those who meditate
regularly (as opposed to those who do not) tend to utilize a greater part of their brain and that
their gamma waves are faster and more powerful
...
[31]
It is possible that the positive effects of meditation could also be found by using other methods
of relaxation
...
Regardless of the
debate, the fact remains that meditation is, at the very least, a worthwhile relaxation strategy
...
We frequently refer to the
abuse of any type of pleasurable behavior as an ―addiction,‖ just as we refer to drug or alcohol addiction
...
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Roy Baumeister and his colleagues (Baumeister, 1991)

[32]

have argued that the desire to avoid thinking about the self

(what they call the ―escape from consciousness‖) is an essential component of a variety of self-defeating behaviors
...
Normally we enjoy being self-aware, as we reflect on our relationships with others, our goals, and
our achievements
...
In these cases self-awareness may become burdensome
...

Baumeister argues that when self-awareness becomes unpleasant, the need to forget about the negative aspects of the
self may become so strong that we turn to altered states of consciousness
...

Baumeister has analyzed a variety of self-defeating behaviors in terms of the desire to escape consciousness
...
People who commit suicide are normally depressed and isolated
...
Suicidal behavior is often preceded by a
period of narrow and rigid cognitive functioning that serves as an escape from the very negative view of the self
brought on by recent setbacks or traumas (Baumeister, 1990)
...


[34]

And

cigarette smoking may appeal to people as a low-level distractor that helps them to escape self-awareness
...
Binge eaters,

including those who suffer from bulimia nervosa, have unusually high standards for the self, including success,
achievement, popularity, and body thinness
...
Because
these individuals evaluate themselves according to demanding criteria, they will tend to fall short periodically
...


Attributed to Charles Stangor
Saylor URL: http://www
...
org/books/

Saylor
...
Masochists are frequently tied up using ropes, scarves,
neckties, stockings, handcuffs, and gags, and the outcome is that they no longer feel that they are in control of
themselves, which relieves them from the burdens of the self (Baumeister, 1991)
...
Every day at least several hundred (and more likely several
thousand) Americans claim that they are abducted by these aliens, although most of these stories occur after the
individuals have consulted with a psychotherapist or someone else who believes in alien abduction
...


KEY TAKEAWAYS


Hypnosis is a trance-like state of conscious consisting of heightened susceptibility, deep relaxation, and intense focus
...




Sensory deprivation is the intentional reduction of stimulation to one or more of the senses
...




Meditation refers to a range of techniques that can create relaxation and well-being
...


Do you think that you would be a good candidate for hypnosis? Why or why not?

2
...
Do you feel any different when or after you
meditate?

[1] Hammond, D
...
(2008)
...
American Journal of Clinical Hypnosis, 51(2), 101–121
...
(1997)
...
Health, 11, 52–55
...
, & Barnier, A
...
The Oxford handbook of hypnosis: Theory, research and practice: New York, NY:
Oxford University Press
...
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...
org

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[4] Baker, E
...
, & Nash, M
...
(2008)
...
In M
...
Nash & A
...
Barnier
(Eds
...
439–456)
...

[5] Hilgard, E
...
(1965)
...
New York, NY: Harcourt, Brace & World
...
, Greenleaf, M
...
(2005)
...
In B
...
Sadock & V
...
Sadock (Eds
...
Philadelphia, PA: Lippincott Williams & Wilkins
...
P
...
A sociocognitive approach to hypnosis
...
J
...
W
...
), Theories of
hypnosis: Current models and perspectives, New York, NY: Guilford Press
...
, Lynn, S
...
, Knox, J
...
Is hypnotic suggestibility a stable trait?Consciousness and Cognition: An
International Journal
...

[9] Kinnunen, T
...
S
...
L
...
Is the hypnotized subject lying?Journal of Abnormal
Psychology, 103, 184–191
...
A
...
(2007)
...
Hypnosis and conscious states:
The cognitive neuroscience perspective
...
A
...
), Hypnosis and conscious states: The cognitive
neuroscience perspective (pp
...
New York, NY: Oxford University Press
...
, & Braffman, W
...
Imaginative suggestibility and hypnotizability
...
10(2), 57–61
...
T
...
J
...
Social control in the psychological experiment: Antisocial behavior and
hypnosis
...

[13] Hilgard, E
...
, & Cooper, L
...
(1965)
...
International Journal
of Clinical and Experimental Hypnosis, 13(4), 261–273
...
S
...
D
...
Cognitive stage regression through hypnosis: Are earlier cognitive
stages retrievable? International Journal of Clinical and Experimental Hypnosis, 34(3), 192–204
...
S
...
F
...
Toward an explanation of the UFO abduction phenomenon:
Hypnotic elaboration, extraterrestrial sadomasochism, and spurious memories
...

[16] Kirsch, I
...
, & Sapirstein, G
...
Hypnosis as an adjunct to cognitive-behavioral
psychotherapy: A meta-analysis
...

Attributed to Charles Stangor
Saylor URL: http://www
...
org/books/

Saylor
...
, & Perfect, M
...
Hypnosis for health-compromising behaviors
...
Nash & A
...
), The Oxford handbook of hypnosis: Theory, research and practice(pp
...
New York, NY: Oxford
University Press
...
(2000)
...
International Journal of Clinical Experimental Hypnosis, 48, 225–238; Montgomery, G
...
, David, D
...
, Silverstein, J
...
, & Bovbjerg, D
...
(2002)
...
Anesthesia and Analgesia, 94(6), 1639–1645
...
H
...
N
...
H
...
A meta-analysis of hypnotically induced analgesia:
How effective is hypnosis? International Journal of Clinical and Experimental Hypnosis, 48(2), 138–153; Patterson,
D
...
, & Jensen, M
...
(2003)
...
Psychological Bulletin, 129(4), 495–521
...
(1990b)
...
In K
...
Craig & S
...
Weiss (Eds
...
206–230)
...
, Sundequist, U
...
, Nordström, G
...
(2007)
...
, Sundequist, U
...
, & Archer, T
...
Effects of flotationREST on muscle tension pain
...

[21] Wallbaum, A
...
, Rzewnicki, R
...
, & Suedfeld, P
...
Progressive muscle relaxation and restricted
environmental stimulation therapy for chronic tension headache: A pilot study
...
38(1–4), 33–39
...
(1990a)
...
International Journal of the Addictions
...

[23] Yuksel, F
...
, Kisa, C, Aydemir, C
...
(2004)
...
The
Canadian Journal of Psychiatry, 49(12), 867–868
...
(2006)
...
Retrieved
fromhttp://www
...
com/news/feature/2007/06/07/sensory_deprivation/print
...
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[25] Cahn, B
...
(2006)
...
Psychological
Bulletin, 132, 180–211
...
C
...
L
...
, & Orme-Johnson, D
...
(1987)
...
Journal of Mind and Behavior
...
(1987)
...
The psychology of meditation
...
A
...
), The
psychology of meditation (pp
...
New York, NY: Clarendon Press/Oxford University Press
...
, Niemann, L
...
, & Walach, H
...
Mindfulness-based stress reduction and health
benefits: A meta-analysis
...
57(1), 35–43; Reibel, D
...
, Greeson, J
...
, Brainard,
G
...
, & Rosenzweig, S
...
Mindfulness-based stress reduction and health-related quality of life in a
heterogeneous patient population
...
, Sephton, S
...
, Hoover, K
...
, & Studts, J
...
(2004)
...
Cognitive
and Behavioral Practice, 11(4), 434–446
...
A
...
, & Davis, H
...
Impact of Transcendental Meditation® on cardiovascular function
at rest and during acute stress in adolescents with high normal blood pressure
...
G
...
Z
...
K
...
A
...
D
...
H
...

Lowering cortisol and CVD risk in postmenopausal women: A pilot study using the Transcendental Meditation
program
...
Yehuda & B
...
), Biobehavioral stress response: Protective and damaging effects (Annals
of the New York Academy of Sciences) (Vol
...
211–215)
...

[29] Lyubimov, N
...
(1992)
...
2nd Russian-Swedish Symposium, New Research in Neurobiology
...

[30] Lutz, A
...
, Rawlings, N
...
, & Davidson, R
...
Long-term meditators self-induce highamplitude gamma synchrony during mental practice
...

[31] Lutz, A
...
, Rawlings, N
...
, & Davidson, R
...
Long-term meditators self-induce highamplitude gamma synchrony during mental practice
...

Attributed to Charles Stangor
Saylor URL: http://www
...
org/books/

Saylor
...
F
...
Escaping the self: Alcoholism, spirituality, masochism, and other flights from the
burden of selfhood
...

[33] Baumeister, R
...
Suicide as escape from self
...

[34] Steele, C
...
(1990)
...
American Psychologist, 45(8),
921–933
...
, & Baumeister, R
...
Binge eating as escape from self-awareness
...

[36] Baumeister, R
...
(1991)
...
New York, NY: Basic Books
...
S
...
F
...
Toward an explanation of the UFO abduction phenomenon:
Hypnotic elaboration, extraterrestrial sadomasochism, and spurious memories
...


5
...

Consciousness is functional because we use it to reason logically, to plan activities, and to
monitor our progress toward the goals we set for ourselves
...
Freud‘s personality theories
differentiated between the unconscious and the conscious aspects of behavior, and present-day
psychologists distinguish between automatic (unconscious) and controlled (conscious) behaviors
and between implicit (unconscious) and explicit (conscious) cognitive processes
...
In
contrast to the dualists, psychologists believe the consciousness (and thus the mind) exists in the
brain, not separate from it
...
saylor
...
org

280

The behavior of organisms is influenced by biological rhythms, including the daily circadian
rhythms that guide the waking and sleeping cycle in many animals
...
Each of the sleep stages has its own distinct pattern of
brain activity
...
Non-rapid eye movement (non-REM) sleep is a deep sleep
characterized by very slow brain waves, and is further subdivided into three stages: stages N1,
N2, and N3
...
Sleep deprivation suppresses
immune responses that fight off infection, and can lead to obesity, hypertension, and memory
impairment
...

Freud believed that the primary function of dreams was wish fulfillment, and he differentiated
between the manifest and latent content of dreams
...

The activation-synthesis theory of dreaming proposes that dreams are simply our brain‘s
interpretation of the random firing of neurons in the brain stem
...
The use (especially in combination) of psychoactive drugs has the
potential to create very negative side effects, including tolerance, dependence, withdrawal
symptoms, and addiction
...
saylor
...
org

281

the central nervous system (CNS)
...

Depressants, including alcohol, barbiturates, benzodiazepines, and toxic inhalants, reduce the
activity of the CNS
...
Toxic inhalants are some of the most
dangerous recreational drugs, with a safety index below 10, and their continued use may lead to
permanent brain damage
...

Hallucinogens, including cannabis, mescaline, and LSD, are psychoactive drugs that alter
sensation and perception and which may create hallucinations
...
And drugs are not the only things we enjoy or can abuse
...

Hypnosis is a trance-like state of consciousness, usually induced by a procedure known as
hypnotic induction, which consists of heightened suggestibility, deep relaxation, and intense
focus
...

Sensory deprivation is the intentional reduction of stimuli affecting one or more of the five
senses, with the possibility of resulting changes in consciousness
...

Attributed to Charles Stangor
Saylor URL: http://www
...
org/books/

Saylor
...
Meditation has
a variety of positive health effects
...
saylor
...
org

283

Chapter 6
Growing and Developing
The Repository for Germinal Choice
During the 1970s, American millionaire Robert Klark Graham began one of the most controversial and unique sperm
banks in the world
...
The sperm bank was part of a project that
attempted to combat the ―genetic decay‖ Graham saw all around him
...


[1]

Graham began his project by collecting sperm samples from the most intelligent and highly achieving people he could
find, including scientists, entrepreneurs, athletes, and even Nobel Prize winners
...
Graham mailed out
catalogs to the potential mothers, describing the donors using code names such as ―Mr
...
Fuchsia,‖ who was an ―Olympic gold medalist, tall, dark, handsome, bright, a successful businessman and
author‖ (Plotz, 2001)
...
Before it closed following Graham‘s death in 1999, the repository claimed
responsibility for the birth of 228 children
...

Reporter for Slate magazine David Plotz (2001)

[3]

spoke to nine families who benefited from the repository, and they

proudly touted their children‘s achievements
...
Three from donor Mr
...
Several who excel in math and science were fathered by professors of math and science
...
One of the offspring, now 26 years old, is particularly intelligent
...
In kindergarten, he could read Hamlet and was learning algebra, and at age 6,
his IQ was already 180
...
saylor
...
org

284

study at a smaller progressive college and to major in comparative religion, with the aim of becoming an elementary
school teacher
...

Although it is difficult to know for sure, it appears that at least some of the children of the repository are indeed
outstanding
...
Most of the parents
studied child care manuals, coached their children‘s sports teams, practiced reading with their kids, and either homeschooled them or sent them to the best schools in their areas
...
Furthermore,
the mothers approached the repository at a relatively older child-bearing age, when all other options were exhausted
...
It is undeniable that, in addition to their genetic
backgrounds, all this excellent nurturing played a significant role in the development of the repository children
...
The offspring interviewed are definitely smart and
talented, but only one of them was considered a true genius and child prodigy
...


[4]

The goal of this chapter is to investigate the fundamental, complex, and essential process of
human development
...
We will begin our study of development at
the moment of conception, when the father‘s sperm unites with the mother‘s egg, and then
consider prenatal development in the womb
...
Finally, we will consider the developmental changes that occur
during adolescence—the years between the onset of puberty and the beginning of adulthood; the
stages of adulthood itself, including emerging, early, middle, and older adulthood; and finally,
the preparations for and eventual facing of death
...
saylor
...
org

285

Each of the stages of development has its unique physical, cognitive, and emotional changes that
define the stage and that make each stage unique, one from the other
...
202)[5] proposed a model of life-span development that
provides a useful guideline for thinking about the changes we experience throughout life
...
1 "Challenges of Development as Proposed by Erik Erikson", Erikson believed
that each life stage has a unique challenge that the person who reaches it must face
...


Table 6
...


18 months to 3
Muscular-anal

18 months

Autonomy versus

The child learns what he or she can and cannot control and

years

shame/doubt

develops a sense of free will
...

The adolescent develops a well-defined and positive sense of

confusion

self in relationship to others
...


Generativity versus

Young

inferiority

Intimacy versus

12 to 18 years

The child learns to do things well or correctly according to

The person develops an interest in guiding the development of

stagnation

the next generation, often by becoming a parent
...


Identity versus role

6 to 12 years

Initiative versus guilt
Industry versus

Latency

3 to 6 years

The person develops acceptance of his or her life as it was

despair

lived
...
H
...
Childhood and society
...
202)
...
saylor
...
org

286

As we progress through this chapter, we will see that Robert Klark Graham was in part right—
nature does play a substantial role in development (it has been found, for instance, that identical
twins, who share all of their genetic code, usually begin sitting up and walking on the exact same
days)
...
Furthermore,
we will see that we play an active role in shaping our own lives
...
As you
read the chapter, you will no doubt get a broader view of how we each pass through our own
lives
...


[1] Plotz, D
...
The “genius babies,” and how they grew
...
Retrieved from http://www
...
com/id/100331
[2] Plotz, D
...
The “genius babies,” and how they grew
...
Retrieved from http://www
...
com/id/100331
[3] Plotz, D
...
The “genius babies,” and how they grew
...
Retrieved from http://www
...
com/id/100331
[4] Olding, P
...
The genius sperm bank
...
Retrieved
fromhttp://www
...
co
...
shtml; Plotz, D
...
The “genius babies,” and how they grew
...
Retrieved from http://www
...
com/id/100331
[5] Erikson, E
...
(1963)
...
New York, NY: Norton
...
1 Conception and Prenatal Development
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
1
...


2
...


Conception occurs when an egg from the mother is fertilized by a sperm from the father
...
Ovulation occurs about halfway through the woman‘s menstrual
Attributed to Charles Stangor
Saylor URL: http://www
...
org/books/

Saylor
...
In addition to helping
the egg mature, the hormones also cause the lining of the uterus to grow thicker and more
suitable for implantation of a fertilized egg
...
Although few of the sperm are able to make the long journey, some
of the strongest swimmers succeed in meeting the egg
...
As soon as one of the millions of sperm enters the egg‘s
coating, the egg immediately responds by both blocking out all other challengers and at the same
time pulling in the single successful sperm
...
The zygote continues to
travel down the fallopian tube to the uterus
...
If the zygote is still viable
when it completes the journey, it will attach itself to the wall of the uterus, but if it is not, it will
be flushed out in the woman‘s menstrual flow
...
Soon the cells begin to differentiate, each taking on
a separate function
...


The Embryo
Attributed to Charles Stangor
Saylor URL: http://www
...
org/books/

Saylor
...
During the
embryonic phase, which will last for the next 6 weeks, the major internal and external organs are
formed, each beginning at the microscopic level, with only a few cells
...

While the inner layer of embryonic cells is busy forming the embryo itself, the outer layer is
forming the surrounding protective environment that will help the embryo survive the pregnancy
...
Theplacenta is an organ that
allows the exchange of nutrients between the embryo and the mother, while at the same time
filtering out harmful material
...
Finally, the umbilical cord links the embryo directly to the placenta and
transfers all material to the fetus
...


The Fetus
Beginning in the 9th week after conception, the embryo becomes a fetus
...
All the major aspects of the growing organism have
been formed in the embryonic phase, and now the fetus has approximately six months to go from
weighing less than an ounce to weighing an average of 6 to 8 pounds
...

The fetus begins to take on many of the characteristics of a human being, including moving (by
the 3rd month the fetus is able to curl and open its fingers, form fists, and wiggle its toes),
sleeping, as well as early forms of swallowing and breathing
...
Research has found that the
fetus even develops some initial preferences
...
saylor
...
org

289

Cooper, & Fifer, 1993), [1] and even the kinds of foods that the mother ate during the pregnancy
(Mennella, Jagnow, & Beauchamp, 2001)
...


How the Environment Can Affect the Vulnerable Fetus
Prenatal development is a complicated process and may not always go as planned
...
[3] Although the amniotic sac and the placenta are designed to protect
the embryo, substances that can harm the fetus, known as teratogens, may nevertheless cause
problems
...
Teratogens do not always
harm the fetus, but they are more likely to do so when they occur in larger amounts, for longer
time periods, and during the more sensitive phases, as when the fetus is growing most rapidly
...

Harmful substances that the mother ingests may harm the child
...
Another serious threat is fetal alcohol syndrome (FAS), a condition caused by
maternal alcohol drinking that can lead to numerous detrimental developmental effects,
including limb and facial abnormalities, genital anomalies, and mental retardation
...
[4] Because there is
no known safe level of alcohol consumption for a pregnant woman, the U
...
Centers for Disease
Control and Prevention indicates that a“pregnant woman should not drink alcohol‖ (Centers for
Disease Control and Prevention, 2005)
...
Maternal drug abuse is also of major concern and is considered one
of the greatest risk factors facing unborn children
...
saylor
...
org

290

The environment in which the mother is living also has a major impact on infant development
(Duncan & Brooks-Gunn, 2000; Haber & Toro, 2004)
...
And children
born into poverty are also more likely to be exposed to teratogens
...
[7]
Mothers normally receive genetic and blood tests during the first months of pregnancy to
determine the health of the embryo or fetus
...
The screenings detect potential birth defects, including neural
tube defects, chromosomal abnormalities (such as Down syndrome), genetic diseases, and other
potentially dangerous conditions
...


KEY TAKEAWAYS


Development begins at the moment of conception, when the sperm from the father merges with the egg from the
mother
...




The fetus is connected to the mother through the umbilical cord and the placenta, which allow the fetus and mother to
exchange nourishment and waste
...




The embryo and fetus are vulnerable and may be harmed by the presence of teratogens
...




Environmental factors, especially homelessness and poverty, have a substantial negative effect on healthy child
development
...
saylor
...
org

291

1
...


Given the negative effects of poverty on human development, what steps do you think that societies should take to try
to reduce poverty?

[1] DeCasper, A
...
, & Fifer, W
...
(1980)
...
Science, 208, 1174–1176;
Moon, C
...
P
...
P
...
Two-day-olds prefer their native language
...

[2] Mennella, J
...
, Jagnow, C
...
, & Beauchamp, G
...
(2001)
...
Pediatrics, 107(6), e88
...
, & Persaud, T
...
The developing human: Clinically oriented embryology(5th ed
...

[4] Niccols, G
...
(1994)
...
Clinical Psychology Review, 14, 91–111
...
Alcohol use and pregnancy
...
, & Brooks-Gunn, J
...
Family poverty, welfare reform, and child development
...
, & Toro, P
...
Homelessness among families, children, and adolescents: An ecological–developmental
perspective
...

[7] Evans, G
...
, & English, K
...
The environment of poverty: Multiple stressor exposure, psychophysiological stress, and
socio-emotional adjustment
...
, & Quevedo, K
...
The neurobiology of
stress and development
...


6
...


Describe the abilities that newborn infants possess and how they actively interact with their environments
...


List the stages in Piaget’s model of cognitive development and explain the concepts that are mastered in each stage

3
...


4
...


Attributed to Charles Stangor
Saylor URL: http://www
...
org/books/

Saylor
...
The fetus is
responsible, at least in part, for its own birth because chemicals released by the developing fetal
brain trigger the muscles in the mother‘s uterus to start the rhythmic contractions of childbirth
...
When the contractions reach an interval of 2 to 3 minutes, the mother is requested to assist
in the labor and help push the baby out
...
As you can
see in Table 6
...


Table 6
...


tries to suck
...


The baby closes both eyes
...


Keeps the exploring infant away from

Attributed to Charles Stangor
Saylor URL: http://www
...
org/books/

Saylor
...


Significance
painful stimuli

The baby turns its head to one
Tonic neck

The baby is laid down on its

side and extends the arm on the

reflex

back
...


Helps develop hand-eye coordination

The baby grasps the object
An object is pressed into the

weight for a brief period
...

Loud noises or a sudden drop

Grasp reflex

pressed and can even hold its own

and quickly brings them in as if

assisted infants in holding onto their

baby
...


mothers during rough traveling

The baby is suspended with
Stepping

bare feet just above a surface

Baby makes stepping motions as

reflex

and is moved forward
...


Helps encourage motor development

In addition to reflexes, newborns have preferences—they like sweet tasting foods at first, while
becoming more open to salty items by 4 months of age (Beauchamp, Cowart, Menellia, &
Marsh, 1994; Blass & Smith, 1992)
...
An infant
only 6 days old is significantly more likely to turn toward its own mother‘s breast pad than to the
breast pad of another baby‘s mother (Porter, Makin, Davis, & Christensen, 1992), [2] and a
newborn also shows a preference for the face of its own mother (Bushnell, Sai, & Mullin,
1989)
...
The child‘s knowledge and abilities increase as it
babbles, talks, crawls, tastes, grasps, plays, and interacts with the objects in the environment
(Gibson, Rosenzweig, & Porter, 1988; Gibson & Pick, 2000; Smith & Thelen, 2003)
...

Attributed to Charles Stangor
Saylor URL: http://www
...
org/books/

Saylor
...
[5] Similar effects are likely
occurring in children who have opportunities to play, explore, and interact with their
environments (Soska, Adolph, & Johnson, 2010)
...

Indeed, the famous psychologist William James presumed that the newborn experiences a ―blooming, buzzing
confusion‖ (James, 1890, p
...


[7]

And you may think that, even if babies do know more than James gave them

credit for, it might not be possible to find out what they know
...

One way that we can learn about the cognitive development of babies is by measuring their behavior in response to
the stimuli around them
...


[8]

The sucking behavior is used as a measure of the infants‘ interest in the stimuli—the sounds or images they

suck hardest in response to are the ones we can assume they prefer
...
Habituation refers to the decreased responsiveness toward a stimulus after it has been
presented numerous times in succession
...
Developmental
psychologists have used this general principle to help them understand what babies remember and understand
...
When the experiment begins, a stimulus (e
...
, the face of an adult)
appears in the baby‘s field of view, and the amount of time the baby looks at the face is recorded by the camera
...
saylor
...
org

295

the stimulus is removed for a few seconds before it appears again and the gaze is again measured
...
Then, a new stimulus
(e
...
, the face of a different adult or the same face looking in a different direction) is presented, and the researchers
observe whether the gaze time significantly increases
...

Although this procedure is very simple, it allows researchers to create variations that reveal a great deal about a
newborn‘s cognitive ability
...
‖ Research using the habituation procedure has found that babies can notice changes in colors, sounds,
and even principles of numbers and physics
...
After the infants habituated to this display, the presentation was changed such that the puppet jumped a
different number of times
...
3 "Can Infants Do Math?", the infants‘ gaze time increased when
Wynn changed the presentation, suggesting that the infants could tell the difference between the number of jumps
...
3Can Infants Do Math?

Karen Wynn found that babies that had habituated to a puppet jumping either two or three times significantly
increased their gaze when the puppet began to jump a different number of times
...
saylor
...
org

296

Source: Adapted from Wynn, K
...
Infants possess a system of numerical knowledge
...


Cognitive Development During Childhood
Childhood is a time in which changes occur quickly
...
During this time the child learns to actively manipulate
and control the environment, and is first exposed to the requirements of society, particularly the
need to control the bladder and bowels
...

Children need to learn to explore the world, to become self-reliant, and to make their own way in
the environment
...
Neurological changes during childhood provide children the
ability to do some things at certain ages, and yet make it impossible for them to do other things
...
During the 1920s, Piaget was administering intelligence tests to children in an attempt to
determine the kinds of logical thinking that children were capable of
...
Piaget believed that the incorrect answers that the children
gave were not mere shots in the dark but rather represented specific ways of thinking unique to
the children‘s developmental stage
...
These insights—that children at
different ages think in fundamentally different ways—led to Piaget‘s stage model of cognitive
development
...
He argued that, as they learn and mature, children develop schemas—patterns of
knowledge in long-term memory—that help them remember, organize, and respond to
information
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to reconcile the new knowledge with existing schemas
...
5 "Assimilation and Accommodation")
...
5 Assimilation and Accommodation

When children employ assimilation, they use already developed schemas to understand new
information
...
In this case, children fit the existing schema to the
new information and label the new information with the existing knowledge
...
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on the other hand, involves learning new information, and thus changing the schema
...

Piaget‘s most important contribution to understanding cognitive development, and the
fundamental aspect of his theory, was the idea that development occurs in unique and distinct
stages, with each stage occurring at a specific time, in a sequential manner, and in a way that
allows the child to think about the world using new capacities
...
3 "Piaget‘s Stages of Cognitive Development"
...
3 Piaget‘s Stages of Cognitive Development

Approximate
Stage

age range

Characteristics

Stage attainments

Birth to about 2

senses of seeing, hearing, touching, and tasting
...
They also
Preoperational

years

Children acquire the ability to internally represent the

Sensorimotor

The child experiences the world through the fundamental

increase in language

start to see the world from other people‘s perspectives
...
They can
Concrete
operational

increasingly perform operations on objects that are only
7 to 11 years

imagined
...


Abstract logic

The first developmental stage for Piaget was the sensorimotor stage, the cognitive stage that
begins at birth and lasts until around the age of 2
...
During this stage, babies form their first schemas
by using their primary senses—they stare at, listen to, reach for, hold, shake, and taste the things
in their environments
...
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During the sensorimotor stage, babies‘ use of their senses to perceive the world is so central to
their understanding that whenever babies do not directly perceive objects, as far as they are
concerned, the objects do not exist
...
Piaget found that it
was not until about 8 months that the children realized that the object was merely covered and
not gone
...


Video Clip: Object Permanence
Children younger than about 8 months of age do not understand object permanence
...
During this stage, children begin to use language and to think more
abstractly about objects, but their understanding is more intuitive and without much ability to
deduce or reason
...
In one study that showed the extent of this inability,
Judy DeLoache (1987) [10] showed children a room within a small dollhouse
...
The researchers took the children to another lab
room, which was an exact replica of the dollhouse room, but full-sized
...
5 years old were asked to find the toy, they did not know where to look—they were simply
unable to make the transition across the changes in room size
...

The inability of young children to view transitions also leads them to be egocentric—unable to
readily see and understand other people‘s viewpoints
...
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increases rapidly during the preoperational stage
...
Then Anna leaves the room, and the video shows that while she is gone, a
researcher moves the ball from the red box into a blue box
...
The child is then asked to point to the box where Anna will probably look to
find her ball
...
After 4 years of age, however, children have developed a theory of mind—they
realize that different people can have different viewpoints, and that (although she will be wrong)
Anna will nevertheless think that the ball is still in the red box
...
An important milestone during the concrete
operational stage is the development of conservation—the understanding that changes in the
form of an object do not necessarily mean changes in the quantity of the object
...
It appears that these children focus only on one
dimension (in this case, the height of the glass) and ignore the other dimension (width)
...

Video Clip: Conservation
Children younger than about 7 years of age do not understand the principles of conservation
...
Children
Attributed to Charles Stangor
Saylor URL: http://www
...
org/books/

Saylor
...
For instance, rather than haphazardly changing different aspects of
a situation that allows no clear conclusions to be drawn, they systematically make changes in one
thing at a time and observe what difference that particular change makes
...

Piaget‘s theories have made a substantial and lasting contribution to developmental psychology
...
This general idea has generated many other theories of cognitive development, each
designed to help us better understand the development of the child‘s information-processing
skills (Klahr & McWinney, 1998; Shrager & Siegler, 1998)
...
Piaget‘s work has also been applied in many domains—for instance,
many teachers make use of Piaget‘s stages to develop educational approaches aimed at the level
children are developmentally prepared for (Driscoll, 1994; Levin, Siegler, & Druyan, 1990)
...
For instance, it is now believed that object
permanence develops gradually, rather than more immediately, as a true stage model would
predict, and that it can sometimes develop much earlier than Piaget expected
...
The researchers then arranged for the object to reappear from behind another
screen in a different place
...

These data suggest that the babies were aware that the object still existed even though it was
hidden behind the screen, and thus that they were displaying object permanence as early as 3
months of age, rather than the 8 months that Piaget predicted
...
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Another factor that might have surprised Piaget is the extent to which a child‘s social
surroundings influence learning
...
[14] And children in different cultures show somewhat different patterns of cognitive
development
...
In short, Piaget‘s theory probably understated
the contribution of environmental factors to social development
...
These scholars argue that children‘s thinking develops through constant
interactions with more competent others, including parents, peers, and teachers
...
This approach is frequently used in classrooms to
improve learning as well as to increase responsibility and respect for others
...
[18]

Social Development During Childhood
It is through the remarkable increases in cognitive ability that children learn to interact with and
understand their environments
...
Equally crucial is the development of the child‘s social skills—the
ability to understand, predict, and create bonds with the other people in their environments
...
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Knowing the Self: The Development of the Self-Concept
One of the important milestones in a child‘s social development is learning about his or her own
self-existence
...
The self-concept is a knowledge representation or schema that
contains knowledge about us, including our beliefs about our personality traits, physical
characteristics, abilities, values, goals, and roles, as well as the knowledge that we exist as
individuals (Kagan, 1991)
...
[20] In one study (Gallup, 1970), [21] researchers
painted a red dot on the foreheads of anesthetized chimpanzees and then placed each animal in a
cage with a mirror
...
These actions suggest that the chimps
understood that they were looking at themselves and not at other animals, and thus we can
assume that they are able to realize that they exist as individuals
...

Infants who have a similar red dot painted on their foreheads recognize themselves in a mirror in
the same way that the chimps do, and they do this by about 18 months of age (Povinelli, Landau,
& Perilloux, 1996)
...
By age 2, the infant becomes aware of his or her sex, as a boy or a girl
...
[23]
Soon after children enter grade school (at about age 5 or 6), they begin to make comparisons
with other children, a process known as social comparison
...
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1990)
...

And children increasingly show awareness of social situations—they understand that other
people are looking at and judging them the same way that they are looking at and judging others
(Doherty, 2009)
...
The emotional bonds that we develop
with those with whom we feel closest, and particularly the bonds that an infant develops with the
mother or primary caregiver, are referred to as attachment (Cassidy & Shaver, 1999)
...
But studies by the
developmental psychologist John Bowlby (1953) [27] and others showed that these children did
not develop normally—they were usually sickly, emotionally slow, and generally unmotivated
...

In one classic study showing the importance of attachment, Wisconsin University psychologists
Harry and Margaret Harlow investigated the responses of young monkeys, separated from their
biological mothers, to two surrogate mothers introduced to their cages
...
The second mother was a foam-rubber form wrapped in a heated
terry-cloth blanket
...
[28]

Attributed to Charles Stangor
Saylor URL: http://www
...
org/books/

Saylor
...

The Harlows‘ studies confirmed that babies have social as well as physical needs
...
From this base, they can gain
the confidence they need to venture out and explore their worlds
...
1 "Challenges
of Development as Proposed by Erik Erikson") was in agreement on the importance of a secure
base, arguing that the most important goal of infancy was the development of a basic sense of
trust in one‘s caregivers
...
Ainsworth created a laboratory test that
measured an infant‘s attachment to his or her parent
...
[29]During the procedure, which lasts about 20 minutes, the parent and the infant are
first left alone, while the infant explores the room full of toys
...
The stranger
stays with the infant for a few minutes, and then the parent again enters and the stranger leaves
the room
...


Video Clip: The Strange Situation
In the strange situation, children are observed responding to the comings and goings of parents
and unfamiliar adults in their environments
...
A child with
Attributed to Charles Stangor
Saylor URL: http://www
...
org/books/

Saylor
...
The child may be upset when the mother departs but is also happy to see the mother
return
...
When the mother leaves, the child is extremely distressed
and is ambivalent when she returns
...
A child with an avoidant (sometimes called insecure-avoidant)
attachment style will avoid or ignore the mother, showing little emotion when the mother departs
or returns
...
The child will not
explore very much, regardless of who is there, and the stranger will not be treated much
differently from the mother
...
Although some cultural differences in attachment styles have been found (Rothbaum,
Weisz, Pott, Miyake, & Morelli, 2000), [30] research has also found that the proportion of
children who fall into each of the attachment categories is relatively constant across cultures
(see Figure 6
...


Figure 6
...
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The graph shows the approximate proportion of children who have each of the four attachment styles
...


You might wonder whether differences in attachment style are determined more by the child
(nature) or more by the parents (nurture)
...
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needs
...
The research found that these mothers‘ babies were more
likely to show a secure attachment style in comparison to the mothers in a control group that did
not receive training
...
Some children are warm,
friendly, and responsive, whereas others tend to be more irritable, less manageable, and difficult
to console
...
[32] Taken together, it seems safe to
say that attachment, like most other developmental processes, is affected by an interplay of
genetic and socialization influences
...
In fact, research
has found that the attachment styles of children predict their emotions and their behaviors many years later (Cassidy
& Shaver, 1999)
...

In one such study, Waters, Merrick, Treboux, Crowell, and Albersheim (2000)

[34]

examined the extent of stability and

change in attachment patterns from infancy to early adulthood
...
Waters and colleagues found that 72% of the infants received the same secure versus insecure
attachment classification in early adulthood as they had received as infants
...


Attributed to Charles Stangor
Saylor URL: http://www
...
org/books/

Saylor
...
Securely attached infants have closer, more harmonious
relationship with peers, are less anxious and aggressive, and are better able to understand others‘ emotions than are
those who were categorized as insecure as infants (Lucas-Thompson & Clarke-Stewart, (2007)
...


[36]

Conducting longitudinal research is a very difficult task, but one that has substantial rewards
...
The drawbacks of longitudinal
studies include the cost and the difficulty of finding a large sample that can be tracked accurately over time and the
time (many years) that it takes to get the data
...

Cross-sectional research designs represent an alternative to longitudinal designs
...
In one example, Jang, Livesley, and Vernon (1996)

[37]

studied two groups of identical and nonidentical

(fraternal) twins, one group in their 20s and the other group in their 50s, to determine the influence of genetics on
personality
...

Cross-sectional studies have a major advantage in that the scientist does not have to wait for years to pass to get
results
...
Most important, the interpretations drawn
from cross-sectional studies may be confounded by cohort effects
...
The differences might instead be due to environmental factors that affect an entire age group
...
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might be a problem
...
As a result, it is difficult in cross-sectional studies such as this one to determine whether the
differences between the groups (e
...
, in terms of the relative roles of environment and genetics) are due to age or to
other factors
...




The habituation technique is used to demonstrate the newborn’s ability to remember and learn from experience
...




Piaget’s theory of cognitive development proposes that children develop in a specific series of sequential stages:
sensorimotor, preoperational, concrete operational, and formal operational
...




Social development requires the development of a secure base from which children feel free to explore
...




Longitudinal and cross-sectional studies are each used to test hypotheses about development, and each approach has
advantages and disadvantages
...


Give an example of a situation in which you or someone else might show cognitive assimilation and cognitive
accommodation
...


Consider some examples of how Piaget’s and Vygotsky’s theories of cognitive development might be used by teachers
who are teaching young children
...


Consider the attachment styles of some of your friends in terms of their relationships with their parents and other
friends
...
K
...
J
...
A
...
R
...
Infant salt taste: Developmental, methodological, and
contextual factors
...
M
...
A
...
Differential effects of sucrose,

Attributed to Charles Stangor
Saylor URL: http://www
...
org/books/

Saylor
...
Developmental Psychology, 28, 804–810
...
H
...
W
...
B
...
M
...
Breast-fed infants respond to olfactory cues from their
own mother and unfamiliar lactating females
...

[3] Bushnell, I
...
R
...
, & Mullin, J
...
(1989)
...
British Journal of developmental
psychology, 7, 3–15
...
J
...
R
...
W
...
Exploratory behavior in the development of perceiving, acting, and
the acquiring of knowledge
...
39, pp
...
Palo Alto, CA: Annual Reviews; Gibson, E
...
, &
Pick, A
...
(2000)
...
New York, NY: Oxford University Press;
Smith, L
...
, & Thelen, E
...
Development as a dynamic system
...

[5] Juraska, J
...
, Henderson, C
...
(1984)
...
Developmental Psychobiology, 17(3), 209–215
...
C
...
E
...
P
...
Systems in development: Motor skill acquisition facilitates threedimensional object completion
...

[7] James, W
...
The principles of psychology
...

[8] Trehub, S
...
(1972)
...
Developmental Psychology, 6(1), 74–77
...
(1995)
...
Current Directions in Psychological Science, 4, 172–176
...
S
...
Rapid change in the symbolic functioning of very young children
...

[11] Klahr, D
...
(1998)
...
In D
...
S
...
), Handbook of child psychology:
Cognition, perception, & language (5th ed
...
2, pp
...
New York, NY: John Wiley & Sons; Shrager, J
...
S
...
SCADS: A model of children’s strategy choices and strategy discoveries
...

[12] Driscoll, M
...
(1994)
...
Boston, MA: Allyn & Bacon; Levin, I
...
R
...

(1990)
...
Child Development, 61, 1544–1556
...
(2004)
...
Current Directions in Psychological Science, 13(3), 89–94; Wang, S
...
,
Baillargeon, R
...
(2004)
...
Cognition, 93, 167–198
...
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[14] Courage, M
...
, & Howe, M
...
(2002)
...
Psychological Bulletin, 128(2), 250–276
...
R
...
Cross-cultural Piagetian research: A summary
...

[16] Cole, M
...
Culture in mind
...
(1990)
...
New York, NY: Oxford University Press; Tomasello, M
...
The cultural origins of
human cognition
...

[17] Vygotsky, L
...
(1962)
...
Cambridge, MA: MIT Press; Vygotsky, L
...
(1978)
...

Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press
...
, Blaney, N
...
, Sikes, J
...
(1978)
...
Beverly Hills, CA: Sage; Brown, A
...

(1997)
...
American Psychologist, 52(4),
399–413
...
(1991)
...
Developmental Review, 11, 244–250
...
T
...
T
...
Current issues and emerging theories in animal cognition
...

[21] Gallup, G
...
, Jr
...
Chimpanzees: Self-recognition
...

[22] Povinelli, D
...
, Landau, K
...
, & Perilloux, H
...
(1996)
...
Child Development, 67(4), 1540–1554
...
(1998)
...
In W
...
Eisenberg (Eds
...
, Vol
...
553–618)
...

[24] Moretti, M
...
, & Higgins, E
...
(1990)
...
In R
...
Sternberg & J
...
(Eds
...
286–314)
...

[25] Doherty, M
...
(2009)
...
New York, NY: Psychology
Press
...
E
...
R
...
(1999)
...
New York, NY:
Guilford Press
...
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[27] Bowlby, J
...
Some pathological processes set in train by early mother-child separation
...

[28] Harlow, H
...
The nature of love
...

[29] Ainsworth, M
...
, Blehar, M
...
, Waters, E
...
(1978)
...
Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates
...
, Weisz, J
...
, Miyake, K
...
(2000)
...
American Psychologist, 55(10), 1093–1104
...
C
...
The influence of temperament and mothering on attachment and exploration: An
experimental manipulation of sensitive responsiveness among lower-class mothers with irritable infants
...

[32] Gillath, O
...
R
...
-M
...
S
...
Genetic correlates of adult attachment style
...
, Schiller, M
...
J
...
, & Riordan, K
...

Attachment, maternal sensitivity, and infant temperament during the first year of life
...

[33] Cassidy, J
...
, & Shaver, P
...
E
...
Handbook of attachment: Theory, research, and clinical applications
...

[34] Waters, E
...
, Treboux, D
...
, & Albersheim, L
...
Attachment security in infancy and early
adulthood: A twenty-year longitudinal study
...

[35] Lucas-Thompson, R
...
A
...
Forecasting friendship: How marital quality, maternal mood, and
attachment security are linked to children’s peer relationships
...

[36] Carlson, E
...
, Sroufe, L
...
, & Egeland, B
...
The construction of experience: A longitudinal study of representation
and behavior
...

[37] Jang, K
...
, Livesley, W
...
, & Vernon, P
...
(1996)
...
Personality and Individual Differences, 21, 299–301
...
L
...
A
...
A
...
The genetic basis of personality at different ages: A cross-sectional twin
study
...


6
...
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LEARNING OBJECTIVES
1
...


2
...


Adolescence is defined as the years between the onset of puberty and the beginning of adulthood
...
Today, children mature more slowly, move away from home at later ages, and
maintain ties with their parents longer
...
Thus the period between puberty and adulthood may well last into the late
20s, merging into adulthood itself
...

During adolescence, the child continues to grow physically, cognitively, and emotionally,
changing from a child into an adult
...
At the same time, as adolescents develop more
advanced patterns of reasoning and a stronger sense of self, they seek to forge their own
identities, developing important attachments with people other than their parents
...

Although adolescence can be a time of stress for many teenagers, most of them weather the trials
and tribulations successfully
...
Although many will have been drunk at least once,
relatively few teenagers will develop long-lasting drinking problems or permit alcohol to
Attributed to Charles Stangor
Saylor URL: http://www
...
org/books/

Saylor
...
Similarly, a great many teenagers break
the law during adolescence, but very few young people develop criminal careers (Farrington,
1995)
...
The use
of recreational drugs can have substantial negative consequences, and the likelihood of these
problems (including dependence, addiction, and even brain damage) is significantly greater for
young adults who begin using drugs at an early age
...
Although
the timing varies to some degree across cultures, the average age range for reaching puberty is
between 9 and 14 years for girls and between 10 and 17 years for boys (Marshall & Tanner,
1986)
...

The release of these sex hormones triggers the development of
the primary sex characteristics, the sex organs concerned with reproduction (Figure 6
...
These changes include the enlargement of the testicles and the penis in boys
and the development of the ovaries, uterus, and vagina in girls
...
9 "Sex Characteristics")
...
[4] Boys typically begin to grow facial hair between ages 14 and 16,
and both boys and girls experience a rapid growth spurt during this stage
...

Attributed to Charles Stangor
Saylor URL: http://www
...
org/books/

Saylor
...
9 Sex Characteristics

Puberty brings dramatic changes in the body, including the development of primary and secondary sex
characteristics
...
[5] The age of
menarche varies substantially and is determined by genetics, as well as by diet and lifestyle,
since a certain amount of body fat is needed to attain menarche
...

Even after menstruation begins, girls whose level of body fat drops below the critical level may
stop having their periods
...
Some girls may begin to grow pubic hair at age 10 but not attain menarche
until age 15
...

The timing of puberty in both boys and girls can have significant psychological consequences
...
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therefore, often more popular (Lynne, Graber, Nichols, Brooks-Gunn, & Botvin, 2007)
...
Girls who mature early may find their maturity stressful, particularly
if they experience teasing or sexual harassment (Mendle, Turkheimer, & Emery, 2007; Pescovitz
& Walvoord, 2007)
...
[8]

Cognitive Development in Adolescence
Although the most rapid cognitive changes occur during childhood, the brain continues to
develop throughout adolescence, and even into the 20s (Weinberger, Elvevåg, & Giedd,
2005)
...
[10] As teenagers mature, the prefrontal
cortex, the area of the brain responsible for reasoning, planning, and problem solving, also
continues to develop (Goldberg, 2001)
...
, 1999)
...
[13] Furthermore, the hormonal surge that is associated with puberty, which primarily
influences emotional responses, may create strong emotions and lead to impulsive behavior
...
[14]
Attributed to Charles Stangor
Saylor URL: http://www
...
org/books/

Saylor
...
199)
...
[16]Because teens think so much about themselves, they mistakenly believe that others
must be thinking about them, too (Rycek, Stuhr, McDermott, Benker, & Swartz, 1998)
...


Social Development in Adolescence
Some of the most important changes that occur during adolescence involve the further
development of the self-concept and the development of new attachments
...
[18] As a
result, parents‘ influence diminishes at this stage
...
1 "Challenges of Development as Proposed by Erik Erikson"), the
main social task of the adolescent is the search for a unique identity—the ability to answer the
question, “ Who am I?‖ In the search for identity, the adolescent may experience role confusion
in which he or she is balancing or choosing among identities, taking on negative or undesirable
identities, or temporarily giving up looking for an identity altogether if things are not going well
...
[19] In his
approach, adolescents are asked questions regarding their exploration of and commitment to
issues related to occupation, politics, religion, and sexual behavior
...
4 "James Marcia‘s Stages of Identity Development")
...
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Table 6
...

The individual has not engaged in any identity experimentation and has established an identity

Foreclosure status

based on the choices or values of others
...


Identity-achievement
status

The individual has attained a coherent and committed identity based on personal decisions
...
(1980)
...
Handbook of adolescent psychology, 5, 145–160
...
Some teens may simply adopt the beliefs of their parents or the
first role that is offered to them, perhaps at the expense of searching for other, more promising
possibilities (foreclosure status)
...

To help them work through the process of developing an identity, teenagers may well try out
different identities in different social situations
...
Eventually, most teenagers do integrate
the different possibilities into a single self-concept and a comfortable sense of identity (identityachievement status)
...
For instance,
in response to the question“What were you like as a teenager? (e
...
, cool, nerdy, awkward?),‖
posed on the website Answerbag, one teenager replied in this way:
I’m still a teenager now, but from 8th–9th grade I didn’t really know what I wanted at all
...
I still do; my friends mean the world to me
...
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middle of 8th I started hanging out with whom you may call the “cool‖ kids…and I also hung out
with some stoners, just for variety
...

Now, I’m just trying to find who I am
...
(Answerbag, 2007) [20]
Responses like this one demonstrate the extent to which adolescents are developing their selfconcepts and self-identities and how they rely on peers to help them do that
...
The friendship groups (cliques,
crowds, or gangs) that are such an important part of the adolescent experience allow the young
adult to try out different identities, and these groups provide a sense of belonging and acceptance
(Rubin, Bukowski, & Parker, 2006)
...

Adolescents define their social identities according to how they are similar to and differ from
others, finding meaning in the sports, religious, school, gender, and ethnic categories they belong
to
...
Just as Piaget believed that children‘s cognitive development follows specific
patterns, Lawrence Kohlberg (1984) [22] argued that children learn their moral values through
active thinking and reasoning, and that moral development follows a series of stages
...
The only place to
get the drug is at the store of a pharmacist who is known to overcharge people for drugs
...
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or to let him pay later
...
Should he have done that? Was it right or wrong? Why? (Kohlberg, 1984) [23]

Video Clip: People Being Interviewed About Kohlberg’s Stages
As you can see in Table 6
...


Table 6
...
At this stage, punishment

Preconventional
Young children

is avoided and rewards are sought
...
‖
By early adolescence, the child begins to care about how situational outcomes
impact others and wants to please and be accepted
...
For example, a person at this level may
say, “ He should not steal the drug, as everyone will see him as a thief, and his wife,

Older children,
adolescents,

Conventional

who needs the drug, wouldn‘t want to be cured because of thievery,‖ or, “ No

most adults

morality

matter what, he should obey the law because stealing is a crime
...
Moral
behavior is based on self-chosen ethical principles that are generally
comprehensive and universal, such as justice, dignity, and equality
...
He may have to pay a penalty, but at

morality

least he has saved a human life
...
For one,
Attributed to Charles Stangor
Saylor URL: http://www
...
org/books/

Saylor
...
[24] Second, it has been argued that the stage model is particularly appropriate for Western,
rather than non-Western, samples in which allegiance to social norms (such as respect for
authority) may be particularly important (Haidt, 2001)
...

Perhaps the most important critique of Kohlberg‘s theory is that it may describe the moral
development of boys better than it describes that of girls
...
Although there is little evidence that
boys and girls score differently on Kohlberg‘s stages of moral development (Turiel, 1998),[27] it
is true that girls and women tend to focus more on issues of caring, helping, and connecting with
others than do boys and men (Jaffee & Hyde, 2000)
...

KEY TAKEAWAYS


Adolescence is the period of time between the onset of puberty and emerging adulthood
...
Even so, they tend not to be fully independent and have not taken on
all the responsibilities of adulthood
...




Puberty is a developmental period in which hormonal changes cause rapid physical alterations in the body
...




A defining aspect of adolescence is the development of a consistent and committed self-identity
...




Kohlberg’s theory proposes that moral reasoning is divided into the following stages: preconventional morality,
conventional morality, and postconventional morality
...
saylor
...
org

323



Kohlberg’s theory of morality has been expanded and challenged, particularly by Gilligan, who has focused on
differences in morality between boys and girls
...


Based on what you learned in this chapter, do you think that people should be allowed to drive at age 16? Why or why
not? At what age do you think they should be allowed to vote and to drink alcohol?

2
...
What sort of cliques or crowds were there? How did people express their
identities in these groups? How did you use your groups to define yourself and develop your own identity?

[1] Baumeister, R
...
, & Tice, D
...
(1986)
...
In J
...
G
...
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...
183–201)
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M
...
Generation me: Why today’s young Americans are more
confident, assertive, entitled—and more miserable than ever before
...

[2] Farrington, D
...
(1995)
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...
E
...
), Psychosocial
disturbances in young people: Challenges for prevention (pp
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New York, NY: Cambridge University Press
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A
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M
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Puberty
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Falkner & J
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Tanner (Eds
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New York, NY: Plenum Press
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A
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M
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Puberty
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Falkner & J
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Tanner (Eds
...
, pp
...
New York, NY: Plenum Press
...
E
...
E
...
(2003)
...
S
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D
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40, 181
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[7] Mendle, J
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, & Emery, R
...
(2007)
...
Developmental Review, 27, 151–171; Pescovitz, O
...
, & Walvoord, E
...
(2007)
...
Totowa, NJ: Humana Press
...
, Conger, R
...
, & Elder, G
...
, Jr
...
Coming of age too early: Pubertal influences on girls’ vulnerability to
psychological distress
...


Attributed to Charles Stangor
Saylor URL: http://www
...
org/books/

Saylor
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R
...
, & Giedd, J
...
(2005)
...
National Campaign to Prevent
Teen Pregnancy
...
thenationalcampaign
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pdf
[10] Blakemore, S
...
(2008)
...
Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology,
61, 40–49
...
(2001)
...
New York, NY: Oxford University Press
...
L
...
N
...
, Hamburger, S
...
, Fernandez, T
...
(1999)
...
Archives of
General Psychiatry, 56(7), 649–654
...
J
...
Development of the social brain during adolescence
...

[14] Steinberg, L
...
Risk taking in adolescence: New perspectives from brain and behavioral science
...

[15] Elkind, D
...
The child’s reality: Three developmental themes
...

[16] Goossens, L
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, Emmen, M
...
(2002)
...
Journal of Research on Adolescence, 12(2), 193–215
...
F
...
L
...
, Benker, J
...
D
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Adolescent egocentrism and cognitive
functioning during late adolescence
...

[18] Harris, J
...
New York, NY: Free Press
...
(1980)
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Handbook of Adolescent Psychology, 5, 145–160
...
(2007, March 20)
...
g
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Retrieved
from http://www
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[21] Rubin, K
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, Bukowski, W
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, & Parker, J
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(2006)
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Damon, & R
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571–645)
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[22] Kohlberg, L
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...
200)
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Attributed to Charles Stangor
Saylor URL: http://www
...
org/books/

Saylor
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(1984)
...
2, p
...
San Francisco, CA:
Harper & Row
...
(1979)
...
Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press
...
(2001)
...
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Review, 108(4), 814–834
...
(1982)
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Cambridge, MA: Harvard University
Press
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(1998)
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...
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...
3, pp
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, & Hyde, J
...
(2000)
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Psychological Bulletin, 126(5),
703–726
...
4 Early and Middle Adulthood: Building Effective Lives
LEARNING OBJECTIVE
1
...
Present-day psychologists realize, however, that physical, cognitive, and
emotional responses continue to develop throughout life, with corresponding changes in our
social needs and desires
...

In this section, we will consider the development of our cognitive and physical aspects that occur
during early adulthood and middle adulthood—roughly the ages between 25 and 45 and between
45 and 65, respectively
...
These are also the
periods in which most of us make our most substantial contributions to society, by meeting two
of Erik Erikson‘s life challenges: We learn to give and receive love in a close, long-term
Attributed to Charles Stangor
Saylor URL: http://www
...
org/books/

Saylor
...


Psychology in Everyday Life: What Makes a Good Parent?
One thing that you may have wondered about as you grew up, and which you may start to think about again if you
decide to have children yourself, concerns the skills involved in parenting
...
Some parents hug and kiss their
kids and say that they love them over and over every day, whereas others never do
...
One case in which these basic
goals are less likely to be met is when the mother is an adolescent
...


[1]

As a result, the babies of adolescent mothers have higher rates of

academic failure, delinquency, and incarceration in comparison to children of older mothers (Moore & Brooks-Gunn,
2002)
...
In fact, studies have found
that children whose fathers are more involved tend to be more cognitively and socially competent, more empathic,
and psychologically better adjusted, compared with children whose fathers are less involved (Rohner & Veneziano,
2001)
...
Amato concluded, ―Regardless of
the quality of the mother-child relationship, the closer adult offspring were to their fathers, the happier, more
satisfied, and less distressed they reported being‖ (p
...

As the child grows, parents take on one of four types ofparenting styles—parental behaviors that determine the
nature of parent-child interactions and that guide their interaction with the child
...
11 "Parenting

Attributed to Charles Stangor
Saylor URL: http://www
...
org/books/

Saylor
...
Authoritarian parents are demanding but not responsive
...
Authoritative parents are demanding (―You must be home by curfew‖), but they are
also responsive to the needs and opinions of the child (―Let‘s discuss what an appropriate curfew might be‖)
...
Finally, rejecting-neglecting
parents are undemanding and unresponsive overall
...
11Parenting Styles

Attributed to Charles Stangor
Saylor URL: http://www
...
org/books/

Saylor
...

The authoritative style, characterized by both responsiveness and also demandingness, is the most effective
...
Parents who use the authoritative style, with its
combination of demands on the children as well as responsiveness to the children‘s needs, have kids who have better
psychological adjustment, school performance, and psychosocial maturity, compared with parents who use the other
styles (Baumrind, 1996; Grolnick & Ryan, 1989)
...
Although the reasons for the differences are not completely understood,
strict authoritarian parenting styles seem to work better in African American families than in European American
families (Tamis-LeMonda, Briggs, McClowry, & Snow, 2008),
families (Chang, Lansford, Schwartz, & Farver, 2004)
...
Some children have particularly difficult temperaments, and these children require more
parenting
...


[8]

These findings remind us how the behavior of the child can influence the behavior of the people in

his or her environment
...
Parenting is time consuming and
emotionally taxing, and the parents must work together to create a relationship in which both mother and father
contribute to the household tasks and support each other
...


[9]

Physical and Cognitive Changes in Early and Middle Adulthood
Compared with the other stages, the physical and cognitive changes that occur in the stages of
early and middle adulthood are less dramatic
...
saylor
...
org

329

recovery from muscular strain becomes more prolonged, and their sensory abilities may become
somewhat diminished, at least when compared with their prime years, during the teens and early
20s (Panno, 2004)
...
Adults in their
30s and 40s may also begin to suffer some hearing loss because of damage to the hair cells (cilia)
in the inner ear (Lacher-Fougëre & Demany, 2005)
...
[12] Corresponding to changes in our physical
abilities, our cognitive and sensory abilities also seem to show some, but not dramatic, decline
during this stage
...
Eventually, women experience menopause,the cessation of the
menstrual cycle, which usually occurs at around age 50
...
Women whose menstrual cycles have
stopped for 12 consecutive months are considered to have entered menopause (Minkin & Wright,
2004)
...
Within
individuals, some women may react more negatively to menopause, worrying that they have lost
their femininity and that their final chance to bear children is over, whereas other women may
regard menopause more positively, focusing on the new freedom from menstrual discomfort and
unwanted pregnancy
...
saylor
...
org

330

women enjoy more social privileges than do younger ones, menopause is more positively
regarded (Avis & Crawford, 2008)
...
Infants have better chances of survival when their
mothers are younger and have more energy to care for them, and the presence of older women
who do not have children of their own to care for (but who can help out with raising
grandchildren) can be beneficial to the family group
...
If older
women were able to have children they might not be as able to effectively care for them
...


Social Changes in Early and Middle Adulthood
Perhaps the major marker of adulthood is the ability to create an effective and independent life
...
Furthermore, the needs of adults are different from
those of younger persons
...
The social clock refers tothe culturally preferred “right time‖ for major life
events, such as moving out of the childhood house, getting married, and having children
...
g
...
[15]
Attributed to Charles Stangor
Saylor URL: http://www
...
org/books/

Saylor
...
Marriage is beneficial to the partners, both in terms of mental health and
physical health
...
[16]
Divorce is more common now than it was 50 years ago
...
Most divorces occur for couples in their 20s, because younger
people are frequently not mature enough to make good marriage choices or to make marriages
last
...
[18]
Parenthood also involves a major and long-lasting commitment, and one that can cause
substantial stress on the parents
...
[19] This
decline is especially true for women, who bear the larger part of the burden of raising the
children and taking care of the house, despite the fact they increasingly also work and have
careers
...
These years are often very satisfying, as families have been established, careers have
been entered into, and some percentage of life goals has been realized (Eid & Larsen, 2008)
...




One of the key signs of aging in women is the decline in fertility, culminating in menopause, which is marked by the
cessation of the menstrual period
...
saylor
...
org

332



The different social stages in adulthood, such as marriage, parenthood, and work, are loosely determined by a social
clock, a culturally recognized time for each phase
...


Compare your behavior, values, and attitudes regarding marriage and work to the attitudes of your parents and
grandparents
...


Draw a timeline of your own planned or preferred social clock
...
, Christensson, K
...
(2004)
...
Journal of Epidemiology and Community Health, 58(8), 680–685
...
R
...
(2002)
...
In M
...
Bornstein (Ed
...
, Vol
...
173–214)
...

[3] Rohner, R
...
, & Veneziano, R
...
(2001)
...
Review of
General Psychology, 5(4), 382–405
...
R
...
Father-child relations, mother-child relations, and offspring psychological well-being in
adulthood
...

[5] Baumrind, D
...
The discipline controversy revisited
...
S
...
M
...
Parent styles associated with children’s self-regulation and competence in school
...

[6] Tamis-LeMonda, C
...
, Briggs, R
...
, McClowry, S
...
, & Snow, D
...
(2008)
...
Parenting: Science and Practice, 8(4),
319–358
...
, Lansford, J
...
, Schwartz, D
...
M
...
Marital quality, maternal depressed affect, harsh parenting,
and child externalising in Hong Kong Chinese families
...

[8] Pluess, M
...
(2010)
...
Developmental Psychology,
46(2), 379–390
...
A
...
R
...
, & Iacono, W
...
(2008)
...
Developmental Psychology, 44(6), 1668–1677; Ge, X
...
N
...
D
...


Attributed to Charles Stangor
Saylor URL: http://www
...
org/books/

Saylor
...
Development and Psychopathology, 18(1), 253–273
...
(2004)
...
New York, NY: Facts on File Publishers
...
, & Demany, L
...
Consequences of cochlear damage for the detection of inter-aural phase
differences
...

[12] Shelton, H
...
(2006)
...
Whitefish, MT: Kessinger Publishers
...
J
...
V
...
A woman’s guide to menopause and perimenopause
...

[14] Avis, N
...
, & Crawford, S
...
Cultural differences in symptoms and attitudes toward menopause
...

[15] DePaulo, B
...
(2006)
...

New York, NY: St
...
S
...
C
...
(1989)
...
American Journal of Community Psychology, 17, 223–258
...
, & Waite, L
...
(2001)
...
New York, NY: Random House; Liu, H
...
(2008)
...
Journal of Health and Social Behavior, 49, 239–253
...
(2007)
...
218)
...
S
...

[18] Goodwin, P
...
, Mosher, W
...
, Chandra A
...
Marriage and cohabitation in the United States: A statistical
portrait based on Cycle 6 (2002) of the National Survey of Family Growth
...
Retrieved from
National Center for Health Statistics, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention,
website:http://www
...
gov/nchs/data/series/sr_23/sr23_028
...
, Campbell, W
...
(2003)
...
Journal of
Marriage and Family, 65(3), 574–583
...
, & Larsen, R
...
(Eds
...
The science of subjective well-being
...


6
...
saylor
...
org

334

LEARNING OBJECTIVES
1
...


2
...


We have seen that, over the course of their lives, most individuals are able to develop secure
attachments; reason cognitively, socially and morally; and create families and find appropriate
careers
...

Despite the fact that the body and mind are slowing, most older adults nevertheless maintain an
active lifestyle, remain as happy or are happier than when they were younger, and increasingly
value their social connections with family and friends (Angner, Ray, Saag, & Allison,
2009)
...


Cognitive Changes During Aging
The changes associated with aging do not affect everyone in the same way, and they do not
necessarily interfere with a healthy life
...
The golfer Tom Watson almost won the 2010 British Open golf
tournament at the age of 59, playing against competitors in their 20s and 30s
...
S
...


Attributed to Charles Stangor
Saylor URL: http://www
...
org/books/

Saylor
...
For one, research has found that the people who are best able to adjust well to
changing situations early in life are also able to better adjust later in life (Rubin, 2007; Sroufe,
Collins, Egeland, & Carlson, 2009)
...
People who believe that the
elderly are sick, vulnerable, and grumpy often act according to such beliefs (Nemmers,
2005),[5] and Levy, Slade, Kunkel, and Kasl (2002) [6] found that the elderly who had more
positive perceptions about aging also lived longer
...
Furthermore, this difference was explained by beliefs about
aging—in both cultures, the older adults who believed that memory declined with age also
showed more actual memory declines than did the older adults who believed that memory did
not decline with age
...
13, older Americans performed more
poorly on the memory tasks
...
13

Attributed to Charles Stangor
Saylor URL: http://www
...
org/books/

Saylor
...

Source: Adapted from Levy, B
...
(1994)
...
Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 66(6), 989–997
...
Older adults do seem to process information more slowly—it may take them
longer to evaluate information and to understand language, and it takes them longer, on average,
than it does younger people, to recall a word that they know, even though they are perfectly able
to recognize the word once they see it (Burke, Shafto, Craik, & Salthouse, 2008)
...
, 2000)
...
Perhaps the elderly are slower in part because they simply have more
knowledge
...
As a result,
adults generally outperform younger people on measures of history, geography, and even on
crossword puzzles, where this information is useful (Salthouse, 2004)
...
[12]

Attributed to Charles Stangor
Saylor URL: http://www
...
org/books/

Saylor
...
e
...
A young chess player may think more
quickly, for instance, but a more experienced chess player has more knowledge to draw on
...
[13]

Dementia and Alzheimer’s Disease
Some older adults suffer from biologically based cognitive impairments in which the brain is so
adversely affected by aging that it becomes very difficult for the person to continue to function
effectively
...
Dementia and
Alzheimer‘s disease are most likely to be observed in individuals who are 65 and older, and the
likelihood of developing Alzheimer‘s doubles about every 5 years after age 65
...
, 1995)
...
Without this neurotransmitter, the neurons are unable to communicate, leaving the
brain less and less functional
...
14 A Healthy Brain (Left) Versus a Brain With Advanced Alzheimer’s Disease (Right)

Attributed to Charles Stangor
Saylor URL: http://www
...
org/books/

Saylor
...
And current research is helping us understand the things that older
adults can do to help them slow down or prevent the negative cognitive outcomes of aging,
including dementia and Alzheimer‘s (Pushkar, Bukowski, Schwartzman, Stack, & White,
2007)
...
,
2008; Verghese et al
...
[16] In short, although physical illnesses may occur to anyone, the
more people keep their brains active and the more they maintain a healthy and active lifestyle,
the more healthy their brains will remain (Ertel, Glymour, & Berkman, 2008)
...
Leaving one‘s career is a major life change
and can be a time when people experience anxiety, depression, and other negative changes in the
self-concept and in self-identity
...
Retirement may

Attributed to Charles Stangor
Saylor URL: http://www
...
org/books/

Saylor
...

Psychologist Mo Wang (2007) [18] observed the well-being of 2,060 people between the ages of
51 and 61 over an 8-year period, and made the following recommendations to make the
retirement phase a positive one:
Continue to work part time past retirement, in order to ease into retirement status slowly
...

Retire with someone—if the retiree is still married, it is a good idea to retire at the same time as a
spouse, so that people can continue to work part time and follow a retirement plan together
...
Couples that work on their marriages can make their retirements a lot easier
...

Retire early from a stressful job—people who stay in stressful jobs for fear that they will lose
their pensions or won‘t be able to find work somewhere else feel trapped
...
Leaving early from an unsatisfying job may
make retirement a relief
...


Attributed to Charles Stangor
Saylor URL: http://www
...
org/books/

Saylor
...


Death, Dying, and Bereavement
Living includes dealing with our own and our loved ones‘ mortality
...
‖ “ This can‘t be happening; not to me
...
‖ “ I‘d do anything for a few more
years
...
What‘s the point?‖ “ I
miss my loved ones—why go on?‖
Acceptance: “ I know my time has come; it‘s almost my time
...
[20] As an example, Japanese Americans
restrain their grief (Corr, Nabe, & Corr, 2009) [21] so as not to burden other people with their
pain
...
In some cultures
the elderly are more likely to be living and coping alone, or perhaps only with their spouse,
whereas in other cultures, such as the Hispanic culture, the elderly are more likely to be living

Attributed to Charles Stangor
Saylor URL: http://www
...
org/books/

Saylor
...
[22]
Margaret Stroebe and her colleagues (2008) [23] found that although most people adjusted to the
loss of a loved one without seeking professional treatment, many had an increased risk of
mortality, particularly within the early weeks and months after the loss
...

The health of survivors during the end of life is influenced by factors such as circumstances
surrounding the loved one‘s death, individual personalities, and ways of coping
...
Despite the trauma of the
loss of a loved one, people do recover and are able to continue with effective lives
...
[24]

KEY TAKEAWAYS


Most older adults maintain an active lifestyle, remain as happy or happier as when they were younger, and increasingly
value their social connections with family and friends



Although older adults have slower cognitive processing overall (fluid intelligence), their experience in the form of
crystallized intelligence—or existing knowledge about the world and the ability to use it—is maintained and even
strengthened during old age
...


Attributed to Charles Stangor
Saylor URL: http://www
...
org/books/

Saylor
...




Two significant social stages in late adulthood are retirement and dealing with grief and bereavement
...




A significant number of people going through the grieving process are at increased risk of mortality and physical and
mental illness, but grief counseling can be effective in helping these people cope with their loss
...


How do the people in your culture view aging? What stereotypes are there about the elderly? Are there other ways
that people in your society might learn to think about aging that would be more beneficial?

2
...
, Ray, M
...
, Saag, K
...
, & Allison, J
...
(2009)
...
Journal of Health Psychology, 14, 503–512
...
, Mather, M
...
L
...
The role of motivation in the age-related positivity effect in
autobiographical memory
...

[3] Myers, D
...
, & Diener, E
...
The pursuit of happiness
...

[4] Rubin, L
...
60 on up: The truth about aging in America
...
A
...
A
...
, & Carlson, E
...
(2009)
...

New York, NY: Guilford Press
...
M
...
The influence of ageism and ageist stereotypes on the elderly
...

[6] Levy, B
...
, Slade, M
...
, Kunkel, S
...
, & Kasl, S
...
(2002)
...
Journal
of Personality and Social Psychology, 83, 261–270
...
, & Langer, E
...
Aging free from negative stereotypes: Successful memory in China among the American
deaf
...


Attributed to Charles Stangor
Saylor URL: http://www
...
org/books/

Saylor
...
M
...
A
...
I
...
, & Salthouse, T
...
(2008)
...
In The handbook of aging and
cognition (3rd ed
...
373–443)
...

[9] Persad, C
...
, Abeles, N
...
T
...
L
...
Inhibitory changes after age 60 and the relationship to
measures of attention and memory
...

[10] Pushkar, D
...
, Arbuckle, T
...
, Lapidus, S
...
(2000)
...
Psychology and Aging, 15(2), 361–374
...
A
...
What and when of cognitive aging
...

[12] Baltes, P
...
, Staudinger, U
...
, & Lindenberger, U
...
Life-span psychology: Theory and application to intellectual
functioning
...
, Kunzmann, U
...
B
...
New territories of
positive life-span development: Wisdom and life longings
...
J
...
Lopez & C
...
E
...
), Oxford handbook of positive
psychology (2nd ed
...
171–183)
...

[13] Blanchard-Fields, F
...
, & Seay, R
...
(2007)
...
The Journals of Gerontology: Series B: Psychological
Sciences and Social Sciences, 62B(1), P61–P64
...
E
...
A
...
A
...
S
...
M
...
J
...
A
...
Age-specific
incidence of Alzheimer’s disease in a community population
...

[15] Pushkar, D
...
M
...
E
...
M
...
R
...
Responding to the challenges of late
life: Strategies for maintaining and enhancing competence
...

[16] Cherkas, L
...
, Hunkin, J
...
, Kato, B
...
, Richards, J
...
, Gardner, J
...
, Surdulescu, G
...
,…Aviv, A
...
The association
between physical activity in leisure time and leukocyte telomere length
...
, Lipton, R
...
J
...
B
...
A
...
D
...
Leisure activities and the risk of dementia in the
elderly
...

[17] Ertel, K
...
, Glymour, M
...
, & Berkman, L
...
(2008)
...
S
...
American Journal of Public Health, 98, 1215–1220
...
(2007)
...
Journal of Applied Psychology, 92(2), 455–474
...
saylor
...
org

344

[19] Kübler-Ross, E
...
On death and dying
...

[20] Bonanno, G
...
The other side of sadness: What the new science of bereavement tells us about life after a loss
...

[21] Corr, C
...
, Nabe, C
...
, & Corr, D
...
(2009)
...
Belmont, CA: Wadsworth
...
(2004)
...
Illness, Crisis, & Loss,
12(3), 239–255
...
S
...
O
...
, & Stroebe, W
...
Bereavement research: Contemporary perspectives
...

S
...
O
...
Schut, & W
...
),Handbook of bereavement research and practice: Advances in theory
and intervention (pp
...
Washington, DC: American Psychological Association
...
A
...
M
...
M
...
(2008)
...
In D
...
Steffen, & L
...
), Handbook of behavioral
and cognitive therapies with older adults (pp
...
New York, NY: Springer Verlag
...
6 Chapter Summary
Development begins at conception when a sperm from the father fertilizes an egg from the mother
creating a new life
...

Babies are born prepared with reflexes and cognitive skills that contribute to their survival and
growth
...

An important part of development is the attainment of social skills, including the formation of the
self-concept and attachment
...
Moral development continues in adolescence
...


Attributed to Charles Stangor
Saylor URL: http://www
...
org/books/

Saylor
...
Fertility, particularly for women, also decreases, and women eventually
experience menopause
...

Although older adults have slower cognitive processing overall (fluid intelligence), their experience
in the form of crystallized intelligence, or existing knowledge about the world and the ability to use it,
is maintained and even strengthened during aging
...


Attributed to Charles Stangor
Saylor URL: http://www
...
org/books/

Saylor
...
I can look back now and gently laugh at all the people who thought I had the perfect life
...

Having been properly diagnosed with PTSD at age 35, I know that there is not one aspect of my life that has
gone untouched by this mental illness
...
I would never be the same after that attack
...
I went to the police and filed a report
...

This would be the most damaging decision of my life
...
I suffered
horrific flashbacks and nightmares
...
I
obsessively checked windows, doors, and locks
...
Soon I became
unable to leave my apartment for weeks at a time, ending my modeling career abruptly
...
Years passed when I had few or no symptoms at all, and I led what I thought was a fairly normal
life, just thinking I had a ―panic problem
...
It was as if the past had evaporated, and I was back in
the place of my attack, only now I had uncontrollable thoughts of someone entering my house and harming
my daughter
...
I lost all ability to concentrate or even
complete simple tasks
...
I
often felt disoriented, forgetting where, or who, I was
...
I felt as if I had completely lost my mind
...


Attributed to Charles Stangor
Saylor URL: http://www
...
org/books/

Saylor
...
I cannot express to you the enormous relief I felt when I
discovered my condition was real and treatable
...
Taking medication
and undergoing behavioral therapy marked the turning point in my regaining control of my life
...
The world is new to me and not limited
by the restrictive vision of anxiety
...

For me there is no cure, no final healing
...
I’m no longer at the mercy of my disorder, and I would not be here
today had I not had the proper diagnosis and treatment
...
(Philips, 2010)

[1]

The topic of this chapter is learning—the relatively permanent change in knowledge or behavior
that is the result of experience
...

In fact, learning is a broad topic that is used to explain not only how we acquire new knowledge
and behavior but also a wide variety of other psychological processes including the development
of both appropriate and inappropriate social behaviors, and even how a person may acquire a
debilitating psychological disorder such as PTSD
...
Learning allows us to create effective
lives by being able to respond to changes
...
Without the ability to learn from our experiences, our lives would be
remarkably dangerous and inefficient
...


Attributed to Charles Stangor
Saylor URL: http://www
...
org/books/

Saylor
...
The behaviorists,
including John B
...
F
...
For behaviorists, the fundamental aspect of learning
is the process ofconditioning—the ability to connect stimuli (the changes that occur in the
environment) with responses (behaviors or other actions)
...
We will also consider other types, including
learning through insight, as well as observational learning (also known as modeling)
...
And we will see that in some
cases learning can be maladaptive—for instance, when a person like P
...
Philips continually
experiences disruptive memories and emotional responses to a negative event
...
K
...
My story of survival: Battling PTSD
...
Retrieved
from http://www
...
org/living-with-anxiety/personal-stories/my-story-survival-battling-ptsd

7
...


Describe how Pavlov’s early work in classical conditioning influenced the understanding of learning
...


Review the concepts of classical conditioning, including unconditioned stimulus (US), conditioned stimulus (CS),
unconditioned response (UR), and conditioned response (CR)
...


Explain the roles that extinction, generalization, and discrimination play in conditioned learning
...
Pavlov realized that the dogs were salivating because

Attributed to Charles Stangor
Saylor URL: http://www
...
org/books/

Saylor
...

With his team of researchers, Pavlov began studying this process in more detail
...
He systematically controlled the onset of the sound and the
timing of the delivery of the food, and recorded the amount of the dogs‘ salivation
...
The animals had learned
to associate the sound with the food that followed
...

Classical conditioning refers to learning that occurs when a neutral stimulus (e
...
, a tone)
becomes associated with a stimulus (e
...
, food) that naturally produces a behavior
...

As you can see in Figure 7
...

The unconditioned stimulus (US) is something (such as food) that triggers a natural occurring
response, and the unconditioned response (UR) is the naturally occurring response (such as
salivation) that follows the unconditioned stimulus
...
In Pavlov‘s experiment, the sound of the tone
served as the conditioned stimulus that, after learning, produced the conditioned response (CR),
which is the acquired response to the formerly neutral stimulus
...


Figure 7
...
saylor
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350

Top left: Before conditioning, the unconditioned stimulus (US) naturally produces the unconditioned response (UR)
...
Bottom
left: The unconditioned stimulus (US), in this case the food, is repeatedly presented immediately after the neutral
stimulus
...


Conditioning is evolutionarily beneficial because it allows organisms to develop expectations
that help them prepare for both good and bad events
...
If the animal can learn to associate the smell (CS)
with the food (US), then it will quickly learn that the food creates the negative outcome, and not
eat it the next time
...
In some
Attributed to Charles Stangor
Saylor URL: http://www
...
org/books/

Saylor
...
Figure 7
...
As you can see, after the intial acquisition (learning) phase in
which the conditioning occurred, when the CS was then presented alone, the behavior rapidly
decreased—the dogs salivated less and less to the sound, and eventually the sound did not elicit
salivation at all
...


Figure 7
...
Extinction: The CS is
repeatedly presented alone, and the behavior slowly decreases
...


Attributed to Charles Stangor
Saylor URL: http://www
...
org/books/

Saylor
...
Pavlov found that, after a pause, sounding
the tone again elicited salivation, although to a lesser extent than before extinction took
place
...
When Pavlov again presented the CS alone, the behavior again showed
extinction until it disappeared again
...
If conditioning is again
attempted, the animal will learn the new associations much faster than it did the first time
...
For instance, if the dog had been conditioned to being scratched
before the food arrived, the stimulus would be changed to being rubbed rather than scratched
...
Generalization refers to the tendency to respond to stimuli that resemble the
original conditioned stimulus
...

If we eat some red berries and they make us sick, it would be a good idea to think twice before
we eat some purple berries
...

Lewicki (1985) [1] conducted research that demonstrated the influence of stimulus generalization
and how quickly and easily it can happen
...
The study was set
up so that the students had to ask the experimenter a question, and (according to random
assignment) the experimenter responded either in a negative way or a neutral way toward the
students
...
However, the researchers arranged it so that one of
the two experimenters looked a lot like the original experimenter, while the other one did not
(she had longer hair and no glasses)
...
saylor
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to them than when she had treated them more neutrally
...

The flip side of generalization is discrimination—the tendency to respond differently to stimuli
that are similar but not identical
...
Discrimination is also useful—if we do try the purple berries,
and if they do not make us sick, we will be able to make the distinction in the future
...

In some cases, an existing conditioned stimulus can serve as an unconditioned stimulus for a
pairing with a new conditioned stimulus—a process known as second-order conditioning
...
Eventually he found that the dogs
would salivate at the sight of the black square alone, even though it had never been directly
associated with the food
...


The Role of Nature in Classical Conditioning
As we have seen in Chapter 1 "Introducing Psychology", scientists associated with the
behavioralist school argued that all learning is driven by experience, and that nature plays no
role
...
But classical conditioning cannot be understood
entirely in terms of experience
...

Attributed to Charles Stangor
Saylor URL: http://www
...
org/books/

Saylor
...
For example, driving a car is
a neutral event that would not normally elicit a fear response in most people
...
The driving has become
the CS that now creates the fear response
...

Although people may in some cases develop a driving phobia, they are more likely to develop
phobias toward objects (such as snakes, spiders, heights, and open spaces) that have been
dangerous to people in the past
...
Being
injured while riding in a car or being cut by a knife are much more likely
...
[2]
Another evolutionarily important type of conditioning is conditioning related to food
...
Garcia discovered that taste conditioning was extremely powerful—
the rat learned to avoid the taste associated with illness, even if the illness occurred several hours
later
...
These results contradicted the idea that conditioning occurs entirely as a result of
environmental events, such that it would occur equally for any kind of unconditioned stimulus
that followed any kind of conditioned stimulus
...
saylor
...
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355

others
...

Classical conditioning has also been used to help explain the experience of posttraumatic stress
disorder (PTSD), as in the case of P
...
Philips described in the chapter opener
...
[4] PTSD occurs when the individual develops a
strong association between the situational factors that surrounded the traumatic event (e
...
,
military uniforms or the sounds or smells of war) and the US (the fearful trauma itself)
...
[5]
PTSD develops because the emotions experienced during the event have produced neural activity
in the amygdala and created strong conditioned learning
...
, 2009)
...


KEY TAKEAWAYS


In classical conditioning, a person or animal learns to associate a neutral stimulus (the conditioned stimulus, or CS) with
a stimulus (the unconditioned stimulus, or US) that naturally produces a behavior (the unconditioned response, or UR)
...
saylor
...
org

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As a result of this association, the previously neutral stimulus comes to elicit the same response (the conditioned
response, or CR)
...




Stimulus generalization occurs when a stimulus that is similar to an already-conditioned stimulus begins to produce the
same response as the original stimulus does
...




In second-order conditioning, a neutral stimulus becomes a CS after being paired with a previously established CS
...


EXERCISES AND CRITICAL THINKING
1
...
Eventually, the students start
becoming quiet and attentive whenever the teacher approaches the chalkboard
...


Recall a time in your life, perhaps when you were a child, when your behaviors were influenced by classical
conditioning
...


3
...
(1985)
...
Journal of Personality and
Social Psychology, 48, 563–574
...
, & Mineka, S
...
Fears, phobias, and preparedness: Toward an evolved module of fear and fear
learning
...
, & DeLoache, J
...
(2010)
...
Developmental Science, 13(1), 221–228
...
, Kimeldorf, D
...
, & Koelling, R
...
(1955)
...
Science, 122, 157–158; Garcia, J
...
R
...
A
...
Learning with prolonged delay of
reinforcement
...


Attributed to Charles Stangor
Saylor URL: http://www
...
org/books/

Saylor
...
(2000)
...
, text rev
...

[5] Keane, T
...
, Zimering, R
...
, & Caddell, J
...
(1985)
...
The Behavior Therapist, 8(1), 9–12
...
R
...
K
...
B
...
L
...
M
...
B
...
L
...
Neurobiological basis of
failure to recall extinction memory in posttraumatic stress disorder
...


7
...


Outline the principles of operant conditioning
...


Explain how learning can be shaped through the use of reinforcement schedules and secondary reinforcers
...
The organism does not learn something new but rather
begins to perform in an existing behavior in the presence of a new signal
...
Operant conditioning occurs when a dog rolls over on command
because it has been praised for doing so in the past, when a schoolroom bully threatens his
classmates because doing so allows him to get his way, and when a child gets good grades
because her parents threaten to punish her if she doesn‘t
...


How Reinforcement and Punishment Influence Behavior: The Research of
Thorndike and Skinner
Psychologist Edward L
...
In his research Thorndike (1898) [1]observed cats who had been placed in a
“puzzle box‖ from which they tried to escape (Note 7
...

Attributed to Charles Stangor
Saylor URL: http://www
...
org/books/

Saylor
...
But
eventually, and accidentally, they pressed the lever that opened the door and exited to their prize,
a scrap of fish
...

Observing these changes in the cats‘ behavior led Thorndike to develop hislaw of effect, the
principle that responses that create a typically pleasant outcome in a particular situation are
more likely to occur again in a similar situation, whereas responses that produce a typically
unpleasant outcome are less likely to occur again in the situation (Thorndike, 1911)
...
Unsuccessful responses, which
produce unpleasant experiences, are “stamped out‖ and subsequently occur less frequently
...
Thorndike described the learning that follows
reinforcement in terms of the law of effect
...
F
...
Skinner
created specially designed environments known as operant chambers (usually called Skinner
boxes) to systemically study learning
...
It also contains a device to record the animal’s responses
...
A
rat placed in the chamber reacted as one might expect, scurrying about the box and sniffing and
clawing at the floor and walls
...
saylor
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release pellets of food
...
Soon the rat
was pressing the lever as fast as it could eat the food that appeared
...

Skinner studied, in detail, how animals changed their behavior through reinforcement and
punishment, and he developed terms that explained the processes of operant learning (Table 7
...
Skinner used
the termreinforcer to refer to any event that strengthens or increases the likelihood of a
behavior and the term punisher to refer to any event that weakens or decreases the likelihood of
a behavior
...
Thus positive reinforcement strengthens a response by
presenting something pleasant after the response and negative reinforcement strengthens a
response by reducing or removing something unpleasant
...
In both cases, the reinforcement makes
it more likely that behavior will occur again in the future
...
1 How Positive and Negative Reinforcement and Punishment Influence Behavior

Operant
conditioning term

Description

Outcome

Example

Positive

Add or increase a

Behavior is

reinforcement

pleasant stimulus

strengthened

Giving a student a prize after he gets an A on a test

Negative

Reduce or remove an

Behavior is

Taking painkillers that eliminate pain increases the

reinforcement

unpleasant stimulus

strengthened

likelihood that you will take painkillers again

Present or add an

Behavior is

Giving a student extra homework after she

Positive punishment unpleasant stimulus

weakened

misbehaves in class

Negative

Behavior is

Taking away a teen‘s computer after he misses

Reduce or remove a

Attributed to Charles Stangor
Saylor URL: http://www
...
org/books/

Saylor
...

Punishment, on the other hand, refers to any event that weakens or reduces the likelihood of a
behavior
...
A child who is grounded after fighting with a sibling (positive punishment) or who
loses out on the opportunity to go to recess after getting a poor grade (negative punishment) is
less likely to repeat these behaviors
...
On a hot day a cool breeze could be seen as a positive
reinforcer (because it brings in cool air) or a negative reinforcer (because it removes hot air)
...
One may smoke a cigarette both
because it brings pleasure (positive reinforcement) and because it eliminates the craving for
nicotine (negative reinforcement)
...
The use
of positive reinforcement in changing behavior is almost always more effective than using
punishment
...
Types of
positive reinforcement that are effective in everyday life include verbal praise or approval, the
awarding of status or prestige, and direct financial payment
...
When the person who provides the punishment leaves the situation, the unwanted
behavior is likely to return
...
saylor
...
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Creating Complex Behaviors Through Operant Conditioning
Perhaps you remember watching a movie or being at a show in which an animal—maybe a dog,
a horse, or a dolphin—did some pretty amazing things
...
The animal was trained to do the
trick, and the principles of operant conditioning were used to train it
...
How can reinforcement be used to create complex behaviors such as these?
One way to expand the use of operant learning is to modify the schedule on which the
reinforcement is applied
...
Continuous reinforcement
results in relatively fast learning but also rapid extinction of the desired behavior once the
reinforcer disappears
...

Most real-world reinforcers are not continuous; they occur on a
partial (or intermittent) reinforcement schedule—a schedule in which the responses are
sometimes reinforced, and sometimes not
...
Because the reinforcement does not appear after every behavior, it takes longer for
the learner to determine that the reward is no longer coming, and thus extinction is slower
...
2 "Reinforcement
Schedules"
...
2 Reinforcement Schedules

Attributed to Charles Stangor
Saylor URL: http://www
...
org/books/

Saylor
...
In a fixed-interval schedule, reinforcement
occurs for the first response made after a specific amount of time has passed
...
As you can see in Figure 7
...
(Most students study for exams the same way
...
An example
might be checking your e-mail: You are reinforced by receiving messages that come, on average,
say every 30 minutes, but the reinforcement occurs only at random times
...


Figure 7
...
saylor
...
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363

Schedules based on the number of responses (ratio types) induce greater response rate than do schedules based on
elapsed time (interval types)
...

Source: Adapted from Kassin, S
...
Essentials of psychology
...
Retrieved
from Essentials of PsychologyPrentice Hall Companion
Website:http://wps
...
com/hss_kassin_essentials_1/15/3933/1006917
...
html
...
For
instance, a rat‘s behavior may be reinforced after it has pressed a key 20 times, or a salesperson
may receive a bonus after she has sold 10 products
...
7 "Examples of
Response Patterns by Animals Trained Under Different Partial Reinforcement Schedules", once
the organism has learned to act in accordance with the fixed-reinforcement schedule, it will
pause only briefly when reinforcement occurs before returning to a high level of responsiveness
...

Winning money from slot machines or on a lottery ticket are examples of reinforcement that
occur on a variable-ratio schedule
...
As you can see in Figure 7
...

Attributed to Charles Stangor
Saylor URL: http://www
...
org/books/

Saylor
...
Skinner made extensive use of this procedure in his boxes
...
Then when that behavior had been learned he would begin to provide food only
when the rat touched the bar
...
Although it can take a long time, in this way operant conditioning can
create chains of behaviors that are reinforced only when they are completed
...
Pigeons have been trained to distinguish between images of Charlie Brown and the
other Peanuts characters (Cerella, 1980), [3] and between different styles of music and art (Porter
& Neuringer, 1984; Watanabe, Sakamoto & Wakita, 1995)
...
Whereas
a primary reinforcer includes stimuli that are naturally preferred or enjoyed by the organism,
such as food, water, and relief from pain, a secondary reinforcer (sometimes called conditioned
reinforcer) is a neutral event that has become associated with a primary reinforcer through
classical conditioning
...
An
example of an everyday secondary reinforcer is money
...

KEY TAKEAWAYS

Attributed to Charles Stangor
Saylor URL: http://www
...
org/books/

Saylor
...




B
...
Skinner expanded on Thorndike’s ideas to develop a set of principles to explain operant conditioning
...




Positive punishment weakens a response by presenting something typically unpleasant after the response, whereas
negative punishment weakens a response by reducing or removing something that is typically pleasant
...
Partial reinforcement schedules are determined by whether the
reinforcement is presented on the basis of the time that elapses between reinforcements (interval) or on the basis of
the number of responses that the organism engages in (ratio), and by whether the reinforcement occurs on a regular
(fixed) or unpredictable (variable) schedule
...


EXERCISES AND CRITICAL THINKING
1
...


2
...

3
...
Can you determine which learning procedures
are being demonstrated?
a
...
break
...
saylor
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366

b
...
youtube
...
L
...
Animal intelligence: An experimental study of the associative processes in animals
...

[2] Thorndike, E
...
(1911)
...
New York, NY: Macmillan
...
archive
...
(1980)
...
Pattern Recognition, 12, 1–6
...
, & Neuringer, A
...
Music discriminations by pigeons
...
, Sakamoto, J
...
(1995)
...
Journal of the Experimental Analysis of Behavior, 63(2), 165–174
...
3 Learning by Insight and Observation
LEARNING OBJECTIVE
1
...


John B
...
F
...
But some kinds of learning are very difficult to explain using only
conditioning
...

One type of learning that is not determined only by conditioning occurs when we suddenly find
the solution to a problem, as if the idea just popped into our head
...
The German psychologist
Wolfgang Köhler (1925) [1]carefully observed what happened when he presented chimpanzees
with a problem that was not easy for them to solve, such as placing food in an area that was too
high in the cage to be reached
...

Then, after this period of contemplation, they would suddenly seem to know how to solve the
problem, for instance by using a stick to knock the food down or by standing on a chair to reach
Attributed to Charles Stangor
Saylor URL: http://www
...
org/books/

Saylor
...
Köhler argued that it was this flash of insight, not the prior trial-and-error approaches, which
were so important for conditioning theories, that allowed the animals to solve the problem
...
The first group always received a reward of food at the
end of the maze
...
As you might expect
when considering the principles of conditioning, the rats in the first group quickly learned to
negotiate the maze, while the rats of the second group seemed to wander aimlessly through it
...
By
the next day, the rats in the third group had caught up in their learning to the rats that had been
rewarded from the beginning
...
Latent learning refers to learning that is not reinforced and not demonstrated until
there is motivation to do so
...


Observational Learning: Learning by Watching
The idea of latent learning suggests that animals, and people, may learn simply by experiencing
or watching
...

To demonstrate the importance of observational learning in children, Bandura, Ross, and Ross
(1963) [3]showed children a live image of either a man or a woman interacting with a Bobo doll,
a filmed version of the same events, or a cartoon version of the events
...
44 "Video Clip: Bandura Discussing Clips From His Modeling Studies" the Bobo doll is an
inflatable balloon with a weight in the bottom that makes it bob back up when you knock it

Attributed to Charles Stangor
Saylor URL: http://www
...
org/books/

Saylor
...
In all three conditions, the model violently punched the clown, kicked the doll, sat on it,
and hit it with a hammer
...


The researchers first let the children view one of the three types of modeling, and then let them
play in a room in which there were some really fun toys
...
Then Bandura gave the children a chance to play with the Bobo doll
...
Regardless of
which type of modeling the children had seen, and regardless of the sex of the model or the child,
the children who had seen the model behaved aggressively—just as the model had done
...
Bandura and his colleagues had
demonstrated that these children had learned new behaviors, simply by observing and imitating
others
...
Monkeys that see other monkeys
respond with fear to the sight of a snake learn to fear the snake themselves, even if they have
been raised in a laboratory and have never actually seen a snake (Cook & Mineka, 1990)
...
For this reason, one does not teach children to swim,
adolescents to drive automobiles, and novice medical students to perform surgery by having
them discover the appropriate behavior through the consequences of their successes and
failures
...
(Bandura, 1977, p
...
saylor
...
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Although modeling is normally adaptive, it can be problematic for children who grow up in
violent families
...
Because children learn how to be parents in large part by
modeling the actions of their own parents, it is no surprise that there is a strong correlation
between family violence in childhood and violence as an adult
...
[6] In turn, their children are more likely to interact violently with each other and to
aggress against their parents (Patterson, Dishion, & Bank, 1984)
...
It has been estimated that by the age of 12, the average American child has seen more than
8,000 murders and 100,000 acts of violence
...

Kaiser Family Foundation, 2003; Schulenburg, 2007; Coyne & Archer, 2005)
...
The evidence
is impressive and clear: The more media violence people, including children, view, the more aggressive they are likely
to be (Anderson et al
...
, 2001)
...

People who watch more violence become more aggressive than those who watch less violence
...
Youths spend countless hours playing these games,
many of which involve engaging in extremely violent behaviors
...
These behaviors are
reinforced by winning points and moving on to higher levels, and are repeated over and over
...
A recent meta-analysis by Anderson and
Bushman (2001)

[10]

reviewed 35 research studies that had tested the effects of playing violent video games on

Attributed to Charles Stangor
Saylor URL: http://www
...
org/books/

Saylor
...
The studies included both experimental and correlational studies, with both male and female participants
in both laboratory and field settings
...
Furthermore, playing more video games was found to relate to less altruistic behavior
...
Participants were randomly assigned to play either a violent or a nonviolent video
game for 20 minutes
...

Participants then read a story, for instance this one about Todd, and were asked to list 20 thoughts, feelings, and
actions about how they would respond if they were Todd:
Todd was on his way home from work one evening when he had to brake quickly for a yellow light
...
Fortunately, there were no injuries
...
He then walked over to the other car
...
9 "Results From Bushman and Anderson, 2002", the students who had played one of the
violent video games responded much more aggressively to the story than did those who played the nonviolent games
...
They said things like ―Call the guy an idiot,‖ ―Kick the other
driver‘s car,‖ ―This guy‘s dead meat!‖ and ―What a dumbass!‖
Figure 7
...
saylor
...
org

371

Anderson and Bushman (2002) found that college students who had just played a violent video game expressed
significantly more violent responses to a story than did those who had just played a nonviolent video game
...
J
...
A
...
Violent video games and hostile expectations: A
test of the general aggression model
...


However, although modeling can increase violence, it can also have positive effects
...


[12]

KEY TAKEAWAYS


Not all learning can be explained through the principles of classical and operant conditioning
...




Latent learning refers to learning that is not reinforced and not demonstrated until there is motivation to do so
...




Both aggression and altruism can be learned through observation
...


Describe a time when you learned something by insight
...


Imagine that you had a 12-year-old brother who spent many hours a day playing violent video games
...
saylor
...
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3
...
(1925)
...
Winter, Trans
...

[2] Tolman, E
...
, & Honzik, C
...
(1930)
...
University of
California Publications in Psychology, 4, 257–275
...
, Ross, D
...
A
...
Imitation of film-mediated aggressive models
...

[4] Cook, M
...
(1990)
...
Journal of
Experimental Psychology: Animal Behavior Processes, 16(4), 372–389
...
(1977)
...
Psychological Review, 84, 191–215
...
E
...
M
...
(2002)
...

[7] Patterson, G
...
, Dishion, T
...
, & Bank, L
...
Family interaction: A process model of deviancy training
...

[8] The Henry J
...
(2003, Spring)
...
Menlo Park, CA: Author
...
kff
...
pdf; Schulenburg, C
...
Dying to entertain:
Violence on prime time broadcast television, 1998 to 2006
...
Retrieved
fromhttp://www
...
org/PTC/publications/reports/violencestudy/exsummary
...
M
...
(2005)
...
Social Development, 14(2), 324–337
...
A
...
, Donnerstein, E
...
R
...
D
...
,…Wartella, E
...
The influence of
media violence on youth
...
, Bushman, B
...
, Huesmann, L
...
,
Groebel, J
...
M
...
A
...
L
...
(2001)
...
Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage
...
A
...
J
...
Effects of violent video games on aggressive behavior, aggressive cognition,
aggressive affect, physiological arousal, and prosocial behavior: A meta-analytic review of the scientific literature
...


Attributed to Charles Stangor
Saylor URL: http://www
...
org/books/

Saylor
...
J
...
A
...
Violent video games and hostile expectations: A test of the general aggression
model
...

[12] Seymour, B
...
, & Dolan, R
...
Frontiers in Behavioral Neuroscience, 3, 23
...
3389/neuro
...
023
...
4 Using the Principles of Learning to Understand Everyday Behavior
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
1
...


2
...


3
...


The principles of learning are some of the most general and most powerful in all of psychology
...
The principles of learning are applied in numerous ways
in everyday settings
...
[1] In this section we will
consider how learning theories are used in advertising, in education, and in understanding
competitive relationships between individuals and groups
...
[2] The general idea is to create an advertisement
that has positive features such that the ad creates enjoyment in the person exposed to it
...
Because the product being advertised is mentioned in the ad, it becomes
Attributed to Charles Stangor
Saylor URL: http://www
...
org/books/

Saylor
...
In the end, if
everything has gone well, seeing the product online or in the store will then create a positive
response in the buyer, leading him or her to be more likely to purchase the product
...
For instance, if people
enjoy watching a college basketball team playing basketball, and if that team is sponsored by a
product, such as Pepsi, then people may end up experiencing positive feelings when they view a
can of Pepsi
...

Advertisers use a variety of techniques to create positive advertisements, including enjoyable
music, cute babies, attractive models, and funny spokespeople
...
When given a
choice as a free gift, more people chose the pen color associated with the pleasant music
...

Another type of ad that is based on principles of classical conditioning is one that associates fear
with the use of a product or behavior, such as those that show pictures of deadly automobile
accidents to encourage seatbelt use or images of lung cancer surgery to discourage smoking
...
When we see a cigarette and the fear
of dying has been associated with it, we are hopefully less likely to light up
...
This does not, however, mean that we are
Attributed to Charles Stangor
Saylor URL: http://www
...
org/books/

Saylor
...
The likelihood of conditioning being successful is greater for
products that we do not know much about, where the differences between products are relatively
minor, and when we do not think too carefully about the choices (Schemer et al
...
[6]

Psychology in Everyday Life: Operant Conditioning in the Classroom
John B
...
F
...
For instance, Watson wrote in his book on behaviorism,
Give me a dozen healthy infants, well-formed, and my own specified world to bring them up in and I’ll
guarantee to take any one at random and train him to become any type of specialist I might select—doctor,
lawyer, artist, merchant-chief and, yes, even beggar-man and thief, regardless of his talents, penchants,
tendencies, abilities, vocations, and race of his ancestors
...
82)
...


[8]

Programmed instruction allows students to progress through a unit of study at their own rate, checking their

own answers and advancing only after answering correctly
...


[9]

Although reinforcement can be effective in education, and teachers make use of it by awarding gold stars, good
grades, and praise, there are also substantial limitations to using reward to improve learning
...
In some cases teachers may distribute rewards indiscriminately,
for instance by giving praise or good grades to children whose work does not warrant it, in the hope that they will ―feel
good about themselves‖ and that this self-esteem will lead to better performance
...


[10]

When

rewards are not earned, they become meaningless and no longer provide motivation for improvement
...
If rewards are offered too often, the task itself becomes less
appealing
...
saylor
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some children to think that they engaged in an activity for a reward, rather than because they simply enjoyed it
...
The children loved the
markers and played with them right away
...
At the research
session, the children were randomly assigned to one of three experimental groups
...
A second group (the unexpected reward condition) also played with the markers, and also got the award—but
they were not told ahead of time that they would be receiving the award; it came as a surprise after the session
...

Then, the researchers placed the markers back in the classroom and observed how much the children in each of the
three groups played with them
...
10 "Undermining Intrinsic Interest", the children who had
been led to expect a reward for playing with the markers during the experimental session played with the markers less
at the second session than they had at the first session
...
The children in the no reward groups and the children in the unexpected reward groups realized that
they played with the markers because they liked them
...
These
children, then, were more likely to draw the inference that they play with the markers only for the external reward,
and because they did not expect to get an award for playing with the markers in the classroom, they determined that
they didn‘t like them
...

Figure 7
...
saylor
...
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Mark Lepper and his colleagues (1973) found that giving rewards for playing with markers, which the children
naturally enjoyed, could reduce their interest in the activity
...
R
...
, & Nisbett, R
...
(1973)
...
Journal of Personality & Social Psychology, 28(1),
129–137
...
In some cases reward may
actually make us like an activity less than we did before we were rewarded for it
...
When children
are given money by their parents to get good grades in school, they may improve their school performance to gain the
reward
...
On the other hand, rewards that are seen as more
internal to the activity, such as rewards that praise us, remind us of our achievements in the domain, and make us feel
good about ourselves as a result of our accomplishments are more likely to be effective in increasing not only the
performance of, but also the liking of, the activity (Hulleman, Durik, Schweigert, & Harackiewicz, 2008; Ryan & Deci,
2002)
...
In a recent meta-analysis, Gershoff (2002)

Attributed to Charles Stangor
Saylor URL: http://www
...
org/books/

[13]

found that although children who

Saylor
...
The problem seems to be that children who are punished for bad behavior are likely
to change their behavior only to avoid the punishment, rather than by internalizing the norms of being good for its
own sake
...
Moreover, punishment models
the use of aggression and ruptures the important relationship between the teacher and the learner (Kohn, 1993)
...
[15] The general idea is that, as predicted by principles of operant learning and the law of
effect, people act in ways that maximize theiroutcomes, where outcomes are defined as the
presence of reinforcers and the absence of punishers
...
[16] Hardin noted that in many European towns there was at one time a
centrally located pasture, known as the commons, which was shared by the inhabitants of the
village to graze their livestock
...
The problem was
that each individual who owned livestock wanted to be able to use the commons to graze his or
her own animals
...

Although Hardin focused on the particular example of the commons, the basic dilemma of
individual desires versus the benefit of the group as whole can also be found in many
contemporary public goods issues, including the use of limited natural resources, air pollution,
and public land
...
Yet this behavior uses up public goods
(the space on limited roadways, crude oil reserves, and clean air)
...
saylor
...
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379

dilemma by short-term rewards, seemingly without considering the potential long-term costs of
the behavior, such as air pollution and the necessity of building even more highways
...
The dilemmas are arranged in a way that it is easy to be selfish,
because the personally beneficial choice (such as using water during a water shortage or driving
to work alone in one‘s own car) produces reinforcements for the individual
...
‖ The problem is that, because the long-term
negative outcome (the extinction of fish species or dramatic changes in the earth‘s climate) is far
away in the future and the individual benefits are occurring right now, it is difficult for an
individual to see how many costs there really are
...
Each individual prefers to make
use of the public goods for himself or herself, whereas the best outcome for the group as a whole
is to use the resources more slowly and wisely
...
The best known of these
laboratory simulations is called theprisoner‘s dilemma game (Poundstone, 1992)
...
Like all social dilemmas,
the prisoner‘s dilemma assumes that individuals will generally try to maximize their own
outcomes in their interactions with others
...
The payoffs are chosen beforehand by the experimenter to create a situation
that models some real-world outcome
...
saylor
...
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380

better off acting in his or her immediate self-interest, and yet if all individuals act according to
their self-interests, then everyone will be worse off
...
The police believe
that the two worked together on the crime, but they have only been able to gather enough
evidence to convict each of them of a more minor offense
...
Each prisoner can
make either the cooperative choice(which is to not confess) or the competitive choice (which is
to confess)
...
11 "The Prisoner‘s Dilemma"
...
The payoffs that each prisoner receives, given the choices of each of the two
prisoners, are shown in each of the four squares
...
11 The Prisoner’s Dilemma

Attributed to Charles Stangor
Saylor URL: http://www
...
org/books/

Saylor
...
The matrix indicates the
outcomes for each prisoner, measured as the number of years each is sentenced to prison, as a result of each
combination of cooperative (don’t confess) and competitive (confess) decisions
...


If both prisoners take the cooperative choice by not confessing (the situation represented in the
upper left square of the matrix), there will be a trial, the limited available information will be
used to convict each prisoner, and they each will be sentenced to a relatively short prison term of
three years
...
These outcomes are represented in the lower left and upper right squares of the
matrix
...
In this case there is no
need for a trial, and in return the prosecutors offer a somewhat reduced sentence (of 10 years) to
each of the prisoners
...
For one, the prisoner‘s dilemma is arranged such that a positive outcome for one player
Attributed to Charles Stangor
Saylor URL: http://www
...
org/books/

Saylor
...
If you consider again the
matrix in Figure 7
...
However, if both prisoners
make the cooperative choice, each remaining quiet, then neither gains more than the other, and
both prisoners receive a relatively light sentence
...

Second, the prisoner‘s dilemma matrix is arranged such that each individual player is motivated
to take the competitive choice, because this choice leads to a higher payoff regardless of what the
other player does
...
And imagine that you are not
really sure what Frank is going to do
...
The values in the matrix make it clear that if you think that Frank is going to confess,
you should confess yourself (to get 10 rather than 30 years in prison)
...
So the matrix is arranged such that the “ best‖ alternative for each player, at least in the
sense of pure reward and self-interest, is to make the competitive choice, even though in the end
both players would prefer the combination in which both players cooperate to the one in which
they both compete
...
For instance, we can use the prisoner‘s dilemma to help us understand roommates living
together in a house who might not want to contribute to the housework
...
Yet if neither of them makes an effort to
clean the house (the cooperative choice), the house becomes a mess and they will both be worse
off
...
saylor
...
org

383

KEY TAKEAWAYS


Learning theories have been used to change behaviors in many areas of everyday life
...




Rewards are frequently and effectively used in education but must be carefully designed to be contingent on
performance and to avoid undermining interest in the activity
...


EXERCISES AND CRITICAL THINKING
1
...


2
...


Think of a social dilemma other than one that has been discussed in this chapter, and explain people’s behavior in it in
terms of principles of learning
...
C
...
M
...
Total golf: A behavioral approach to lowering your score and getting more out of your
game
...
, & Gamboa, V
...
(1974)
...
Journal of Applied Psychology, 59, 694–697; Azrin, N
...
M
...
Toilet training
in less than a day
...
M
...
Behavioral approaches to neuropsychological
rehabilitation
...

[2] Hawkins, D
...
, & Coney, K
...
) Consumer Behavior: Building Marketing Strategy (7th ed
...

[3] Gorn, G
...
(1982)
...
Journal of
Marketing, 46(1), 94–101
...
, Matthes, J
...
, Wirth, W
...
(2008)
...
Psychology & Marketing, 25(10), 923–943
...
H
...
J
...
B
...
, & Stroebe, W
...
Fear appeals motivate acceptance of action recommendations:
Evidence for a positive bias in the processing of persuasive messages
...
saylor
...
org

384

Perloff, R
...
(2003)
...
Mahwah, NJ:
Lawrence Erlbaum Associates; Witte, K
...
(2000)
...
Health Education & Behavior, 27(5), 591–615
...
, Matthes, J
...
, Wirth, W
...
(2008)
...
Psychology & Marketing, 25(10), 923–943
...
B
...
Behaviorism (Rev
...
New York, NY: Norton
...
F
...
The technology of teaching
...

doi:10
...
1965
...
H
...
Teaching Java: Managing instructional tactics to optimize student learning
...

[10] Baumeister, R
...
, Campbell, J
...
, Krueger, J
...
, & Vohs, K
...
(2003)
...

[11] Lepper, M
...
, Greene, D
...
E
...
Undermining children’s intrinsic interest with extrinsic reward: A test of
the “overjustification” hypothesis
...

[12] Hulleman, C
...
, Durik, A
...
, Schweigert, S
...
, & Harackiewicz, J
...
(2008)
...
Journal of Educational Psychology, 100(2), 398–416; Ryan, R
...
, & Deci, E
...
(2002)
...
In E
...
Deci & R
...
Ryan (Eds
...
3–33)
...

[13] Gershoff, E
...
(2002)
...
Psychological Bulletin, 128(4), 539–579
...
(1993)
...
Boston,
MA: Houghton Mifflin and Company
...
B
...
Social learning and clinical psychology
...
(1977)
...
New York, NY: General Learning Press; Miller, N
...
(1941)
...
New Haven,
CT: Yale University Press
...
(1968)
...
Science, 162, 1243–1248
...
(1992)
...
New York, NY: Doubleday
...
saylor
...
org

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7
...
In classical conditioning a
person or animal learns to associate a neutral stimulus (the conditioned stimulus, or CS) with a
stimulus (the unconditioned stimulus, or US) that naturally produces a behavior (the
unconditioned response, or UR)
...

Classically conditioned responses show extinction if the CS is repeatedly presented without the
US
...

Organisms may show stimulus generalization, in which stimuli similar to the CS may produce
similar behaviors, or stimulus discrimination, in which the organism learns to differentiate
between the CS and other similar stimuli
...

Psychologist Edward Thorndike developed the law of effect: the idea that responses that are
reinforced are “stamped in‖ by experience and thus occur more frequently, whereas responses
that are punishing are “stamped out‖ and subsequently occur less frequently
...
F
...

Positive reinforcement strengthens a response by presenting a something pleasant after the
response, and negative reinforcement strengthens a response by reducing or removing something
unpleasant
...

Attributed to Charles Stangor
Saylor URL: http://www
...
org/books/

Saylor
...

Reinforcement may be either partial or continuous
...

Not all learning can be explained through the principles of classical and operant conditioning
...

Learning by observing the behavior of others and the consequences of those behaviors is known
as observational learning
...

Learning theories can and have been applied to change behaviors in many areas of everyday life
...

Rewards are frequently and effectively used in education but must be carefully designed to be
contingent on performance and to avoid undermining interest in the activity
...


Attributed to Charles Stangor
Saylor URL: http://www
...
org/books/

Saylor
...
One night a man broke into her
apartment, put a knife to her throat, and raped her
...
Thompson studied her rapist
throughout the incident with great determination to memorize his face
...
I looked at his hairline; I looked for scars, for tattoos, for
anything that would help me identify him
...

Ms
...
Several days later, the police constructed a photographic lineup
...
She was positive it was him, with no doubt in her
mind
...
I knew it
...
If there was the possibility of
a death sentence, I wanted him to die
...

As positive as she was, it turned out that Jennifer Thompson was wrong
...
Cotton had
served 11 years in prison for a crime he did not commit that conclusive DNA evidence indicated that Bobby Poole was
the actual rapist, and Cotton was released from jail
...
It took definitive DNA testing to shake her confidence, but she now knows that despite her
confidence in her identification, it was wrong
...
d
...


[1]

Picking Cotton: A Memoir of Injustice and Redemption
Although Jennifer Thompson was positive that it was Ronald Cotton who had raped her, her memory was inaccurate
...
Watch this book trailer about the story
...
Over the past 10 years,
almost 400 people have been released from prison when DNA evidence confirmed that they could not have

Attributed to Charles Stangor
Saylor URL: http://www
...
org/books/

Saylor
...
And in more than three-quarters of these cases, the cause of
the innocent people being falsely convicted was erroneous eyewitness testimony (Wells, Memon, & Penrod, 2006)
...


The two subjects of this chapter are memory, defined as the ability to store and retrieve
information over time, and cognition, defined as the processes of acquiring and using knowledge
...

Memory and cognition represent the two major interests of cognitive psychologists
...
The cognitive school
was influenced in large part by the development of the electronic computer, and although the
differences between computers and the human mind are vast, cognitive psychologists have used
the computer as a model for understanding the workings of the mind
...
In the brain,
information can be accessed through spreading activation from closely related concepts
...

Although this is changing as new computers are developed, most computers are primarily serial—they finish one task
before they start another
...
In the brain, the
processes of short-term memory and long-term memory are distinct
...




In the brain, synapses, which operate using an electrochemical process, are much slower but also vastly more complex
and useful than the transistors used by computers
...
saylor
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389



Computers differentiate memory (e
...
, the hard drive) from processing (the central processing unit), but in brains
there is no such distinction
...




The brain is self-organizing and self-repairing, but computers are not
...
If we drop our laptop and it breaks, it cannot fix itself
...
The brain is estimated to have 25,000,000,000,000,000
(25 million billion) interactions among axons, dendrites, neurons, and neurotransmitters, and that doesn‘t include
the approximately 1 trillion glial cells that may also be important for information processing and memory
...
The neuroscientist Chris Chatham (2007)

[3]

provided the list of differences between brains and

computers shown here
...
com/developingintelligence/2007/03/why_the_brain_is_not_ like_a_co
...


We will begin the chapter with the study of memory
...
Moreover, our memories define us as individuals—
they are our experiences, our relationships, our successes, and our failures
...

At least for some things, our memory is very good (Bahrick, 2000)
...
We know the lyrics of many songs by heart, and we can
give definitions for tens of thousands of words
...


Attributed to Charles Stangor
Saylor URL: http://www
...
org/books/

Saylor
...
Consider, for instance, the case of Kim Peek, who
was the inspiration for the Academy Award–winning film Rain Man (Figure 8
...
5 "Video Clip: Kim Peek")
...
d
...
[6] The Russian psychologist A
...
Luria (2004) [7] has described the abilities of a man known as ―S,‖ who seems to have
unlimited memory
...


Video Clip: Kim Peek
You can view an interview with Kim Peek and see some of his amazing memory abilities at this
link
...
And we will see
that although we have very good memory for some things, our memories are far from perfect
(Schacter, 1996)
...
Rather, we actively process
and interpret information as we remember and recollect it, and these cognitive processes
influence what we remember and how we remember it
...
[9]
In the last section of the chapter we will focus primarily on cognition, with a particular
consideration for cases in which cognitive processes lead us to distort our judgments or
misremember information
...

People who read the words “dream,sheets, rest, snore, blanket, tired, and bed‖ and then are
asked to remember the words often think that they saw the word sleep even though that word
was not in the list (Roediger & McDermott, 1995)
...
saylor
...
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391

influenced by the ease with which we can retrieve information from memory or by the
information that we are exposed to after we first learn something
...
Our cognitive processes influence the
accuracy and inaccuracy of our memories and our judgments, and they lead us to be vulnerable
to the types of errors that eyewitnesses such as Jennifer Thompson may make
...


[1] Innocence Project
...
d
...
Retrieved fromhttp://www
...
org/Content/72
...

(2000, June 18)
...
New York Times
...
washington
...

html
[2] Wells, G
...
, Memon, A
...
D
...
Eyewitness evidence: Improving its probative value
...

[3] Chatham, C
...
10 important differences between brains and computers
...
Retrieved
fromhttp://scienceblogs
...
php
[4] Bahrick, H
...
(2000)
...
In E
...
I
...
Craik (Eds
...
347–362)
...

[5] Mitchell, D
...
(2006)
...

[6] Wisconsin Medical Society
...
d
...
(2009, December 23)
...
Retrieved
from http://www
...
co
...
ece
[7] Luria, A
...
The mind of a mnemonist: A little book about a vast memory
...

[8] Schacter, D
...
(1996)
...
New York, NY: Basic Books
...
saylor
...
org

392

[9] Bartlett, F
...
(1932)
...
Cambridge, MA: Cambridge University Press
...
L
...
B
...
Creating false memories: Remembering words not presented in lists
...


8
...


Compare and contrast explicit and implicit memory, identifying the features that define each
...


Explain the function and duration of eidetic and echoic memories
...


Summarize the capacities of short-term memory and explain how working memory is used to process information in it
...
1 "Memory Conceptualized in Terms of Types, Stages, and
Processes", psychologists conceptualize memory in terms of types, in terms of stages, and in
terms of processes
...
[1] Then, in the next section, we will consider the
nature of long-term memory, with a particular emphasis on the cognitive techniques we can use
to improve our memories
...


Table 8
...
saylor
...
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393

Explicit Memory
When we assess memory by asking a person to consciously remember things, we are
measuring explicit memory
...
As you can see in Figure 8
...
Episodic memory refers to the firsthand experiences
that we have had (e
...
, recollections of our high school graduation day or of the fantastic dinner
we had in New York last year)
...
g
...


Figure 8
...
Arecall memory test is a measure of explicit
memory that involves bringing from memory information that has previously been remembered
...
A multiple-choice test is an example of
a recognition memory test, a measure of explicit memory that involves determining whether
information has been seen or learned before
...
saylor
...
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394

Your own experiences taking tests will probably lead you to agree with the scientific research
finding that recall is more difficult than recognition
...
Recognition, as on multiple-choice test, only involves determining which item from
a list seems most correct (Haist, Shimamura, & Squire, 1992)
...
Students who do better
on a multiple-choice exam will also, by and large, do better on an essay exam (Bridgeman &
Morgan, 1996)
...
[4]Measures
of relearning (or savings) assess how much more quickly information is processed or learned
when it is studied again after it has already been learned but then forgotten
...
But if you were to work on your French again, you‘d learn the vocabulary much
faster the second time around
...
Relearning also allows us to measure
memory for procedures like driving a car or playing a piano piece, as well as memory for facts
and figures
...
However, implicit
memory is nevertheless exceedingly important to us because it has a direct effect on our
behavior
...
As you can see in Figure 8
...

Attributed to Charles Stangor
Saylor URL: http://www
...
org/books/

Saylor
...
When we
walk from one place to another, speak to another person in English, dial a cell phone, or play a
video game, we are using procedural memory
...
There is no way to
tell someone how to ride a bicycle; a person has to learn by doing it
...
The ability to crawl, walk, and talk are
procedures, and these skills are easily and efficiently developed while we are children despite the
fact that as adults we have no conscious memory of having learned them
...
The memory for the association is demonstrated when the conditioned stimulus (the
sound) begins to create the same response as the unconditioned stimulus (the food) did before the
learning
...
Priming refers both to the activation of
knowledge (e
...
, we can prime the concept of “kindness‖ by presenting people with words
related to kindness) and to the influence of that activation on behavior (people who are primed
with the concept of kindness may act more kindly)
...
You can try this yourself: First, try to
complete the following word fragments, but work on each one for only three or four seconds
...
saylor
...
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396

_o_k
_h_is_
Now read the following sentence carefully:
He got his materials from the shelves, checked them out, and then left the building
...

I think you might find that it is easier to complete fragments 1 and 3 as “ library‖ and “book,‖
respectively, after you read the sentence than it was before you read it
...
‖ This
difference in implicit memory probably occurred because as you read the sentence, the concept
of “library‖ (and perhaps “ book‖) was primed, even though they were never mentioned
explicitly
...

Our everyday behaviors are influenced by priming in a wide variety of situations
...
And these influences on our behaviors may occur without our being aware of them
...
In one demonstration of the automaticity and
influence of priming effects, John Bargh and his colleagues (Bargh, Chen, & Burrows, 1996)

[5]

conducted a study in

which they showed college students lists of five scrambled words, each of which they were to make into a sentence
...
These
participants saw words such as the following:
in Florida retired live people

Attributed to Charles Stangor
Saylor URL: http://www
...
org/books/

Saylor
...
The purpose of this task was to prime stereotypes of elderly people in memory for some of the
participants but not for others
...
When the research participant had gathered all of his or her belongings, thinking that the
experiment was over, the experimenter thanked him or her for participating and gave directions to the closest
elevator
...
As you can see in Figure
8
...

Figure 8
...

Source: Adapted from Bargh, J
...
, Chen, M
...
(1996)
...
Journal of Personality & Social Psychology, 71, 230–244
...
saylor
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To determine if these priming effects occurred out of the awareness of the participants, Bargh and his colleagues
asked still another group of students to complete the priming task and then to indicate whether they thought the
words they had used to make the sentences had any relationship to each other, or could possibly have influenced their
behavior in any way
...


Stages of Memory: Sensory, Short-Term, and Long-Term Memory
Another way of understanding memory is to think about it in terms of stages that describe the
length of time that information remains available to us
...
4 "Memory Duration"), information begins in sensory memory, moves to short-term memory,
and eventually moves to long-term memory
...
Whether the information moves from shorter-duration memory
into longer-duration memory or whether it is lost from memory entirely depends on how the
information is attended to and processed
...
4 Memory Duration

Memory can characterized in terms of stages—the length of time that information remains available to us
...
saylor
...
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Source: Adapted from Atkinson, R
...
, & Shiffrin, R
...
(1968)
...
In K
...
), The psychology of learning and motivation (Vol
...
Oxford, England: Academic
Press
...
Sensory memory is a
memory buffer that lasts only very briefly and then, unless it is attended to and passed on for
more processing, is forgotten
...

Visual sensory memory is known as iconic memory
...
[6] In his research, Sperling showed participants a display
of letters in rows, similar to that shown in Figure 8
...
However, the
display lasted only about 50 milliseconds (1/20 of a second)
...
On
average, the participants could remember only about one-quarter of the letters that they had seen
...
5 Measuring Iconic Memory

Attributed to Charles Stangor
Saylor URL: http://www
...
org/books/

Saylor
...
He found that when
he cued the participants to report one of the three rows of letters, they could do it, even if the cue was given shortly
after the display had been removed
...

Source: Adapted from Sperling, G
...
The information available in brief visual presentation
...


Sperling reasoned that the participants had seen all the letters but could remember them only
very briefly, making it impossible for them to report them all
...
In this
condition, the participants now reported almost all the letters in that row
...
The
“ short enough‖ is the length of iconic memory, which turns out to be about 250 milliseconds (¼
of a second)
...
saylor
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Auditory sensory memory is known as echoic memory
...
[7] This is convenient as it allows you—among other things—to remember the words that
you said at the beginning of a long sentence when you get to the end of it, and to take notes on
your psychology professor‘s most recent statement even after he or she has finished saying it
...
These people, who often suffer from psychological disorders such as autism, claim that
they can “see‖ an image long after it has been presented, and can often report accurately on that
image
...
The composer Wolfgang
Amadeus Mozart may have possessed eidetic memory for music, because even when he was
very young and had not yet had a great deal of musical training, he could listen to long
compositions and then play them back almost perfectly (Solomon, 1995)
...
Shortterm memory (STM) is the place where small amounts of information can be temporarily kept
for more than a few seconds but usually for less than one minute (Baddeley, Vallar, & Shallice,
1990)
...

Although it is called “ memory,‖ working memory is not a store of memory like STM but rather a
set of memory procedures or operations
...
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2007)
...
Then, after the six questions, you must
list the letters that appeared in each of the trials in the correct order (in this case S, R, P, T, U, Q)
...
You clearly need to use
STM, as you must keep the letters in storage until you are asked to list them
...
For instance, you might
decide to use a strategy of “ repeat the letters twice, then quickly solve the next problem, and then
repeat the letters twice again including the new one
...
The central executive will make use of whatever strategies seem
to be best for the given task
...

You can see that although STM is involved, the processes that we use to operate on the material
in memory are also critical
...

Peterson and Peterson (1959) [11] found that when people were asked to remember a list of threeletter strings and then were immediately asked to perform a distracting task (counting backward
Attributed to Charles Stangor
Saylor URL: http://www
...
org/books/

Saylor
...
6 "STM Decay"), such that by 18
seconds it was virtually gone
...
6 STM Decay

Peterson and Peterson (1959) found that information that was not rehearsed decayed quickly from memory
...
, & Peterson, M
...
(1959)
...
Journal of Experimental Psychology, 58(3), 193–198
...
saylor
...
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One way to prevent the decay of information from short-term memory is to use working memory
to rehearse it
...
We engage in maintenance rehearsal to keep a something
that we want to remember (e
...
, a person‘s name, e-mail address, or phone number) in mind long
enough to write it down, use it, or potentially transfer it to long-term memory
...
Try reading each of the following rows of numbers, one row at a
time, at a rate of about one number each second
...


019
3586
10295
861059
1029384
75674834
657874104
6550423897

Attributed to Charles Stangor
Saylor URL: http://www
...
org/books/

Saylor
...
I bet you missed some of the numbers in the last three rows, and did pretty poorly
on the last one
...

The cognitive psychologist George Miller (1956) [12] referred to “seven plus or minus two‖
pieces of information as the “ magic number‖ in short-term memory
...
Chunking is the process of organizing information into smaller
groupings (chunks), thereby increasing the number of items that can be held in STM
...

Now try again with this one:
MTVCNNABCFOX
Would it help you if I pointed out that the material in this string could be chunked into four sets
of three letters each? I think it would, because then rather than remembering 12 letters, you
would only have to remember the names of four television stations
...


Attributed to Charles Stangor
Saylor URL: http://www
...
org/books/

Saylor
...
Herbert Simon and William
Chase (1973) [13] showed chess masters and chess novices various positions of pieces on a
chessboard for a few seconds each
...
‖ They didn‘t have to remember the
position of each of the pieces individually, but chunked the pieces into several larger layouts
...
7 "Possible and Impossible Chess
Positions")
...
Basketball players recall actual basketball positions
much better than do nonplayers, but only when the positions make sense in terms of what is
happening on the court, or what is likely to happen in the near future, and thus can be chunked
into bigger units (Didierjean & Marmèche, 2005)
...
7 Possible and Impossible Chess Positions

Experience matters: Experienced chess players are able to recall the positions of the game on the right much better
than are those who are chess novices
...


Attributed to Charles Stangor
Saylor URL: http://www
...
org/books/

Saylor
...
The capacity of long-term
memory is large, and there is no known limit to what we can remember (Wang, Liu, & Wang,
2003)
...
In the next section we will discuss the principles of long-term memory
...




For some things our memory is very good, but our active cognitive processing of information assures that memory is
never an exact replica of what we have experienced
...
Explicit memory includes episodic and semantic memories
...




Implicit memory refers to the influence of experience on behavior, even if the individual is not aware of those
influences
...




Information processing begins in sensory memory, moves to short-term memory, and eventually moves to long-term
memory
...




The capacity of long-term memory is large, and there is no known limit to what we can remember
...


List some situations in which sensory memory is useful for you
...


Describe a situation in which you need to use working memory to perform a task or solve a problem
...
C
...
M
...
Human memory: A proposed system and its control processes
...
Spence
(Ed
...
2)
...


Attributed to Charles Stangor
Saylor URL: http://www
...
org/books/

Saylor
...
, Shimamura, A
...
, & Squire, L
...
(1992)
...
Journal of
Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition, 18(4), 691–702
...
, & Morgan, R
...
Success in college for students with discrepancies between performance on multiplechoice and essay tests
...

[4] Nelson, T
...
(1985)
...
Journal of
Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition, 11(3), 472–478
...
A
...
, & Burrows, L
...
Automaticity of social behavior: Direct effects of trait construct and stereotype
activation on action
...

[6] Sperling, G
...
The information available in brief visual presentation
...

[7] Cowan, N
...
, & Grove, T
...
(1990)
...
Journal of Experimental
Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition, 16(2), 258–268
...
(1995)
...
New York, NY: Harper Perennial
...
D
...
, & Shallice, T
...
The development of the concept of working memory: Implications and
contributions of neuropsychology
...
Vallar & T
...
), Neuropsychological impairments of short-term memory (pp
...
New York, NY: Cambridge University Press
...
, & Engle, R
...
(2007)
...
Psychological Bulletin, 133(6), 1038–1066
...
, & Peterson, M
...
(1959)
...
Journal of Experimental Psychology,
58(3), 193–198
...
A
...
The magical number seven, plus or minus two: Some limits on our capacity for processing
information
...

[13] Simon, H
...
, & Chase, W
...
(1973)
...
American Scientist, 61(4), 394–403
...
, & Marmèche, E
...
Anticipatory representation of visual basketball scenes by novice and expert
players
...

[15] Wang, Y
...
, & Wang, Y
...
Discovering the capacity of human memory
...


8
...
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LEARNING OBJECTIVES
1
...


2
...


3
...


Although it is useful to hold information in sensory and short-term memory, we also rely on our
long-term memory (LTM)
...

Psychological research has produced a great deal of knowledge about long-term memory, and
this research can be useful as you try to learn and remember new material (see Table 8
...
In this section we will
consider this question in terms of the types of processing that we do on the information we want
to remember
...


Table 8
...


processed more fully
...
‖
Think, for instance, “I remember a time when I knew the

Make use of the

answer to an exam question but couldn‘t quite get it to come

self-reference

Material is better remembered if it is

to mind
...


linked to thoughts about the self
...
‖
Review the material that you have already studied right

Be aware of the

Information that we have learned drops before the exam to increase the likelihood it will remain in

forgetting curve
...


memory
...


time
...


Attributed to Charles Stangor
Saylor URL: http://www
...
org/books/

Study a little bit every day; do not cram at the last minute
...
org

410

Technique
overlearning
...


Use context-

We have better retrieval when it occurs

dependent

in the same situation in which we

If possible, study under conditions similar to the conditions

retrieval
...


in which you will take the exam
...


were when we learned the material
...


Encoding and Storage: How Our Perceptions Become Memories
Encoding is the process by which we place the things that we experience into memory
...
I‘m sure you‘ve been to a party where you‘ve
been introduced to someone and then—maybe only seconds later—you realize that you do not
remember the person‘s name
...

Not everything we experience can or should be encoded
...
Look at Figure 8
...
S
...
Can you tell which one is the
real one? Nickerson and Adams (1979) [1] found that very few of the U
...
participants they tested
could identify the right one
...


Figure 8
...
saylor
...
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Can you identify the ―real‖ penny? We tend to have poor memory for things that don’t matter, even if we see them
frequently
...
Some ways of studying are
more effective than others
...
When we engage in elaborative encoding we process new
information in ways that make it more relevant or meaningful (Craik & Lockhart, 1972; Harris &
Qualls, 2000)
...
Rather than simply trying to
remember the schools and their characteristics, you might try to relate the information to things
you already know
...
The cognitive school
Attributed to Charles Stangor
Saylor URL: http://www
...
org/books/

Saylor
...
You might also try to organize the information into
meaningful units
...
You also might try to use visual cues to help you
remember the information
...
That image might help you remember that childhood experiences were an
important part of Freudian theory
...


Research Focus: Elaboration and Memory
In an important study showing the effectiveness of elaborative encoding, Rogers, Kuiper, and Kirker (1977)

[3]

studied

how people recalled information that they had learned under different processing conditions
...

Participants assigned to the structural task condition were asked to judge whether the word was printed in uppercase
or lowercase letters
...
In the semantic task condition, the participants were asked if the word was a synonym of another
word
...
After completing the specified task, each participant was asked to recall as many
adjectives as he or she could remember
...
As
you can see in Figure 8
...
This finding, known as the self-reference effect,
is powerful evidence that the self-concept helps us organize and remember information
...
The self-reference effect suggests
that doing so will help you better remember the information (Symons & Johnson, 1997)
...
9Self-Reference Effect Results

Attributed to Charles Stangor
Saylor URL: http://www
...
org/books/

Saylor
...

Source: Adapted from Rogers, T
...
, Kuiper, N
...
, & Kirker, W
...
(1977)
...
Journal of Personality & Social Psychology, 35(9), 677–688
...
In this section we
consider three of his most important findings, each of which can help you improve your memory
...
Ebbinghaus plotted how many of the syllables he could remember against
the time that had elapsed since he had studied them
...
10 "Ebbinghaus Forgetting Curve")
...
Bahrick (1984) [5] found that
students who took a Spanish language course forgot about one half of the vocabulary that they
had learned within three years, but that after that time their memory remained pretty much
constant
...
This suggests that you should
Attributed to Charles Stangor
Saylor URL: http://www
...
org/books/

Saylor
...


Figure 8
...


Ebbinghaus also discovered another important principle of learning, known as the spacing effect
...
This
means that even if you have only a limited amount of time to study, you‘ll learn more if you
study continually throughout the semester (a little bit every day is best) than if you wait to cram
at the last minute before your exam (Figure 8
...
Another good strategy is to study and then wait as long as you can before you
forget the material
...
(This probably will be a longer period of time than the first time
...
The spacing effect is usually considered in terms of the difference between distributed
practice (practice that is spread out over time) and massed practice (practice that comes in one
block), with the former approach producing better memory
...
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Figure 8
...
Leslie, Lee Ann,
and Nora all studied for four hours total, but the students who spread out their learning into smaller study sessions
did better on the exam
...
Ebbinghaus and other researchers have
found that overlearning helps encoding (Driskell, Willis, & Copper, 1992)
...
The point is clear: Try to keep studying and reviewing, even if you
think you already know all the material
...
Retrieval refers to the process of reactivating information that has been stored
Attributed to Charles Stangor
Saylor URL: http://www
...
org/books/

Saylor
...
You can get an idea of the difficulty posed by retrieval by simply reading each of the
words (but not the categories) in the sidebar below to someone
...

After you read the list to your friend, give her enough time to write down all the words that she
can recall
...


Retrieval Demonstration
Try this test of the ability to retrieve information with a classmate
...


Apple

(Fruit)

Dresser

(Furniture)

Sander

(Tool)

Pomegranate

(Fruit)

Sunflower

(Flower)

Tangerine

(Fruit)

Chair

(Furniture)

Peony

(Flower)

Banana

(Fruit)

Sofa

(Furniture)

Bench

(Furniture)

Strawberry

(Fruit)

Television stand (Furniture)
Magnolia

(Flower)

Attributed to Charles Stangor
Saylor URL: http://www
...
org/books/

Saylor
...
You can try this one on your friends as well
...
Now, for the capital cities that your friend can‘t name, give him just the first letter
of the capital city
...
The tip-of-the-tongue experience is a very good example of the inability to retrieve
information that is actually stored in memory
...
Instructions are in the text
...
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Kentucky

(Frankfort)

We are more likely to be able to retrieve items from memory when conditions at retrieval are
similar to the conditions under which we encoded them
...
Godden and Baddeley (1975) [7] conducted a study to test
this idea using scuba divers
...
Then they tested the divers on their memory, either in the
same or the opposite situation
...
12 "Results From Godden and
Baddeley, 1975", the divers‘ memory was better when they were tested in the same context in
which they had learned the words than when they were tested in the other context
...
12 Results From Godden and Baddeley, 1975

Godden and Baddeley (1975) tested the memory of scuba divers to learn and retrieve information in different
contexts and found strong evidence for context-dependent learning
...
R
...
D
...
Context-dependent memory in two natural
environments: On land and underwater
...


Attributed to Charles Stangor
Saylor URL: http://www
...
org/books/

Saylor
...

For instance, you might want to try to study for an exam in a situation that is similar to the one in
which you are going to take the exam
...
Research has
found, for instance, that animals that learn a maze while under the influence of one drug tend to
remember their learning better when they are tested under the influence of the same drug than
when they are tested without the drug (Jackson, Koek, & Colpaert, 1992)
...
[9] Mood states may also produce statedependent learning
...
It is easier to recall unpleasant memories than pleasant ones when we‘re sad, and
easier to recall pleasant memories than unpleasant ones when we‘re happy (Bower, 1981; Eich,
2008)
...
When
we give people a list of words one at a time (e
...
, on flashcards) and then ask them to recall
them, the results look something like those in Figure 8
...
People
are able to retrieve more words that were presented to them at the beginning and the end of the
list than they are words that were presented in the middle of the list
...
The recency effect refers
to the tendency to better remember stimuli that are presented later in a list
...
13 The Serial Position Curve

Attributed to Charles Stangor
Saylor URL: http://www
...
org/books/

Saylor
...


There are a number of explanations for primacy and recency effects, but one of them is in terms
of the effects of rehearsal on short-term and long-term memory (Baddeley, Eysenck, &
Anderson, 2009)
...
So the recency effect can be explained in terms of maintenance rehearsal in shortterm memory
...
And the same is true for the other words that come early in the list
...

In some cases our existing memories influence our new learning
...
Retroactive interferenceoccurs when learning something new
impairs our ability to retrieve information that was learned earlier
...
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made before you learned the new one
...

In contrast to retroactive interference, proactive interference works in a forward
direction
...
For example, if we have learned French as a second
language, this knowledge may make it more difficult, at least in some respects, to learn a third
language (say Spanish), which involves similar but not identical vocabulary
...
14 Proactive and Retroactive Interference

Attributed to Charles Stangor
Saylor URL: http://www
...
org/books/

Saylor
...


The Structure of LTM: Categories, Prototypes, and Schemas
Memories that are stored in LTM are not isolated but rather are linked together into categories—
networks of associated memories that have features in common with each other
...

Associated concepts within a category are connected through spreading activation, which occurs
when activating one element of a category activates other associated elements
...
‖ And, when people have learned lists of words that come
from different categories (e
...
, as in Note 8
...
saylor
...
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information haphazardly
...
[12]
Some categories have defining features that must be true of all members of the category
...
But most categories are not so well-defined; the members of the
category share some common features, but it is impossible to define which are or are not
members of the category
...
‖ Some
examples of the category, such as a hammer and a wrench, are clearly and easily identified as
category members, whereas other members are not so obvious
...
Some category members are more prototypical of, or similar to, the category than
others
...

We retrieve information that is prototypical of a category faster than we retrieve information that
is less prototypical (Rosch, 1975)
...
We have schemas about objects (that a triangle has
three sides and may take on different angles), about people (that Sam is friendly, likes to golf,
and always wears sandals), about events (the particular steps involved in ordering a meal at a
restaurant), and about social groups (we call these group schemas stereotypes)
...
saylor
...
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Schemas are important in part because they help us remember new information by providing an
organizational structure for it
...

The procedure is actually quite simple
...
Of course,
one pile may be sufficient depending on how much there is to do
...
It is important
not to overdo things
...
In the short
run this may not seem important, but complications can easily arise
...
At first the whole procedure will seem complicated
...
It is difficult to foresee any end to the necessity for this task in the
immediate future, but then one never can tell
...
Then they can be put into their appropriate places
...

However, that is part of life
...
This demonstration of the role of schemas in memory shows how our
existing knowledge can help us organize new information, and how this organization can
improve encoding, storage, and retrieval
...
The ability to maintain information in LTM involves a gradual
strengthening of the connections among the neurons in the brain
...
This process, known as longterm potentiation (LTP), refers to the strengthening of the synaptic connections between neurons
Attributed to Charles Stangor
Saylor URL: http://www
...
org/books/

Saylor
...
[15] Drugs that block LTP reduce learning,
whereas drugs that enhance LTP increase learning (Lynch et al
...
[16]Because the new
patterns of activation in the synapses take time to develop, LTP happens gradually
...

Memory is not confined to the cortex; it occurs through sophisticated interactions between new
and old brain structures (Figure 8
...
One of the most important brain regions in explicit memory is the
hippocampus, which serves as a preprocessor and elaborator of information (Squire,
1992)
...
[18] The hippocampus also serves in part as a switching point that holds the memory for a
short time and then directs the information to other parts of the brain, such as the cortex, to
actually do the rehearsing, elaboration, and long-term storage (Jonides, Lacey, & Nee,
2005)
...


Figure 8
...
saylor
...
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426

Different brain structures help us remember different types of information
...


While the hippocampus is handling explicit memory, the cerebellum and the amygdala are
concentrating on implicit and emotional memories, respectively
...
[20] The storage of many of our most important emotional memories, and
particularly those related to fear, is initiated and controlled by the amygdala (Sigurdsson,
Doyère, Cain, & LeDoux, 2007)
...
saylor
...
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427

Evidence for the role of different brain structures in different types of memories comes in part
from case studies of patients who suffer from amnesia, a memory disorder that involves the
inability to remember information
...
For people who suffer
damage to the brain, for instance, as a result of a stroke or other trauma, the amnesia may work
backward
...
Demonstrating the fact that LTP takes time
(the process of consolidation), retrograde amnesia is usually more severe for memories that
occurred just prior to the trauma than it is for older memories, and events that occurred just
before the event that caused memory loss may never be recovered because they were never
completely encoded
...
Anterograde amnesia is the
inability to transfer information from short-term into long-term memory, making it impossible to
form new memories
...
M
...
[22] Following the operation, Molaison developed virtually complete anterograde amnesia
...
Molaison was said
to have read the same magazines over and over again without any awareness of having seen them
before
...
[23] Although
Molaison‘s explicit memory was compromised because his hippocampus was damaged, his
implicit memory was not (because his cerebellum was intact)
...

Attributed to Charles Stangor
Saylor URL: http://www
...
org/books/

Saylor
...
The American psychologist Karl Lashley (1929) [24] attempted
to determine where memories were stored in the brain by teaching rats how to run mazes, and
then lesioning different brain structures to see if they were still able to complete the maze
...
But he discovered that no matter where he removed brain tissue, the rats
retained at least some memory of the maze, leading him to conclude that memory isn‘t located in
a single place in the brain, but rather is distributed around it
...
There is
quite a bit of evidence that this is true
...
[25] When animals, including people, are under stress, more glutamate is secreted,
and this glutamate can help them remember (McGaugh, 2003)
...
[27] Estrogen, a female sex hormone, also seems critical, because women who are
experiencing menopause, along with a reduction in estrogen, frequently report memory
difficulties (Chester, 2001)
...
Yet controlled studies comparing memory
enhancers, including Ritalin, methylphenidate, ginkgo biloba, and amphetamines, with placebo
drugs find very little evidence for their effectiveness (Gold, Cahill, & Wenk, 2002; McDaniel,
Maier, & Einstein, 2002)
...
This is not to
say that we cannot someday create drugs that will significantly improve our memory
...
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...
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that this will occur in the future, but the implications of these advances are as yet unknown
(Farah et al
...
[30]
Although the most obvious potential use of drugs is to attempt to improve memory, drugs might
also be used to help us forget
...

Although there are no existing therapies that involve using drugs to help people forget, it is
possible that they will be available in the future
...
And perhaps the experience of
emotional pain may help us cope with the trauma
...




Hermann Ebbinghaus made important contributions to the study of learning, including modeling the forgetting curve,
and studying the spacing effect and the benefits of overlearning
...




Memories are stored in connected synapses through the process of long-term potentiation (LTP)
...




Damage to the brain may result in retrograde amnesia or anterograde amnesia
...




Memory is influenced by chemicals including glutamate, serotonin, epinephrine, and estrogen
...


EXERCISES AND CRITICAL THINKING
1
...
Try to implement the plan
...
saylor
...
org

430

2
...
What are the contents of each schema, and
how might you use the schema to help you remember new information?

3
...
Would you engage in such a procedure if it was safely offered to
you?

[1] Nickerson, R
...
, & Adams, M
...
(1979)
...
Cognitive Psychology, 11(3), 287–307
...
I
...
S
...
Levels of processing: A framework for memory research
...
L
...
D
...
The association of elaborative or maintenance rehearsal
with age, reading comprehension and verbal working memory performance
...

[3] Rogers, T
...
, Kuiper, N
...
, & Kirker, W
...
(1977)
...
Journal of
Personality & Social Psychology, 35(9), 677–688
...
S
...
T
...
The self-reference effect in memory: A meta-analysis
...

[5] Bahrick, H
...
(1984)
...
Journal
of Experimental Psychology: General, 113(1), 1–29
...
E
...
P
...
(1992)
...
Journal of Applied Psychology, 77(5), 615–
622
...
R
...
D
...
Context-dependent memory in two natural environments: On land and
underwater
...

[8] Jackson, A
...
, & Colpaert, F
...
NMDA antagonists make learning and recall state-dependent
...

[9] Marian, V
...
(2007)
...
Psychonomic Bulletin and Review, 14(5),
925–933
...
H
...
Mood and memory
...
(2008)
...
In M
...
Gluck, J
...
Anderson, & S
...

Kosslyn (Eds
...
Bower (pp
...
Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates
...
, Eysenck, M
...
, & Anderson, M
...
(2009)
...
New York, NY: Psychology Press
...
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[12] Srull, T
...
(1989)
...
Psychological Review, 96(1), 58–83
...
(1975)
...
Journal of Experimental Psychology: General, 104(3),
192–233
...
D
...
K
...
Contextual prerequisites for understanding: Some investigations of
comprehension and recall
...

[15] Lynch, G
...
Memory enhancement: The search for mechanism-based drugs
...
), 1035–
1038
...
, Larson, J
...
, Ambros-Ingerson, J
...
, Lister, R
...
,…Weingartner, H
...
(1991)
...
In C
...
Wickliffe, M
...
White (Eds
...
110–131)
...

[17] Squire, L
...
(1992)
...
Psychological Review, 99(2), 195–231
...
(1999)
...
Nature Neuroscience, 2(9), 775–776
...
, Lacey, S
...
, & Nee, D
...
(2005)
...
Current Directions in
Psychological Science, 14(1), 2–5
...
J
...
K
...
F
...
Localization of a memory trace in the mammalian brain
...
S
...
, Downey-Lamb, M
...
, Boyko, O
...
, & Lemieux, S
...
(2000)
...
Neuroreport: For Rapid Communication of
Neuroscience Research, 11(3), 609–615
...
, Doyère, V
...
K
...
E
...
Long-term potentiation in the amygdala: A cellular mechanism
of fear learning and memory
...

[22] Corkin, S
...
G
...
G
...
A
...
T
...
H
...
’s medial temporal lobe lesion:
Findings from magnetic resonance imaging
...

[23] Bayley, P
...
, & Squire, L
...
(2005)
...
Hippocampus, 15(2), 273–280; Helmuth, Laura
...
New role found for the hippocampus
...
A
...
Electrical signals of memory and of the awareness of remembering
...


Attributed to Charles Stangor
Saylor URL: http://www
...
org/books/

Saylor
...
S
...
The effects of cerebral lesions subsequent to the formation of the maze habit: Localization of the
habit
...
86–108)
...

[25] McEntee, W
...
(1993)
...
Psychopharmacology, 111(4), 391–401
...
L
...
Memory and emotion: The making of lasting memories
...

[27] Maki, P
...
, & Resnick, S
...
(2000)
...
Neurobiology of Aging, 21, 373–383; Sherwin, B
...
(1998)
...
Proceedings of the Society for Experimental Biological Medicine, 217, 17–22
...
(2001)
...
McGill Reporter, 33(10)
...
mcgill
...
E
...
, & Wenk, G
...
(2002)
...
A
...
F
...
O
...
“Brain-specific” nutrients: A memory cure? Psychological
Science in the Public Interest, 3(1), 12–38
...
J
...
, Cook-Deegan, R
...
, Kandel, E
...
,…Wolpe, P
...
(2004)
...
C
...
J
...

Analysis of the cognitive enhancing effects of modafinil in schizophrenia
...
L
...
), Progress in neurotherapeutics
and neuropsychopharmacology (pp
...
New York, NY: Cambridge University Press
...
3 Accuracy and Inaccuracy in Memory and Cognition
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
Attributed to Charles Stangor
Saylor URL: http://www
...
org/books/

Saylor
...


Outline the variables that can influence the accuracy of our memory for events
...


Explain how schemas can distort our memories
...


Describe the representativeness heuristic and the availability heuristic and explain how they may lead to errors in
judgment
...
They fail in part due to our inadequate encoding
and storage, and in part due to our inability to accurately retrieve stored information
...

Although our cognition allows us to attend to, rehearse, and organize information, cognition may
also lead to distortions and errors in our judgments and our behaviors
...
Cognitive biases are errors in memory or judgment that are caused by the inappropriate
use of cognitive processes (Table 8
...
The
study of cognitive biases is important both because it relates to the important psychological
theme of accuracy versus inaccuracy in perception, and because being aware of the types of
errors that we may make can help us avoid them and therefore improve our decision-making
skills
...
3 Cognitive Processes That Pose Threats to Accuracy

Cognitive process

Description

Potential threat to accuracy

The ability to accurately identify the source of a
Source monitoring

Uncertainty about the source of a memory may

memory

lead to mistaken judgments
...


When schemas prevent us from seeing and using Creativity may be impaired by the overuse of
Functional fixedness

information in new and nontraditional ways

Attributed to Charles Stangor
Saylor URL: http://www
...
org/books/

traditional, expectancy-based thinking
...
org

434

Cognitive process

Description

Potential threat to accuracy

Errors in memory that occur when new but

Eyewitnesses who are questioned by the police

Misinformation

incorrect information influences existing

may change their memories of what they

effect

accurate memories

observed at the crime scene
...


When some stimuli, (e
...
, those that are colorful, We may base our judgments on a single salient
moving, or unexpected) grab our attention and
Salience

event while we ignore hundreds of other equally

make them more likely to be remembered

informative events that we do not see
...

We may overestimate the crime statistics in our

Idea that things that come to mind easily are
Availability heuristic seen as more common

own area, because these crimes are so easy to
recall
...


When we “replay‖ events such that they turn out
differently (especially when only minor changes

We may feel particularly bad about events that

Counterfactual

in the events leading up to them make a

might not have occurred if only a small change

thinking

difference)

had occurred before them
...
Source monitoring refers to the ability to accurately identify the source of a
memory
...
If so, you wouldn‘t be alone
...
saylor
...
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435

versus dreamed events
...
[3]
In other cases we may be sure that we remembered the information from real life but be
uncertain about exactly where we heard it
...
Probably you would have discounted the information
because you know that its source is unreliable
...
The sleeper effectrefers to attitude change
that occurs over time when we forget the source of information (Pratkanis, Greenwald, Leippe, &
Baumgardner, 1988)
...
Kaavya Viswanathan, the author of the book How Opal Mehta
Got Kissed, Got Wild, and Got a Life, was accused of plagiarism when it was revealed that many
parts of her book were very similar to passages from other material
...
And the musician George Harrison claimed that he was unaware that the
melody of his song “My Sweet Lord‖ was almost identical to an earlier song by another
composer
...
(Please use this knowledge to become extra vigilant about source
attributions in your written work, not to try to excuse yourself if you are accused of plagiarism
...
However, although schemas can improve our memories, they may also lead to
cognitive biases
...
saylor
...
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436

us and to distort or misremember things that did
...
The confirmation bias occurs because once we have schemas, they influence
how we seek out and interpret new information
...

And we ask questions in ways that confirm our schemas (Trope & Thompson, 1997)
...
In short, once we begin to believe
in something—for instance, a stereotype about a group of people—it becomes very difficult to
later convince us that these beliefs are not true; the beliefs become self-confirming
...
In their research they gave participants a picture and some information about a fourthgrade girl named Hannah
...
Then the participants watched a video
that showed Hannah taking an intelligence test
...
Then the participants were asked to remember how many questions
Hannah got right and wrong
...

Our reliance on schemas can also make it more difficult for us to “ think outside the box
...
The first guess that students made was usually “consecutive
ascending even numbers,‖ and they then asked questions designed to confirm their hypothesis
Attributed to Charles Stangor
Saylor URL: http://www
...
org/books/

Saylor
...
Upon receiving information that those
guesses did fit the rule, the students stated that the rule was “consecutive ascending even
numbers
...
They never
bothered to ask whether 1-2-3 or 3-11-200 would fit, and if they had they would have learned
that the rule was not “ consecutive ascending even numbers,‖ but simply “ any three ascending
numbers
...

Functional fixedness occurs when people’s schemas prevent them from using an object in new
and nontraditional ways
...
19 "Functional Fixedness")
...
The problem again is that
our existing memories are powerful, and they bias the way we think about new information
...


Figure 8
...
saylor
...
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438

In the candle-tack-box problem, functional fixedness may lead us to see the box only as a box and not as a potential
candleholder
...
[10] This new
information can distort our original memories such that the we are no longer sure what is the real
information and what was provided later
...

In an experiment by Loftus and Palmer (1974), [11] participants viewed a film of a traffic
accident and then, according to random assignment to experimental conditions, answered one of
three questions:

Attributed to Charles Stangor
Saylor URL: http://www
...
org/books/

Saylor
...
20 "Misinformation Effect", although all the participants saw the
same accident, their estimates of the cars‘ speed varied by condition
...


Figure 8
...
saylor
...
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440

Participants viewed a film of a traffic accident and then answered a question about the accident
...
The
wording of the question influenced the participants’ memory of the accident
...
F
...
C
...
Reconstruction of automobile destruction: An example of
the interaction between language and memory
...


In addition to distorting our memories for events that have actually occurred, misinformation
may lead us to falsely remember information that never occurred
...
g
...
g
...
Then (without telling
the children which events were real or made-up) the researchers asked the children to imagine
both types of events
...
[12] More than half of the children
generated stories regarding at least one of the made-up events, and they remained insistent that
the events did in fact occur even when told by the researcher that they could not possibly have
occurred (Loftus & Pickrell, 1995)
...
[14]
The ease with which memories can be created or implanted is particularly problematic when the
events to be recalled have important consequences
...
[15]
But other researchers argue that painful memories such as sexual abuse are usually very well
remembered, that few memories are actually repressed, and that even if they are it is virtually
impossible for patients to accurately retrieve them years later (McNally, Bryant, & Ehlers, 2003;
Attributed to Charles Stangor
Saylor URL: http://www
...
org/books/

Saylor
...
[16] These researchers have argued that the
procedures used by the therapists to “retrieve‖ the memories are more likely to actually implant
false memories, leading the patients to erroneously recall events that did not actually occur
...
Many psychologists now believe that most of these claims of recovered
memories are due to implanted, rather than real, memories (Loftus & Ketcham, 1994)
...
But research reveals a pervasive cognitive bias toward overconfidence, which
is the tendency for people to be too certain about their ability to accurately remember events and
to make judgments
...

Some participants made predictions about a fellow student whom they had just met and
interviewed, and others made predictions about their roommates whom they knew very well
...
The results were clear: Regardless of
whether they judged a stranger or a roommate, the participants consistently overestimated the
accuracy of their own predictions
...
The witness who
claims to be absolutely certain about his or her identification (e
...
, Jennifer Thompson) is not
much more likely to be accurate than one who appears much less sure, making it almost
impossible to determine whether a particular witness is accurate or not (Wells & Olson,
2003)
...
saylor
...
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442

I am sure that you have a clear memory of when you first heard about the 9/11 attacks in 2001,
and perhaps also when you heard that Princess Diana was killed in 1997 or when the verdict of
the O
...
Simpson trial was announced in 1995
...
(Brown & Kulik, 1977)
...
Talarico and Rubin (2003) [21] tested the accuracy of flashbulb memories by
asking students to write down their memory of how they had heard the news about either the
September 11, 2001, terrorist attacks or about an everyday event that had occurred to them
during the same time frame
...
Then the
participants were asked again, either 1, 6, or 32 weeks later, to recall their memories
...
But the participants‘ confidence in the accuracy of their memory of
learning about the attacks did not decline over time
...
Schmolck, Buffalo, and Squire (2000) [22] found similar distortions in
memories of news about the verdict in the O
...
Simpson trial
...
Let‘s consider two of the most frequently applied (and misapplied) heuristics:
the representativeness heuristic and the availability heuristic
...
When
we do so, we are using the representativeness heuristic
...
4 "The Representativeness Heuristic"
...
saylor
...
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443

and you checked the records of the babies that were born today
...
4 The Representativeness Heuristic

List A

List B

6:31 a
...


Girl

6:31 a
...


Boy

8:15 a
...


Girl

8:15 a
...


Girl

9:42 a
...


Girl

9:42 a
...


Boy

1:13 p
...


Girl

1:13 p
...


Girl

3:39 p
...


Boy

3:39 p
...


Girl

5:12 p
...


Boy

5:12 p
...


Boy

7:42 p
...


Boy

7:42 p
...


Girl

11:44 p
...


Boy

11:44 p
...


Boy

Using the representativeness heuristic may lead us to incorrectly believe that some patterns of observed events are
more likely to have occurred than others
...


Most people think that list B is more likely, probably because list B looks more random, and thus
matches (is “representative of‖) our ideas about randomness
...
The problem is that we have
a schema of what randomness should be like, which doesn‘t always match what is
mathematically the case
...
This
behavior is known as the gambler’s fallacy
...

Our judgments can also be influenced by how easy it is to retrieve a memory
...
saylor
...
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444

which it can be retrieved from memory is known as the availability heuristic (MacLeod &
Campbell, 1992; Tversky & Kahneman, 1973)
...
You would probably answer this question by trying to
think of words that have each of the characteristics, thinking of all the words you know that
begin with “R‖ and all that have “R‖ in the third position
...

The availability heuristic may also operate on episodic memory
...
And the traffic might seem worse in our own
neighborhood than we think it is in other places, in part because nearby traffic jams are more
easily retrieved than are traffic jams that occur somewhere else
...
For one, we
tend to attend to and remember things that are highly salient, meaning that they attract our
attention
...
[24] In one relevant study, Loftus, Loftus, and
Messo (1987) [25] showed people images of a customer walking up to a bank teller and pulling
out either a pistol or a checkbook
...
The salience of the gun
drew people‘s attention away from the face of the criminal
...
Imagine, for instance, that
Attributed to Charles Stangor
Saylor URL: http://www
...
org/books/

Saylor
...
You‘ve been trying to decide whether to get
the iPod or the Zune
...
As a
result, you decide to purchase the Zune the next day
...
You check it out, and it seems really cool
...
She says she knows
someone who had one and it had a lot of problems—it didn‘t download music correctly, the
battery died right after the warranty expired, and so forth—and that she would never buy one
...
You now know the opinion of one more person, but that can‘t change
the overall rating of the two machines very much
...
The information is right there in
front of you, in your hand, whereas the statistical information from Consumer Reports is only in
the form of a table that you saw on your computer
...

People also vary in the schemas that they find important to use when judging others and when
thinking about themselves
...
For instance, you
probably know a person who is a golf nut (or fanatic of another sport)
...
For him, we would say that golf is a highly accessible construct
...
Other
people have highly accessible schemas about environmental issues, eating healthy food, or
drinking really good coffee
...
saylor
...
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446

make judgments of ourselves and others, and this overuse may inappropriately color our
judgments
...

If we can easily imagine an outcome that is better than what actually happened, then we may
experience sadness and disappointment; on the other hand, if we can easily imagine that a result
might have been worse than what actually happened, we may be more likely to experience
happiness and satisfaction
...
[26]
Imagine, for instance, that you were participating in an important contest, and you won the silver
(second-place) medal
...

Tom Gilovich and his colleagues (Medvec, Madey, & Gilovich, 1995) [28] investigated this idea
by videotaping the responses of athletes who won medals in the 1992 Summer Olympic Games
...
Then the researchers showed these videos, without
any sound, to raters who did not know which medal which athlete had won
...
saylor
...
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447

asked to indicate how they thought the athlete was feeling, using a range of feelings from
“agony‖ to “ecstasy
...
In a follow-up study, raters watched interviews with many
of these same athletes as they talked about their performance
...

You might have experienced counterfactual thinking in other situations
...
I really wanted to make it home
when I got near the end of my journey; I would have been extremely disappointed if the car
broke down only a few miles from my home
...
Counterfactual thinking has
even been observed in juries
...
[29]

Psychology in Everyday Life: Cognitive Biases in the Real World
Perhaps you are thinking that the kinds of errors that we have been talking about don‘t seem that important
...
But it
turns out that what seem to be relatively small cognitive biases on the surface can have profound consequences for
people
...
The belief in astrology, which all scientific evidence suggests is not accurate, is probably driven
in part by the salience of the occasions when the predictions are correct
...
saylor
...
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448

course, happen sometimes), the correct prediction is highly salient and may allow people to maintain the overall false
belief
...
For instance, people may think that they are more likely to die from a terrorist attack or a homicide than
they are from diabetes, stroke, or tuberculosis
...

And people are frequently more afraid of flying than driving, although the likelihood of dying in a car crash is
hundreds of times greater than dying in a plane crash (more than 50,000 people are killed on U
...
highways every
year)
...
g
...


[30]

Salience and accessibility also color how we perceive our social worlds, which may have a big influence on our
behavior
...
We also

unfairly overestimate our contribution to joint projects (Ross & Sicoly, 1979),

[32]

perhaps in part because our own

contributions are highly accessible, whereas the contributions of others are much less so
...
Economists, stock
traders, managers, lawyers, and even doctors make the same kinds of mistakes in their professional activities that
people make in their everyday lives (Gilovich, Griffin, & Kahneman, 2002)
...

Furthermore, every year thousands of individuals, such as Ronald Cotton, are charged with and often convicted of
crimes based largely on eyewitness evidence
...
But the most common cause of
innocent people being falsely convicted is erroneous eyewitness testimony (Wells, Wright, & Bradfield, 1999)
...


[35]

Although cognitive biases are common, they are not impossible to control, and psychologists and other scientists are
working to help people make better decisions
...
saylor
...
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449

judgments
...
Other research has found that accessibility biases can be reduced by
leading people to consider multiple alternatives rather than focus only on the most obvious ones, and particularly by
leading people to think about opposite possible outcomes than the ones they are expecting (Lilienfeld, Ammirtai, &
Landfield, 2009)
...


KEY TAKEAWAYS


Our memories fail in part due to inadequate encoding and storage, and in part due to the inability to accurately
retrieve stored information
...
Schemas help us remember new
information but may also lead us to falsely remember things that never happened to us and to distort or misremember
things that did
...


EXERCISES AND CRITICAL THINKING
1
...
What impact did this
have on you, and how did you resolve it?

2
...
How do these knowledge structures bias
your information processing and behavior, and how might you prevent them from doing so?

3
...
Based on your knowledge about memory and cognition, what techniques would you use to reduce the
possibility that the eyewitness was making a mistaken identification?

Attributed to Charles Stangor
Saylor URL: http://www
...
org/books/

Saylor
...
, Merckelbach, H
...
(2001)
...
Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease, 189(7), 478–481
...
, Peluso, J
...
, & Glover, T
...
(1998)
...
Applied
Cognitive Psychology, 12(Spec
...

[3] Jacoby, L
...
, & Rhodes, M
...
(2006)
...
Current Directions in Psychological Science, 15(2), 49–
53
...
R
...
G
...
R
...
H
...
In search of reliable persuasion effects: III
...
Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 54(2), 203–218
...
, & McMillan, D
...
Memory for expectancy-congruent and expectancy-incongruent information: A review of
the social and social developmental literatures
...

[6] Trope, Y
...
(1997)
...
Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 73, 229–241
...
M
...
H
...
A hypothesis-confirming bias in labeling effects
...

[8] Wason, P
...
On the failure to eliminate hypotheses in a conceptual task
...

[9] Duncker, K
...
On problem-solving
...

[10] Erdmann, K
...
, & Böhm, C
...
Children report suggested events even when interviewed in a non-suggestive
manner: What are its implications for credibility assessment? Applied Cognitive Psychology, 18(5), 589–611; Loftus, E
...
(1979)
...
American Scientist, 67(3), 312–320; Zaragoza, M
...
, Belli, R
...
, & Payment, K
...
(2007)
...
In M
...
Hayne (Eds
...
35–63)
...

[11] Loftus, E
...
, & Palmer, J
...
(1974)
...
Journal of Verbal Learning & Verbal Behavior, 13(5), 585–589
...
J
...
L
...
, Smith, E
...
F
...
Repeatedly thinking about a non-event: Source
misattributions among preschoolers
...


Attributed to Charles Stangor
Saylor URL: http://www
...
org/books/

Saylor
...
F
...
E
...
The formation of false memories
...

[14] Mazzoni, G
...
L
...
F
...
(2001)
...
Journal of Experimental Psychology: Applied, 7(1), 51–59
...
, Scheflin, A
...
, & Hammond, D
...
(1998)
...
New York, NY: Norton
...
J
...
A
...
(2003)
...
G
...
, Poliakoff, M
...
, Parker, M
...
,
Boynes, M
...
I
...
Is dissociative amnesia a culture-bound syndrome? Findings from a survey of historical
literature
...

[17] Loftus, E
...
, & Ketcham, K
...
The myth of repressed memory: False memories and allegations of sexual abuse (1st
ed
...
Martin’s Press
...
, Griffin, D
...
, Milojkovic, J
...
, & Ross, L
...
The overconfidence effect in social prediction
...

[19] Wells, G
...
, & Olson, E
...
(2003)
...
Annual Review of Psychology, 277–295
...
, & Kulik, J
...
Flashbulb memories
...

[21] Talarico, J
...
, & Rubin, D
...
(2003)
...
Psychological Science,
14(5), 455–461
...
, Buffalo, E
...
, & Squire, L
...
(2000)
...
J
...
Psychological Science, 11(1), 39–45
...
, & Campbell, L
...
Memory accessibility and probability judgments: An experimental evaluation of the
availability heuristic
...
, & Kahneman, D
...

Availability: A heuristic for judging frequency and probability
...

[24] McArthur, L
...
, & Post, D
...
(1977)
...
Journal of Experimental Social Psychology,
13(6), 520–535; Taylor, S
...
, & Fiske, S
...
(1978)
...
Advances in
Experimental Social Psychology, 11, 249–288
...
F
...
R
...
(1987)
...
” Law and Human Behavior, 11(1), 55–62
...
, & Miller, D
...
(1986)
...
Psychological Review, 93, 136–
153; Roese, N
...
If only: How to turn regret into opportunity
...


Attributed to Charles Stangor
Saylor URL: http://www
...
org/books/

Saylor
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H
...
F
...
(1995)
...
Journal of Personality & Social Psychology, 69(4), 603–610
...
H
...
F
...
(1995)
...
Journal of Personality & Social Psychology, 69(4), 603–610
...
T
...
, & McFarland, C
...
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process
...

[30] Slovic, P
...
(2000)
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London, England: Earthscan Publications
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N
...
E
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Television viewing and fear of victimization: Is the relationship causal? Journal of
Personality and Social Psychology, 37(2), 170–179
...
, & Sicoly, F
...
Egocentric biases in availability and attribution
...

[33] Gilovich, T
...
, & Kahneman, D
...
Heuristics and biases: The psychology of intuitive judgment
...

[34] Wells, G
...
, Wright, E
...
, & Bradfield, A
...
(1999)
...
In R
...
D
...
R
...
Ogloff (Eds
...
53–87)
...

[35] Wells, G
...
, Memon, A
...
D
...
Eyewitness evidence: Improving its probative value
...

[36] Lilienfeld, S
...
, Ammirati, R
...
(2009)
...

[37] Steblay, N
...
, Fulero, S
...
C
...
(2001)
...
Law and Human Behavior, 25(5), 459–473
...
4 Chapter Summary
Memory and cognition are the two major interests of cognitive psychologists
...
Psychologists
conceptualize memory in terms of types, stages, and processes
...
saylor
...
org

453

Explicit memory is assessed using measures in which the individual being tested must
consciously attempt to remember the information
...
Explicit memory tests include recall memory tests, recognition memory tests,
and measures of relearning (also known as savings)
...
Implicit memory is made up of procedural memory, classical
conditioning effects, and priming
...
An important characteristic of implicit memories is that
they are frequently formed and used automatically, without much effort or awareness on our part
...

Information that we turn our attention to may move into short-term memory (STM)
...
Working memory is a set of
memory procedures or operations that operates on the information in STM
...

Long-term memory (LTM) is memory storage that can hold information for days, months, and
years
...
Some strategies for improving LTM include elaborative encoding, relating information
to the self, making use of the forgetting curve and the spacing effect, overlearning, and being
aware of context- and state-dependent retrieval effects
...
Schemas are important in part because they help us encode and retrieve
information by providing an organizational structure for it
...
saylor
...
org

454

The ability to maintain information in LTM involves a gradual strengthening of the connections
among the neurons in the brain, known as long-term potentiation (LTP)
...
A number of neurotransmitters are important in consolidation
and memory
...

Cognitive biases are errors in memory or judgment that are caused by the inappropriate use of
cognitive processes
...
These biases include errors in source monitoring, the confirmation bias, functional
fixedness, the misinformation effect, overconfidence, and counterfactual thinking
...


Attributed to Charles Stangor
Saylor URL: http://www
...
org/books/

Saylor
...
Summers, sparked an uproar during a
presentation at an economic conference on women and minorities in the science and engineering workforce
...
One explanation was that it might be due to discrimination against women in these fields, and a second
was that it might be a result of women‘s preference for raising families rather than for competing in academia
...

Summers‘s comments on genetics set off a flurry of responses
...
Summers replied that he was only putting forward hypotheses based on the scholarly work assembled for
the conference, and that research has shown that genetics have been found to be very important in many domains,
compared with environmental factors
...

The controversy did not stop with the conference
...
Summers resigned his position, in large part as a result of the controversy, in 2006 (Goldin,
Goldin, & Foulkes, 2005)
...
In this chapter we consider how psychologists conceptualize
and measure human intelligence—the ability to think, to learn from experience, to solve
problems, and to adapt to new situations
...
saylor
...
org

456

how cultures and societies think about it
...

Intelligence is important because it has an impact on many human behaviors
...
Scores on intelligence tests predict academic and
military performance, as well as success in a wide variety of jobs (Ones, Viswesvaran, &
Dilchert, 2005; Schmidt & Hunter, 1998)
...
[4] At least some of this latter relationship may be due to the fact that people who
are more intelligent are better able to predict and avoid accidents and to understand and follow
instructions from doctors or on drug labels
...
S
...

The advantages of having a higher IQ increase as life settings become more complex
...
, 2003)
...

Our vast intelligence also allows us to have language, a system of communication that uses
symbols in a regular way to create meaning
...
As the psychologist Steven Pinker put it,
language is the “the jewel in the crown of cognition‖ (Pinker, 1994)
...
In the last section of this
Attributed to Charles Stangor
Saylor URL: http://www
...
org/books/

Saylor
...


[1] Goldin, G
...
, & Foulkes, A
...
How Summers offended: Harvard president’s comments
underscored the gender bias we’ve experienced
...
A27
...
washingtonpost
...
html
[2] Ones, D
...
, Viswesvaran, C
...
(2005)
...
In O
...
W
...
), Handbook of understanding and measuring intelligence (pp
...
Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage; Schmidt, F
...
(1998)
...
Psychological Bulletin, 124(2), 262–274
...
Q
...
J
...
Crime and human nature
...

[4] Gottfredson, L
...
(2004)
...
Journal of Cognitive Education and Psychology, 4(1), 23–46;
Gottfredson, L
...
, & Deary, I
...
(2004)
...

[5] Simonton, D
...
(2006)
...
S
...
Political Psychology, 27(4), 511–526
...
F
...
, Moscoso, S
...
, de Fruyt, F
...
P
...
A meta-analytic study of general
mental ability validity for different occupations in the European Community
...

[7] Pinker, S
...
The language instinct (1st ed
...


9
...


Define intelligence and list the different types of intelligences psychologists study
...


Summarize the characteristics of a scientifically valid intelligence test
...


Outline the biological and environmental determinants of intelligence
...
saylor
...
org

458

Psychologists have long debated how to best conceptualize and measure intelligence (Sternberg,
2003)
...


General (g) Versus Specific (s) Intelligences
In the early 1900s, the French psychologist Alfred Binet (1857–1914) and his colleague Henri
Simon (1872–1961) began working in Paris to develop a measure that would differentiate
students who were expected to be better learners from students who were expected to be slower
learners
...
Binet and
Simon developed what most psychologists today regard as the first intelligence test, which
consisted of a wide variety of questions that included the ability to name objects, define words,
draw pictures, complete sentences, compare items, and construct sentences
...
And it turned out that the correlations
among these different types of measures were in fact all positive; students who got one item
correct were more likely to also get other items correct, even though the questions themselves
were very different
...
He called the
construct that the different abilities and skills measured on intelligence tests have in
common thegeneral intelligence factor (g)
...
saylor
...
org

459

instruction and experience (Gottfredson, 1997; Sternberg, 2003)
...

Soon after Binet and Simon introduced their test, the American psychologist Lewis Terman
(1877–1956) developed an American version of Binet‘s test that became known as the StanfordBinet Intelligence Test
...

Although there is general agreement among psychologists that g exists, there is also evidence
for specific intelligence (s), a measure of specific skills in narrow domains
...
Although the different types
of questions do correlate with each other, some items correlate more highly with each other than
do other items; they form clusters or clumps of intelligences
...
[4] These intelligences must be different because crystallized intelligence increases with
age—older adults are as good as or better than young people in solving crossword puzzles—
whereas fluid intelligence tends to decrease with age (Horn, Donaldson, & Engstrom, 1981;
Salthouse, 2004)
...
L
...
Thurstone
(1938) [6] proposed that there were seven clusters of primary mental abilities, made up of word
fluency, verbal comprehension, spatial ability, perceptual speed, numerical ability, inductive
reasoning, and memory
...

One advocate of the idea of multiple intelligences is the psychologist Robert Sternberg
...
saylor
...
org

460

may display more or less analytical intelligence, creative intelligence, and practical intelligence
...
g
...

As Sternberg proposed, research has found that creativity is not highly correlated with analytical
intelligence (Furnham & Bachtiar, 2008), [8] and exceptionally creative scientists, artists,
mathematicians, and engineers do not score higher on intelligence than do their less creative
peers (Simonton, 2000)
...
[10] On the
other hand, being creative often takes some of the basic abilities measured by g, including the
abilities to learn from experience, to remember information, and to think abstractly (Bink &
Marsh, 2000)
...
Creative people have carefully studied and know a lot about the topic that they are
working in
...
[12]
Imaginative thinking
...

Risk taking
...

Intrinsic interest
...
In fact, research has found that people who are paid to be
creative are often less creative than those who are not (Hennessey & Amabile, 2010)
...
saylor
...
org

461

Working in a creative environment
...
Simonton
(1992) [14] found that the most creative people were supported, aided, and challenged by other
people working on similar projects
...
Practical intelligence represents a type of “street
smarts‖ or “common sense‖ that is learned from life experiences
...
[16] Practical intelligence may include, at least in part, certain abilities that help people
perform well at specific jobs, and these abilities may not always be highly correlated with
general intelligence (Sternberg, Wagner, & Okagaki, 1993)
...

Another champion of the idea of multiple intelligences is the psychologist Howard Gardner
(1983, 1999)
...
1 "Howard Gardner‘s Eight Specific Intelligences")
...
[19]

Table 9
...
saylor
...
org

462

Intelligence

Description

Spatial

The ability to think and reason about objects in three dimensions

Musical

The ability to perform and enjoy music

Kinesthetic (body)

The ability to move the body in sports, dance, or other physical activities

Interpersonal

The ability to understand and interact effectively with others

Intrapersonal

The ability to have insight into the self

Naturalistic

The ability to recognize, identify, and understand animals, plants, and other living things

Source: Adapted from Gardner, H
...
Intelligence reframed: Multiple intelligences for the 21st century
...


The idea of multiple intelligences has been influential in the field of education, and teachers have
used these ideas to try to teach differently to different students
...
On the other
hand, some have argued that these “intelligences‖ sometimes seem more like “abilities‖ or
“talents‖ rather than real intelligence
...
Are sense of humor, artistic skills, dramatic skills, and so forth also
separate intelligences? Furthermore, and again demonstrating the underlying power of a single
intelligence, the many different intelligences are in fact correlated and thus represent, in part, g
(Brody, 2003)
...
Good
intelligence tests are reliable, meaning that they are consistent over time, and also
Attributed to Charles Stangor
Saylor URL: http://www
...
org/books/

Saylor
...
Because intelligence is such an important individual difference dimension,
psychologists have invested substantial effort in creating and improving measures of intelligence,
and these tests are now the most accurate of all psychological tests
...

Intelligence changes with age
...

Thus understanding intelligence requires that we know the norms or standards in a given
population of people at a given age
...

It is important that intelligence tests be standardized on a regular basis, because the overall level
of intelligence in a population may change over time
...
[21] Although the increase varies somewhat from country to country, the
average increase is about 3 IQ points every 10 years
...
[22] But whether people are actually getting smarter is
debatable (Neisser, 1997)
...
If we compare the mental age of a person to the person‘s
chronological age, the result is the intelligence quotient (IQ), a measure of intelligence that is
adjusted for age
...


Attributed to Charles Stangor
Saylor URL: http://www
...
org/books/

Saylor
...
Most modern intelligence tests are based the relative
position of a person‘s score among people of the same age, rather than on the basis of this
formula, but the idea of an intelligence “ratio‖ or “quotient‖ provides a good description of the
score‘s meaning
...
TheWechsler Adult lntelligence Scale (WAIS) is the
most widely used intelligence test for adults (Watkins, Campbell, Nieberding, & Hallmark,
1995)
...
It consists of 15 different tasks, each designed to assess
intelligence, including working memory, arithmetic ability, spatial ability, and general
knowledge about the world (see Figure 9
...
The WAIS-IV yields scores on four domains: verbal, perceptual, working
memory, and processing speed
...
95), and it shows
substantial construct validity
...
It also shows significant correlations
with measures of everyday functioning among the mentally retarded
...


Figure 9
...
saylor
...
org

465

Source: Adapted from Thorndike, R
...
, & Hagen, E
...
(1997)
...
Chicago, IL: Riverside Publishing
...
Most U
...
colleges and universities require students to take the Scholastic
Assessment Test (SAT) or the American College Test (ACT), and postgraduate schools require
Attributed to Charles Stangor
Saylor URL: http://www
...
org/books/

Saylor
...
These tests are useful for selecting students because they
predict success in the programs that they are designed for, particularly in the first year of the
program (Kuncel, Hezlett, & Ones, 2010)
...
Frey and Detterman (2004) [26] found that the SAT correlated highly (between
about r =
...
8) with standard measures of intelligence
...
Personnel selection is the use of structured tests to select people who are
likely to perform well at given jobs(Schmidt & Hunter, 1998)
...
This is normally accomplished by surveying
and/or interviewing current workers and their supervisors
...
Measures include tests of cognitive and physical ability and job knowledge tests, as
well as measures of IQ and personality
...

There is at least some truth to the idea that smarter people have bigger brains
...
,
2006)
...
It is possible that growing up in a stimulating
environment that rewards thinking and learning may lead to greater brain growth (Garlick,
Attributed to Charles Stangor
Saylor URL: http://www
...
org/books/

Saylor
...

Another possibility is that the brains of more intelligent people operate faster or more efficiently
than the brains of the less intelligent
...
[31] And the brains of more intelligent people also seem to
run faster than the brains of the less intelligent
...
[32] Intelligence scores also correlate at about r =
...

Although intelligence is not located in a specific part of the brain, it is more prevalent in some
brain areas than others
...
(2000) [34]administered a variety of intelligence tasks and
observed the places in the cortex that were most active
...
5 "Where Is Intelligence?", these activated areas
were primarily in the outer parts of the cortex, the area of the brain most involved in planning,
executive control, and short-term memory
...
saylor
...
org

468

Figure 9
...

Source: Adapted from Duncan, J
...
J
...
, Bor, D
...
, Ahmed, A
...
(2000)
...
Science, 289(5478), 457–460
...
, 1996; Plomin,
DeFries, Craig, & McGuffin, 2003)
...
saylor
...
org

469

the variability in IQ is due to genetics, meaning that overall genetics plays a bigger role than
does environment in creating IQ differences among individuals (Plomin & Spinath,
2004)
...
86), much higher than do the
scores of fraternal twins who are less genetically similar (r =
...
And the correlations between
the IQs of parents and their biological children (r =
...
19)
...
The intelligence of very young children (less than 3 years old) does not
predict adult intelligence, but by age 7 it does, and IQ scores remain very stable in adulthood
(Deary, Whiteman, Starr, Whalley, & Fox, 2004)
...
Twins raised together in the same home have more
similar IQs than do twins who are raised in different homes, and fraternal twins have more
similar IQs than do nontwin siblings, which is likely due to the fact that they are treated more
similarly than are siblings
...
Environmental factors also explain a
greater proportion of the variance in intelligence for children from lower-class households than
they do for children from upper-class households (Turkheimer, Haley, Waldron, D‘Onofrio, &
Gottesman, 2003)
...

Social and economic deprivation can adversely affect IQ
...
[39] Poverty may lead to diets that are undernourishing or lacking in appropriate vitamins,
and poor children may also be more likely to be exposed to toxins such as lead in drinking water,
Attributed to Charles Stangor
Saylor URL: http://www
...
org/books/

Saylor
...
[40] Both of these factors can slow brain
development and reduce intelligence
...
Government-funded after-school programs such as Head Start are
designed to help children learn
...
[41] But other studies suggest that Head Start and similar
programs may improve emotional intelligence and reduce the likelihood that children will drop
out of school or be held back a grade (Reynolds, Temple, Robertson, & Mann 2001)
...
6 with IQ (Ceci, 1991)
...
But education also has a causal effect on IQ
...
[44] Children‘s IQs tend to drop significantly
during summer vacations (Huttenlocher, Levine, & Vevea, 1998), [45] a finding that suggests that
a longer school year, as is used in Europe and East Asia, is beneficial
...
A child who has higher than average intelligence will be treated differently than a
child who has lower than average intelligence, and these differences in behaviors will likely
amplify initial differences
...


Psychology in Everyday Life: Emotional Intelligence

Attributed to Charles Stangor
Saylor URL: http://www
...
org/books/

Saylor
...
Emotional intelligence refers to the ability to accurately identify,
assess, and understand emotions, as well as to effectively control one’s own emotions (Feldman-Barrett & Salovey,
2002; Mayer, Salovey, & Caruso, 2000)
...
Public interest in, and research on, emotional intellgence became
widely prevalent following the publication of Daniel Goleman‘s best-selling book,Emotional Intelligence: Why It Can
Matter More Than IQ (Goleman, 1998)
...


[48]

One popular measure, the Mayer-Salovey-Caruso Emotional Intelligence Test

(http://www
...
org), includes items about the ability to understand, experience, and manage emotions,
such as these:



What mood(s) might be helpful to feel when meeting in-laws for the very first time?



Tom felt anxious and became a bit stressed when he thought about all the work he needed to do
...




Contempt most closely combines which two emotions?

1
...


fear and surprise

3
...


surprise and disgust



Debbie just came back from vacation
...
How well would each of the following
actions help her preserve her good mood?

o

Action 1: She started to make a list of things at home that she needed to do
...


o

Action 3: She decided it was best to ignore the feeling since it wouldn't last anyway
...
saylor
...
org

472

One problem with emotional intelligence tests is that they often do not show a great deal of reliability or construct
validity (Føllesdal & Hagtvet, 2009)
...


[51]

Furthermore, other researchers have

questioned the construct validity of the measures, arguing that emotional intelligence really measures knowledge
about what emotions are, but not necessarily how to use those emotions (Brody, 2004),

[52]

and that emotional

intelligence is actually a personality trait, a part of g, or a skill that can be applied in some specific work situations—
for instance, academic and work situations (Landy, 2005)
...
Emotion regulation refers
to the ability to control and productively use one‘s emotions
...
They have better SAT scores, are rated by their friends as more socially adept, and cope with
frustration and stress better than those with less skill at emotion regulation (Ayduk et al
...
, 2006;
Mischel & Ayduk, 2004)
...
However, the effectiveness of these programs has not been rigorously tested, and we do not yet know
whether emotional intelligence can be taught, or if learning it would improve the quality of people‘s lives (Mayer &
Cobb, 2000)
...

Intelligence is important because it has an impact on many human behaviors
...




There is also evidence for specific intelligences (s), measures of specific skills in narrow domains, including creativity
and practical intelligence
...
saylor
...
org

473



The intelligence quotient (IQ) is a measure of intelligence that is adjusted for age
...




Brain volume, speed of neural transmission, and working memory capacity are related to IQ
...




Intelligence is improved by education and may be hindered by environmental factors such as poverty
...
People who are
better able to regulate their behaviors and emotions are also more successful in their personal and social encounters
...


Consider your own IQ
...


Did your parents try to improve your intelligence? Do you think their efforts were successful?

3
...
Do you think people are really getting smarter?

4
...


[1] Sternberg, R
...
(2003)
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Reynolds & G
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Miller (Eds
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7, pp
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Hoboken, NJ: John Wiley & Sons
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, Simon, T
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ed
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[3] Gottfredson, L
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(1997)
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(2003)
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Attributed to Charles Stangor
Saylor URL: http://www
...
org/books/

Saylor
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L
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adulthood
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A
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[6] Thurstone, L
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Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press
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Gottfredson
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[8] Furnham, A
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(2008)
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Differences, 45(7), 613–617
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K
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[10] Tarasova, I
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, & Razoumnikova, O
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(2010)
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L
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[12] Ericsson, K
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creativity
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(2006)
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Hoboken, NJ: John Wiley & Sons
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A
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M
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[14] Simonton, D
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(1992)
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Social Psychology Bulletin, 18(4), 452–463
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J
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K
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(1993)
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In J
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Puckett & H
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Reese (Eds
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, & Sternberg, R
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knowledge
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[16] Gottfredson, L
...
(2003)
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[17] Sternberg, R
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, Wagner, R
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, & Okagaki, L
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Practical intelligence: The nature and role of tacit knowledge in work
and at school
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M
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W
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),Mechanisms of everyday cognition (pp
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Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence
Erlbaum Associates
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(1983)
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New York, NY: Basic Books; Gardner, H
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Intelligence reframed: Multiple intelligences for the 21st century
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[19] Treffert, D
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, & Wallace, G
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(2004, January 1)
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com/articles_autism/SciAm-Islands_of_Genius
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(2003)
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Intelligence, 31(4),
319–329
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R
...
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...

[22] Neisser, U
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(1998)
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Washington, DC: American Psychological Association
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(1997)
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E
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L
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by clinical psychologists
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[25] Kuncel, N
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, Hezlett, S
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(2010)
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C
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test and general cognitive ability
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[27] Schmidt, F
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, & Hunter, J
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(1998)
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A
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and intelligence
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[29] Haier, R
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(2004)
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[31] Haier, R
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study
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[33] Ackerman, P
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, Beier, M
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, & Boyle, M
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(2005)
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[34] Duncan, J
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J
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(2000)
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[38] Turkheimer, E
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[41] McLoyd, V
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[42] Reynolds, A
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, Temple, J
...
, Robertson, D
...
, & Mann, E
...
(2001)
...
Journal of the
American Medical Association, 285(18), 2339–2346
...
J
...
How much does schooling influence general intelligence and its cognitive components? A reassessment of
the evidence
...

[44] Baltes, P
...
, & Reinert, G
...
Cohort effects in cognitive development of children as revealed by cross-sectional
sequences
...
J
...
M
...
Schooling, intelligence, and
income
...

[45] Huttenlocher, J
...
, & Vevea, J
...
Environmental input and cognitive growth: A study using time-period
comparisons
...

[46] Feldman-Barrett, L
...
(Eds
...
The wisdom in feeling: Psychological processes in emotional
intelligence
...
D
...
, & Caruso, D
...
Models of emotional intelligence
...

J
...
), Handbook of intelligence (pp
...
New York, NY: Cambridge University Press
...
(1998)
...
New York, NY: Bantam Books
...
D
...
, & Caruso, D
...
(2008)
...
American
Psychologist, 63(6), 503–517; Petrides, K
...
, & Furnham, A
...
On the dimensional structure of emotional
intelligence
...

[49] Føllesdal, H
...
A
...
Emotional intelligence: The MSCEIT from the perspective of generalizability
theory
...

[50] Martins, A
...
, & Morin, E
...
A comprehensive meta-analysis of the relationship between emotional
intelligence and health
...

[51] Harms, P
...
, & Credé, M
...
Emotional intelligence and transformational and transactional leadership: A metaanalysis
...

[52] Brody, N
...
What cognitive intelligence is and what emotional intelligence is not
...

[53] Landy, F
...
(2005)
...
Journal of
Organizational Behavior, 26, 411–424
...
saylor
...
org

478

[54] Ayduk, O
...
, Mischel, W
...
, Peake, P
...
, & Rodriguez, M
...
Regulating the
interpersonal self: Strategic self-regulation for coping with rejection sensitivity
...
-M
...
, Mischel, W
...
, Ayduk, O
...
B
...
J
...
Predicting cognitive
control from preschool to late adolescence and young adulthood
...
, & Ayduk,
O
...
(2004)
...
New York, NY:
Guilford Press
...
D
...
D
...
Educational policy on emotional intelligence: Does it make sense? Educational
Psychology Review, 12(2), 163–183
...
2 The Social, Cultural, and Political Aspects of Intelligence
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
1
...


2
...


3
...


Intelligence is defined by the culture in which it exists
...
But people from Eastern cultures tend to place less emphasis on individual
intelligence and are more likely to view intelligence as reflecting wisdom and the desire to
improve the society as a whole rather than only themselves (Baral & Das, 2004; Sternberg,
2007)
...
In short,
although psychological tests accurately measure intelligence, it is cultures that interpret the
meanings of those tests and determine how people with differing levels of intelligence are
treated
...
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Extremes of Intelligence: Retardation and Giftedness
The results of studies assessing the measurement of intelligence show that IQ is distributed in the
population in the form of anormal distribution (or bell curve), which is the pattern of scores
usually observed in a variable that clusters around its average
...
The normal
distribution of intelligence (Figure 9
...
Because
the standard deviation of an IQ test is about 15, this means that about 2% of people score above
an IQ of 130 (often considered the threshold for giftedness), and about the same percentage score
below an IQ of 70 (often being considered the threshold for mental retardation)
...
6 "Distribution of IQ Scores in the General Population"presents a single
distribution, the actual IQ distribution varies by sex such that the distribution for men is more
spread out than is the distribution for women
...
[2] Boys are about five times more likely to be diagnosed with the
reading disability dyslexia than are girls (Halpern, 1992), [3] and are also more likely to be
classified as mentally retarded
...


Attributed to Charles Stangor
Saylor URL: http://www
...
org/books/

Saylor
...
6 Distribution of IQ Scores in the General Population

The normal distribution of IQ scores in the general population shows that most people have about average
intelligence, while very few have extremely high or extremely low intelligence
...
Mental retardation is a generalized disorder ascribed to people who have an IQ below 70,
who have experienced deficits since childhood, and who have trouble with basic life skills, such
as dressing and feeding oneself and communicating with others (Switzky & Greenspan,
2006)
...
A particular vulnerability
of people with low IQ is that they may be taken advantage of by others, and this is an important
aspect of the definition of mental retardation (Greenspan, Loughlin, & Black, 2001)
...
Severe and
Attributed to Charles Stangor
Saylor URL: http://www
...
org/books/

Saylor
...

One cause of mental retardation is Down syndrome, a chromosomal disorder leading to mental
retardation caused by the presence of all or part of an extra 21st chromosome
...
People with Down syndrome typically exhibit a distinctive pattern
of physical features, including a flat nose, upwardly slanted eyes, a protruding tongue, and a
short neck
...

We no longer use terms such as “moron,‖ “idiot,‖ or “imbecile‖ to describe these people,
although these were the official psychological terms used to describe degrees of retardation in
the past
...
In 2002 the U
...

Supreme Court ruled that the execution of people with mental retardation is “cruel and unusual
punishment,‖ thereby ending this practice (Atkins v
...
[6]

Extremely High Intelligence
Having extremely high IQ is clearly less of a problem than having extremely low IQ, but there
may also be challenges to being particularly smart
...
To study gifted children, Lewis Terman and his colleagues (Terman
& Oden, 1959)[7] selected about 1,500 high school students who scored in the top 1% on the
Stanford-Binet and similar IQ tests (i
...
, who had IQs of about 135 or higher), and tracked them
for more than seven decades (the children became known as the “termites‖ and are still being
studied today)
...
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...
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the general population
...
[8]
Terman‘s study also found that many of these students went on to achieve high levels of
education and entered prestigious professions, including medicine, law, and science
...

These numbers are all considerably higher than what would have been expected from a more
general population
...
[9]
As you might expect based on our discussion of intelligence, kids who are gifted have higher
scores on general intelligence (g)
...
Some children
are particularly good at math or science, some at automobile repair or carpentry, some at music
or art, some at sports or leadership, and so on
...
Although doing so may help the gifted kids (Colangelo & Assouline, 2009), [10] it also
may isolate them from their peers and make such provisions unavailable to those who are not
classified as “gifted
...
These claims, and the responses they provoked,
provide another example of how cultural interpretations of the meanings of IQ can create
disagreements and even guide public policy
...
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the hard sciences than do men is not debatable (as shown in Figure 9
...


Figure 9
...

National Science Foundation (2010)
...
nsf
...
cfm?pub_id=3785&id=2

Attributed to Charles Stangor
Saylor URL: http://www
...
org/books/

Saylor
...
[11] On the other hand, it is possible that the differences are due to variability in
intelligence, because more men than women have very high (as well as very low) intelligence
...

There are also observed sex differences on some particular types of tasks
...
, 2007), [12] and they have better emotional intelligence in the sense that they are
better at detecting and recognizing the emotions of others (McClure, 2000)
...
10 (Voyer, Voyer, & Bryden, 1995)
...
[15] On the math part of the
Scholastic Assessment Test (SAT), boys with scores of 700 or above outnumber girls by more
than 10 to 1 (Benbow & Stanley, 1983), [16] but there are also more boys in the lowest end of the
distribution as well
...
10

Attributed to Charles Stangor
Saylor URL: http://www
...
org/books/

Saylor
...

Source: Adapted from Halpern, D
...
, Benbow, C
...
, Geary, D
...
, Gur, R
...
, Hyde, J
...
, & Gernsbache, M
...

(2007)
...
Psychological Science in the Public Interest, 8(1),
1–51
...
There are many women who are better than the average man
on spatial tasks, and many men who score higher than the average women in terms of emotional
intelligence
...

Although society may not want to hear it, differences between men and women may be in part
genetically determined, perhaps by differences in brain lateralization or by hormones (Kimura &
Hampson, 1994; Voyer, Voyer, & Bryden, 1995)
...
[18] As infants, boys and girls show no or few differences in
spatial or counting abilities, suggesting that the differences occur at least in part as a result of
Attributed to Charles Stangor
Saylor URL: http://www
...
org/books/

Saylor
...
[19] Furthermore, the number of women entering the hard sciences
has been increasing steadily over the past years, again suggesting that some of the differences
may have been due to gender discrimination and societal expectations about the appropriate roles
and skills of women
...
The bell curves for some groups
(Jews and East Asians) are centered somewhat higher than for Whites in general (Lynn, 1996;
Neisser et al
...
[20] Other groups, including Blacks and Hispanics, have averages somewhat
lower than those of Whites
...
[21]
The observed average differences in intelligence between groups has at times led to malicious
and misguided attempts to try to correct for them through discriminatory treatment of people
from different races, ethnicities, and nationalities (Lewontin, Rose, & Kamin, 1984)
...

Eugenics became immensely popular in the United States in the early 20th century and was
supported by many prominent psychologists, including Sir Francis Galton
...
[23] Belief in the policies
of eugenics led the U
...
Congress to pass laws designed to restrict immigration from other
countries supposedly marked by low intelligence, particularly those in eastern and southern
Europe
...
S
...
Fortunately, the practice of sterilization was
Attributed to Charles Stangor
Saylor URL: http://www
...
org/books/

Saylor
...

One explanation for race differences in IQ is that intelligence tests are biased against some
groups and in favor of others
...
If IQ is a better predictor of school grade point average for Whites than it is for Asian
Americans, for instance, then the test would be biased against Asian Americans, even though the
average IQ scores for Asians might be higher
...
[24]
Another way that tests might be biased is if questions are framed such that they are easier for
people from one culture to understand than for people from other cultures
...
But
modern intelligence tests are designed to be culturally neutral, and group differences are found
even on tests that only ask about spatial intelligence
...
[25]

Research Focus: Stereotype Threat
Although intelligence tests may not be culturally biased, the situation in which one takes a test may be
...
In some cases these beliefs may be positive, and they have the effect of making us feel more confident and thus
better able to perform tasks
...


Attributed to Charles Stangor
Saylor URL: http://www
...
org/books/

[26]

On the other hand, sometimes these beliefs are

Saylor
...

In 1995 Claude Steele and Joshua Aronson tested the hypothesis that the differences in performance on IQ tests
between Blacks and Whites might be due to the activation of negative stereotypes (Steele & Aronson,
1995)
...

In support of this hypothesis, the experiments revealed that Black college students performed worse (in comparison
to their prior test scores) on standardized test questions when this task was described to them as being diagnostic of
their verbal ability (and thus when the stereotype was relevant), but that their performance was not influenced when
the same questions were described as an exercise in problem solving
...

Steele and Aronson argued that thinking about negative stereotypes that are relevant to a task that one is performing
createsstereotype threat—performance decrements that are caused by the knowledge of cultural stereotypes
...
Because the threat is ―in the air,‖ Black students may be negatively influenced by it
...
For instance, when a math task is described as diagnostic of
intelligence, Latinos and Latinas perform more poorly than do Whites (Gonzales, Blanton, & Williams,
2002)
...


[29]

Even groups who

typically enjoy advantaged social status can be made to experience stereotype threat
...
saylor
...
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489

described to them as measuring their natural athletic ability (Stone, 2002; Stone, Lynch, Sjomeling, & Darley,
1999)
...


[32]

On the cognitive side, individuals who are experiencing stereotype threat show an increased

vigilance toward the environment as well as increased attempts to suppress stereotypic thoughts
...
On the affective side, stereotype threat occurs when there is a
discrepancy between our positive concept of our own skills and abilities and the negative stereotypes that suggest
poor performance
...

Stereotype threat is not, however, absolute; we can get past it if we try
...
Manipulations that affirm positive characteristics about
the self or one‘s social group are successful at reducing stereotype threat (Marx & Roman, 2002; McIntyre, Paulson, &
Lord, 2003)
...


[34]

In summary, although there is no definitive answer to why IQ bell curves differ across racial and
ethnic groups, and most experts believe that environment is important in pushing the bell curves
apart, genetics can also be involved
...
Although some people are naturally
taller than others (height is heritable), people who get plenty of nutritious food are taller than
people who do not, and this difference is clearly due to environment
...

KEY TAKEAWAYS


IQ is distributed in the population in the form of a normal distribution (frequently known as a bell curve)
...
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...
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

Mental retardation is a generalized disorder ascribed to people who have an IQ below 70, who have experienced
deficits since childhood, and who have trouble with basic life skills, such as dressing and feeding oneself and
communicating with others
...




Extremely intelligent individuals are not unhealthy or poorly adjusted, but rather are above average in physical health
and taller and heavier than individuals in the general population
...




On average, men do better than women on tasks requiring spatial ability, whereas women do better on verbal tasks
and score higher on emotional intelligence
...




The observed average differences in intelligence between racial and ethnic groups has at times led to malicious
attempts to correct for them, such as the eugenics movement in the early part of the 20th century
...


EXERCISES AND CRITICAL THINKING
1
...


Do you think that we should give intelligence tests? Why or why not? Does it matter to you whether or not the tests
have been standardized and shown to be reliable and valid?

3
...
What
are the potential positive and negative outcomes of doing so? What research evidence has helped you form your
opinion?

4
...
What implications do you think the differences have
for education and career choices?

[1] Baral, B
...
, & Das, J
...
(2004)
...
J
...
), International handbook of intelligence (pp
...
New York, NY: Cambridge University Press; Sternberg, R
...
(2007)
...
saylor
...
org

491

Intelligence and culture
...
Kitayama & D
...
), Handbook of cultural psychology (pp
...
New York, NY:
Guilford Press
...
, Carothers, A
...
J
...
A role for the X chromosome in sex differences in variability in general
intelligence? Perspectives on Psychological Science, 4(6), 598–611
...
F
...
Sex differences in cognitive abilities (2nd ed
...

[4] Switzky, H
...
, & Greenspan, S
...
What is mental retardation? Ideas for an evolving disability in the 21st century
...

[5] Greenspan, S
...
, & Black, R
...
(2001)
...
In L
...
Glidden (Ed
...
24, pp
...
San Diego, CA: Academic Press
...
Virginia, 536 U
...
304 (2002)
...
M
...
H
...
Genetic studies of genius: The gifted group at mid-life (Vol
...
Stanford, CA: Stanford
University Press
...
V
...
Terman and the gifted
...

[9] Lubinski, D
...
P
...
Study of mathematically precocious youth after 35 years: Uncovering antecedents for
the development of math-science expertise
...

[10] Colangelo, N
...
(2009)
...
In T
...

Hymer, & D
...
Matthews (Eds
...
194–202)
...

[11] Hyde, J
...
(2005)
...
American Psychologist, 60(6), 581–592
...
F
...
P
...
C
...
C
...
S
...
A
...
The science of sex differences
in science and mathematics
...

[13] McClure, E
...
(2000)
...
Psychological Bulletin, 126(3), 424–453
...
, Voyer, S
...
P
...
Magnitude of sex differences in spatial abilities: A meta-analysis and
consideration of critical variables
...

[15] Vogel, G
...
School achievement: Asia and Europe top in world, but reasons are hard to find
...


Attributed to Charles Stangor
Saylor URL: http://www
...
org/books/

Saylor
...
P
...
C
...
Sex differences in mathematical reasoning ability: More facts
...

[17] Kimura, D
...
(1994)
...
Current Directions in Psychological Science, 3(2), 57–61; Voyer, D
...
, & Bryden, M
...
(1995)
...
Psychological Bulletin, 117(2), 250–
270
...
S
...
(2006)
...
In D
...
S
...
Damon, & R
...

Lerner (Eds
...
, Vol
...
734–776)
...

[19] Spelke, E
...
(2005)
...
American
Psychologist, 60(9), 950–958
...
(1996)
...
Personality
and Individual Differences, 20(2), 271–273; Neisser, U
...
, Bouchard, T
...
, Jr
...
W
...
, Ceci, S
...
,…Urbina, S
...
Intelligence: Knowns and unknowns
...

[21] Hunt, E
...
(2007)
...
Perspectives on
Psychological Science, 2(2), 194–213
...
C
...
P
...
, & Kamin, L
...
(1984)
...
New
York, NY: Pantheon Books
...
(1999)
...
New York, NY: Teachers College Press
...
(1992)
...
San Diego, CA: Academic Press
...
A
...
R
...
Race-ethnicity and measured intelligence: Educational implications
...

[26] Walton, G
...
, & Cohen, G
...
(2003)
...
Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 39(5), 456–467
...
M
...
(1995)
...
Journal of
Personality and Social Psychology, 69, 797–811
...
M
...
, & Williams, K
...
(2002)
...
Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 28(5), 659–670
...
saylor
...
org

493

[29] Brown, R
...
-C
...
, Fournet, M
...
(2003)
...
Social Cognition, 21(3), 167–193; Croizet, J
...
, & Claire, T
...
Extending the
concept of stereotype and threat to social class: The intellectual underperformance of students from low socioeconomic
backgrounds
...

[30] Aronson, J
...
J
...
, Keough, K
...
M
...
When white men can’t do math: Necessary and
sufficient factors in stereotype threat
...

[31] Stone, J
...
Battling doubt by avoiding practice: The effects of stereotype threat on self-handicapping in White
athletes
...
, Lynch, C
...
, Sjomeling, M
...
M
...
Stereotype threat effects on Black and White athletic performance
...

[32] Schmader, T
...
, & Forbes, C
...
An integrated process model of stereotype threat effects on
performance
...

[33] Marx, D
...
, & Roman, J
...
(2002)
...
Personality and Social
Psychology Bulletin, 28(9), 1183–1193; McIntyre, R
...
, Paulson, R
...
, & Lord, C
...
(2003)
...
Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 39(1), 83–90
...
, Schmader, T
...
(2005)
...
Psychological Science, 16(3), 175–179
...
3 Communicating With Others: The Development and Use of Language
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
1
...


2
...


3
...


Human language is the most complex behavior on the planet and, at least as far as we know, in
the universe
...
Most languages are oral, generated
through speaking
...
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494

processes including operation of the vocal cords, and the coordination of breath with movements
of the throat and mouth, and tongue
...
The most common sign language is
American Sign Language (ASL), currently spoken by more than 500,000 people in the United
States alone
...

Language also allows us to access existing knowledge, to draw conclusions, to set and
accomplish goals, and to understand and communicate complex social relationships
...

Language can be conceptualized in terms of sounds, meaning, and the environmental factors that
help us understand it
...


The Components of Language
A phoneme is the smallest unit of sound that makes a meaningful difference in a language
...
In spoken languages, phonemes are
produced by the positions and movements of the vocal tract, including our lips, teeth, tongue,
vocal cords, and throat, whereas in sign languages phonemes are defined by the shapes and
movement of the hands
...
English contains about 45 phonemes,
Attributed to Charles Stangor
Saylor URL: http://www
...
org/books/

Saylor
...
The Hawaiian language
contains only about a dozen phonemes, including 5 vowels (a, e, i, o, and u) and 7 consonants (h,
k, l, m, n, p, and w)
...
This is known as the categorical
perception of speech sounds
...
In Japanese, however, /r/ and
/l/ are the same phoneme, and thus speakers of that language cannot tell the difference between
the word “rake‖ and the word “lake
...
Can you
hear the difference between the two /k/ sounds? To English speakers they both sound the same,
but to speakers of Arabic these represent two different phonemes
...
Phonemes that were initially differentiated come to
be treated as equivalent (Werker & Tees, 2002)
...
11

Attributed to Charles Stangor
Saylor URL: http://www
...
org/books/

Saylor
...
In this case, the change
is from /ba/ to /pa/
...
C
...
Discriminability, response bias, and phoneme categories in
discrimination of voice onset time
...


Whereas phonemes are the smallest units of sound in language, a morphemeis a string of one or
more phonemes that makes up the smallest units of meaning in a language
...
Some morphemes are prefixes and suffixes used to modify other
words
...
‖
Syntax is the set of rules of a language by which we construct sentences
...
The syntax of the English language requires that each sentence have a noun and
a verb, each of which may be modified by adjectives and adverbs
...
In English, “The man bites the dog‖ is
different from “The dog bites the man
...
“Der Hund beisst den Mann‖ means “The dog bites the man‖ but so does “Den
Mann beisst der Hund
...
We usecontextual information—the information surrounding
language—to help us interpret it
...
Misunderstandings can easily arise if people
aren‘t attentive to contextual information or if some of it is missing, such as it may be in
newspaper headlines or in text messages
...
saylor
...
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Examples in Which Syntax Is Correct but the Interpretation Can Be Ambiguous


Grandmother of Eight Makes Hole in One



Milk Drinkers Turn to Powder



Farmer Bill Dies in House



Old School Pillars Are Replaced by Alumni



Two Convicts Evade Noose, Jury Hung



Include Your Children When Baking Cookies

The Biology and Development of Language
Anyone who has tried to master a second language as an adult knows the difficulty of language
learning
...
Children who are not exposed to
language early in their lives will likely never learn one
...
Both of these children
made some progress in socialization after they were rescued, but neither of them ever developed
language (Rymer, 1993)
...
Deaf children who are not exposed
to sign language during their early years will likely never learn it (Mayberry, Lock, & Kazmi,
2002)
...


[4]

But more recent research has provided a different

interpretation
...
The participants were all adults who had immigrated

Attributed to Charles Stangor
Saylor URL: http://www
...
org/books/

Saylor
...
Johnson and Newport found that the participants who had begun learning
English before they were 7 years old learned it as well as native English speakers but that the ability to learn English
dropped off gradually for the participants who had started later
...
While early learners were
almost all successful in acquiring their language to a high degree of proficiency, later learners showed much greater
individual variation
...
But their finding of a gradual decrease in
proficiency for those who immigrated between 8 and 39 years of age was not—rather, it suggested that there might
not be a single critical period of language learning that ended at puberty, as early theorists had expected, but that
language learning at later ages is simply better when it occurs earlier
...
S
...
The census form asks respondents to describe their own English ability
using one of five categories: ―not at all,‖ ―not well,‖ ―well,‖ ―very well,‖ and ―speak only English
...
Rather, the results (Figure 9
...
The difficulty of
learning language as one gets older is probably due to the fact that, with age, the brain loses its plasticity—that is, its
ability to develop new neural connections
...
12English Proficiency in Native Chinese Speakers

Attributed to Charles Stangor
Saylor URL: http://www
...
org/books/

Saylor
...
Regardless of level
of education, self-reported second-language skills decreased consistently across age of immigration
...
, Bialystok, E
...
(2003)
...
Psychological Science, 14(1), 31–38
...
These differences can
easily be seen in the results of neuroimaging studies that show that listening to and producing
language creates greater activity in the left hemisphere than in the right
...
13 "Drawing of Brain Showing Broca‘s and Wernicke‘s Areas")
...
Wernicke‘s area, an area of the brain next to the auditory cortex, is responsible
for language comprehension
...
13 Drawing of Brain Showing Broca’s and Wernicke’s Areas

Attributed to Charles Stangor
Saylor URL: http://www
...
org/books/

Saylor
...
Broca’s area, near the motor cortex, is involved in
language production, whereasWernicke’s area, near the auditory cortex, is specialized for language
comprehension
...
People with
Broca‘s aphasia have difficulty producing speech, whereas people with damage to Wernicke‘s
area can produce speech, but what they say makes no sense and they have trouble understanding
language
...
Moon, Cooper, and Fifer (1993) [7]found that infants only two
days old sucked harder on a pacifier when they heard their mothers‘ native language being
Attributed to Charles Stangor
Saylor URL: http://www
...
org/books/

Saylor
...
Babies are also aware of the patterns of their native language, showing surprise when
they hear speech that has a different patterns of phonemes than those they are used to (Saffran,
Aslin, & Newport, 2004)
...
One aspect of this learning is practice in producing speech
...

At about 7 months, infants begin babbling, engaging in intentional vocalizations that lack
specific meaning
...
[9] These vocalizations have a conversational tone
that sounds meaningful even though it isn‘t
...
Children who are exposed to sign language babble in sign
by making hand movements that represent real language (Petitto & Marentette, 1991)
...
One of the first words
that children understand is their own name, usually by about 6 months, followed by commonly
used words like “bottle,‖ “mama,‖ and “doggie‖ by 10 to 12 months (Mandel, Jusczyk, & Pisoni,
1995)
...
It is at this point that the
child first understands that words are more than sounds—they refer to particular objects and
ideas
...
By fifth grade most
children know about 50,000 words and by the time they are in college, about 200,000
...
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The early utterances of children contain many errors, for instance, confusing /b/ and /d/, or /c/
and /z/
...
[12] Children may say “keekee‖ for kitty, “nana‖ for banana, and “vesketti‖ for spaghetti in
part because it is easier
...
Children‘s pronunciations become increasingly
accurate between 1 and 3 years, but some problems may persist until school age
...
“Ma‖
may mean “more milk please‖ and “da‖ may mean “look, there‘s Fido
...

Because language involves the active categorization of sounds and words into higher level units,
children make some mistakes in interpreting what words mean and how to use them
...
A child might at first call all adult men “daddy‖ or all animals
“doggie
...
Infants are frequently more attuned to the tone of voice of the person speaking
than to the content of the words themselves, and are aware of the target of speech
...

Children learn that people are usually referring to things that they are looking at when they are
speaking (Baldwin, 1993), [14] and that that the speaker‘s emotional expressions are related to the
content of their speech
...
If a child hears an adult point to a strange object and say, “this is a dirb,‖ they will
infer that a “dirb‖ is a thing, but if they hear them say, “this is a one of those dirb things‖ they
Attributed to Charles Stangor
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...
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Saylor
...
And if they hear the word
“dirbing,‖ they will infer that “dirbing‖ is something that we do (Waxman, 1990)
...
Yet it is clear that both matter
...
On the other hand, human brains,
unlike those of any other animal, are prewired in a way that leads them, almost effortlessly, to
learn language
...
[16] There must be at least some truth to the idea that language is learned,
because children learn the language that they hear spoken around them rather than some other
language
...
It
seems that children modify their language through imitation, reinforcement, and shaping, as
would be predicted by learning theories
...
For one, children learn words too fast for them to be
learned through reinforcement
...
[17]More importantly, language is more generative than
it is imitative
...
Language is not a predefined
set of ideas and sentences that we choose when we need them, but rather a system of rules and
procedures that allows us to create an infinite number of statements, thoughts, and ideas,
including those that have never previously occurred
...
No adult speaker of English would ever say
“swimmed,‖ yet it is easily generated from the normal system of producing language
...
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Other evidence that refutes the idea that all language is learned through experience comes from
the observation that children may learn languages better than they ever hear them
...
[18] A group of deaf children in a school in Nicaragua, whose teachers could not sign,
invented a way to communicate through made-up signs (Senghas, Senghas, & Pyers,
2005)
...
Although
the original system was not a real language, it is becoming closer and closer every year, showing
the development of a new language in modern times
...
[20] According to this approach, each of the many
languages spoken around the world (there are between 6,000 and 8,000) is an individual example
of the same underlying set of procedures that are hardwired into human brains
...

Chomsky differentiates between the deep structure of an idea—how the idea is represented in the
fundamental universal grammar that is common to all languages, and the surface structure of the
idea—how it is expressed in any one language
...
At the end of a lecture, you will
remember a lot of the deep structure (i
...
, the ideas expressed by the instructor), but you cannot
reproduce the surface structure (the exact words that the instructor used to communicate the
ideas)
...
Evans and Levinson (2009) [21] surveyed the
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...
org/books/

Saylor
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In their search they found languages that did not have
noun or verb phrases, that did not have tenses (e
...
, past, present, future), and even some that did
not have nouns or verbs at all, even though a basic assumption of a universal grammar is that all
languages should share these features
...
Nearly onehalf of the world‘s population, including 18% of U
...
citizens, grows up bilingual
...
S
...

These laws are in part based on the idea that students will have a stronger identity with the
school, the culture, and the government if they speak only English, and in part based on the idea
that speaking two languages may interfere with cognitive development
...
But these tests were frequently given in English, even when this was not the child‘s
first language, and the children tested were often of lower socioeconomic status than the
monolingual children (Andrews, 1982)
...
[24] In fact, participants who speak two languages have been found to have better
cognitive functioning, cognitive flexibility, and analytic skills in comparison to monolinguals
(Bialystok, 2009)
...
15 "Gray Matter in Bilinguals") has also found that
Attributed to Charles Stangor
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...
org/books/

Saylor
...
,
2004)
...
Thus, rather
than slowing language development, learning a second language seems to increase cognitive
abilities
...
15 Gray Matter in Bilinguals

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org/books/

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e
...


Attributed to Charles Stangor
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org/books/

Saylor
...
, Crinion, J
...
, Noppeney, U
...
, Ashburner, J
...
S
...
J
...
Structural plasticity in the bilingual brain: Proficiency in a second language and age at
acquisition affect grey-matter density
...


Can Animals Learn Language?
Nonhuman animals have a wide variety of systems of communication
...
Male songbirds, such as canaries and
finches, sing songs to attract mates and to protect territory, and chimpanzees use a combination
of facial expressions, sounds, and actions, such as slapping the ground, to convey aggression (de
Waal, 1989)
...
[28] The language of vervet monkeys is relatively advanced in the
sense that they use specific sounds to communicate specific meanings
...
[29]
Despite their wide abilities to communicate, efforts to teach animals to use language have had
only limited success
...
But Viki learned
little and could never speak (Hayes & Hayes, 1952)
...

Allen and Beatrix Gardner worked for many years to teach a chimpanzee named Washoe to sign
using ASL
...
[31] Washoe‘s adopted daughter Loulis, who was never exposed to human signers, learned
more than 70 signs simply by watching her mother sign
...
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The most proficient nonhuman language speaker is Kanzi, a bonobo who lives at the Language
Learning Center at Georgia State University (Savage-Rumbaugh, & Lewin, 1994)
...
44 "Video Clip: Language Recognition in Bonobos", Kanzi has a propensity
for language that is in many ways similar to humans‘
...
Kanzi can also create elementary syntax and
understand relatively complex commands
...


Video Clip: Language Recognition in Bonobos
The bonobo Kanzi is the most proficient known nonhuman language speaker
...
Human
babies learn words faster and faster as they get older, but Kanzi does not
...
Kanzi usually requires many trials to learn a new
sign, whereas human babies can speak words after only one exposure
...
Although he can
combine words, he generates few new phrases and cannot master syntactic rules beyond the level
of about a 2-year-old human child (Greenfield & Savage-Rumbaugh, 1991)
...
With some
exceptions, the information that can be communicated in nonhuman species is limited primarily
to displays of liking or disliking, and related to basic motivations of aggression and mating
...
Although other animal brains share similarities to ours, only the
human brain is complex enough to create language
...
All humans,

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Saylor
...


Language and Perception
To this point in the chapter we have considered intelligence and language as if they are separate
concepts
...

The most frequently cited example of this possibility was proposed by Benjamin Whorf (1897–
1941), an American linguist who was particularly interested in Native American languages
...
Whorf argued that the Inuit perceived and categorized snow in
finer details than English speakers possibly could, because the English language constrained
perception
...
For one, in terms of perceptions
of snow, although it is true that the Inuit do make more distinctions among types of snow than do
English speakers, the latter also make some distinctions (think “powder,‖ “slush,‖ “whiteout,‖
and so forth)
...

In a more direct test of the possibility that language influences thinking, Eleanor Rosch
(1973) [34] compared people from the Dani culture of New Guinea, who have only two terms for
color (“dark‖ and “bright‖), with English speakers who use many more terms
...
But her research found
that when the Dani were asked to categorize colors using new categories, they did so in almost
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Similar results were found by Frank, Everett,
Fedorenko, and Gibson (2008), [35] who showed that the Amazonian tribe known as the Pirahã,
who have no linguistic method for expressing exact quantities (not even the number “one‖), were
nevertheless able to perform matches with large numbers without problem
...
Roberson, Davies, and Davidoff
(2000) [36] conducted another study with Dani participants and found that, at least for some
colors, the names that they used to describe colors did influence their perceptions of the colors
...

KEY TAKEAWAYS


Language involves both the ability to comprehend spoken and written words and to speak and write
...




Phonemes are the elementary sounds of our language, morphemes are the smallest units of meaningful language,
syntax is the grammatical rules that control how words are put together, and contextual information is the elements of
communication that help us understand its meaning
...




Broca’s area is responsible for language production
...




Language learning begins even before birth
...




One explanation of language development is that it occurs through principles of learning, including association,
reinforcement, and the observation of others
...
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

Noam Chomsky argues that human brains contain a language acquisition module that includes a universal grammar
that underlies all human language
...




Although other animals communicate and may be able to express ideas, only the human brain is complex enough to
create real language
...


EXERCISES AND CRITICAL THINKING
1
...


Some animals, such as Kanzi, display at least some language
...
F
...
C
...
Cross-language speech perception: Evidence for perceptual reorganization during the
first year of life
...

[2] Rymer, R
...
Genie: An abused child’s flight from silence
...

[3] Mayberry, R
...
, Lock, E
...
(2002)
...
Nature, 417(6884),
38
...
(1967)
...
New York, NY: John Wiley & Sons; Penfield, W
...

(1959)
...
Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press
...
S
...
L
...
Critical period effects in second language learning: The influence of maturational
state on the acquisition of English as a second language
...

[6] Hakuta, K
...
, & Wiley, E
...
Critical evidence: A test of the critical-period hypothesis for second-language
acquisition
...

[7] Moon, C
...
P
...
P
...
Two-day-olds prefer their native language
...


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...
org/books/

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...
R
...
N
...
L
...
Statistical learning by 8-month-old infants
...

[9] de Boysson-Bardies, B
...
, & Durand, C
...
Discernible differences in the babbling of infants according to target
language
...

[10] Petitto, L
...
, & Marentette, P
...
(1991)
...
Science,
251(5000), 1493–1496
...
R
...
W
...
B
...
Infants’ recognition of the sound patterns of their own
names
...

[12] Dobrich, W
...
S
...
Phonological characteristics of words young children try to say
...

[13] Werker, J
...
, Pegg, J
...
, & McLeod, P
...
(1994)
...
Infant Behavior & Development, 17(3), 323–333
...
A
...
Early referential understanding: Infants’ ability to recognize referential acts for what they
are
...

[15] Waxman, S
...
(1990)
...
Cognitive Development, 5(2), 123–150
...
F
...
Science and human behavior
...

[17] Anglin, J
...
(1993)
...
Monographs of the Society for Research in Child
Development, 58(10), v–165
...
, & Mylander, C
...
Spontaneous sign systems created by deaf children in two cultures
...

[19] Senghas, R
...
, Senghas, A
...
E
...
The emergence of Nicaraguan Sign Language: Questions of development,
acquisition, and evolution
...
T
...
Langer, & C
...
), Biology and knowledge revisited: From neurogenesis to
psychogenesis(pp
...
Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates
...
(1965)
...
Cambridge, MA: MIT Press; Chomsky, N
...
Language and
mind (Extended ed
...


Attributed to Charles Stangor
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...
org/books/

Saylor
...
, & Levinson, S
...
(2009)
...
Behavioral and Brain Sciences, 32(5), 429–448
...
(1982)
...
International Review of Applied Linguistics in Language
Teaching, 20(4), 297–305
...
K
...
Z
...
Assessing the effects of bilingualism: A background
...
K
...
E
...
), Language and literacy in bilingual children(pp
...
Tonawanda, NY: Multilingual Matters
...
, & Genesee, F
...
Language development in preschool bilingual children
...

[25] Bialystok, E
...
Bilingualism: The good, the bad, and the indifferent
...

[26] Mechelli, A
...
T
...
, O’Doherty, J
...
, Frackowiak, R
...
, & Price C
...
(2004)
...
Nature, 431,
757
...
(1989)
...
Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press
...
(1956)
...
Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press
...
M
...
L
...
Behavioral mechanisms underlying vocal communication in nonhuman
primates
...

[30] Hayes, K
...
, and Hayes, C
...
Imitation in a home-raised chimpanzee
...

[31] Fouts, R
...
Next of kin: What chimpanzees have taught me about who we are
...

[32] Savage-Rumbaugh, S
...
(1994)
...
Hoboken, NJ: John Wiley & Sons
...
M
...
S
...
Imitation, grammatical development, and the invention of
protogrammar by an ape
...
A
...
M
...
L
...
Studdert-Kennedy (Eds
...
235–258)
...

[34] Rosch, E
...
(1973)
...
Cognitive Psychology, 4(3), 328–350
...
C
...
L
...
, & Gibson, E
...
Number as a cognitive technology: Evidence from Pirahã
language and cognition
...


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...
org/books/

Saylor
...
, Davies, I
...
(2000)
...
Journal of Experimental Psychology: General, 129(3), 369–398
...
C
...
Studying spatial conceptualization across cultures: Anthropology and cognitive science
...


9
...

The French psychologist Alfred Binet and his colleague Henri Simon developed the first
intelligence test in the early 1900s
...
‖
There is also evidence for specific intelligences (s), measures of specific skills in narrow
domains
...

Good intelligence tests both are reliable and have construct validity
...
IQ tests are standardized, which allows calculation of
mental age and the intelligence quotient (IQ),
The Wechsler Adult lntelligence Scale (WAIS) is the most widely used intelligence test for
adults
...


Attributed to Charles Stangor
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org/books/

Saylor
...
Although intelligence is not located in a specific part of the brain, it
is more prevalent in some brain areas than others
...
Social and economic deprivation, including poverty, can adversely
affect IQ, and intelligence is improved by education
...
However, tests of emotional intelligence are often unreliable, and emotional
intelligence may be a part of g, or a skill that can be applied in some specific work situations
...
Males are about
20% more common in these extremes than are women
...
There are also differences in which members of different racial and ethnic groups cluster
along the IQ line
...
These differences
have at times led to malicious, misguided, and discriminatory attempts to try to correct for them,
such as eugenics
...
Language can be conceptualized in terms of
sounds (phonemes), meaning (morphemes and syntax), and the environmental factors that help
us understand it (contextual information)
...


Attributed to Charles Stangor
Saylor URL: http://www
...
org/books/

Saylor
...

Children learn language quickly and naturally, progressing through stages of babbling, first
words, first sentences, and then a rapid increase in vocabulary
...

Some theories of language learning are based on principles of learning
...
Chomsky differentiates between the
deep structure and the surface structure of an idea
...
Bilingual children may
show more cognitive function and flexibility than do monolingual children
...
But efforts to teach
animals to use human language have had only limited success
...


Attributed to Charles Stangor
Saylor URL: http://www
...
org/books/

Saylor
...
Both of the engines on flight 1539 had shut down, and his options
for a safe landing were limited
...
We lost thrust in both engines
...

When the tower gave him the compass setting and runway for a possible landing, Sullenberger‘s extensive experience
allowed him to give a calm response:
I’m not sure if we can make any runway…Anything in New Jersey?
Captain Sullenberger was not just any pilot in a crisis, but a former U
...
Air Force fighter pilot with 40 years of flight
experience
...
Training had
quickened his mental processes in assessing the threat, allowing him to maintain what tower operators later called an
―eerie calm
...

When the tower suggested a runway in New Jersey, Sullenberger calmly replied:
We’re unable
...

The last communication from Captain Sullenberger to the tower advised of the eventual outcome:
We’re going to be in the Hudson
...
Passengers reported that the landing was like landing on a rough runway
...
Captain Sullenberger then calmly walked the aisle of the plane
to be sure that everyone was out before joining the 150 other rescued survivors (Levin, 2009; National Transportation
Safety Board, 2009)
...
‖ But psychologists see it as the
ultimate in emotion regulation—the ability to control and productively use one‘s emotions
...
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519

The topic of this chapter is affect, defined as the experience of feeling or emotion
...

As we will see, affect guides behavior, helps us make decisions, and has a major impact on our
mental and physical health
...
Both of these words
have the same underlying Latin root, meaning “to move
...
Because they involve arousal, emotions and motivations are “hot‖—they
“charge,‖ “drive,‖ or “move‖ our behavior
...
When we become
aroused, the sympathetic nervous system provides us with energy to respond to our environment
...
The stress
hormones epinephrine and norepinephrine are released
...

An emotion is a mental and physiological feeling state that directs our attention and guides our
behavior
...
Emotions
normally serve an adaptive role: We care for infants because of the love we feel for them, we
avoid making a left turn onto a crowded highway because we fear that a speeding truck may hit
us, and we are particularly nice to Mandy because we are feeling guilty that we didn‘t go to her
party
...


Attributed to Charles Stangor
Saylor URL: http://www
...
org/books/

Saylor
...
A motivation is a driving force that initiates and
directs behavior
...
But there are a variety of other personal and social motivations that can influence behavior,
including the motivations for social approval and acceptance, the motivation to achieve, and the
motivation to take, or to avoid taking, risks (Morsella, Bargh, & Gollwitzer, 2009)
...
As predicted by basic theories of
operant learning, motivations lead us to engage in particular behaviors because doing so makes
us feel good
...
Motivation can thus be conceptualized as a
series of behavioral responses that lead us to attempt to reduce drives and to attain goals by
comparing our current state with a desired end state (Lawrence, Carver, & Scheier,
2002)
...
When a drive or
goal is aroused—for instance, when we are hungry—the thermostat turns on and we start to
behave in a way that attempts to reduce the drive or meet the goal (in this case to seek food)
...
Eventually, the need or goal is satisfied (we eat), and the relevant
behaviors are turned off
...

In addition to more basic motivations such as hunger, a variety of other personal and social
motivations can also be conceptualized in terms of drives or goals
...
When we are dieting, we may be more
likely to have a big binge on a day when the scale says that we have met our prior day‘s goals
...
In many, if not most cases, our emotions and motivations operate out of our conscious
Attributed to Charles Stangor
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org/books/

Saylor
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[4]
We begin this chapter by considering the role of affect on behavior, discussing the most
important psychological theories of emotions
...
We will discuss how the experience of long-term stress causes
illness, and then turn to research onpositive thinking and what has been learned about the
beneficial health effects of more positive emotions
...
The importance of this
chapter is not only in helping you gain an understanding the principles of affect but also in
helping you discover the important roles that affect plays in our everyday lives, and particularly
in our mental and physical health
...
The importance of this topic has
made health psychology one of the fastest growing fields in psychology
...
(2009, June 9)
...
USA Today
...
usatoday
...
htm; National Transportation Safety Board
...

Excerpts of Flight 1549 cockpit communications
...
Retrieved fromhttp://www
...
com/news/nation/2009-06-09hudson-cockpit-transcript_N
...
, Bargh, J
...
, & Gollwitzer, P
...
(2009)
...
New York, NY: Oxford University
Press
...
W
...
S
...
F
...
Velocity toward goal attainment in immediate experience as a
determinant of affect
...

[4] Freud, S
...
The unconscious
...
R
...
A
...
(2009)
...
Social Cognition, 27(1), 20–36; Williams, L
...
, Bargh, J
...
, Nocera, C
...
, & Gray, J
...
(2009)
...
Emotion, 9(6), 847–854
...
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10
...


Explain the biological experience of emotion
...


Summarize the psychological theories of emotion
...


Give examples of the ways that emotion is communicated
...
The basic emotions have a long history in human evolution,
and they have developed in large part to help us make rapid judgments about stimuli and to
quickly guide appropriate behavior (LeDoux, 2000)
...
Because they are primarily evolutionarily determined, the basic
emotions are experienced and displayed in much the same way across cultures (Ekman, 1992;
Elfenbein & Ambady, 2002, 2003; Fridland, Ekman, & Oster, 1987), [2] and people are quite
accurate at judging the facial expressions of people from different cultures
...
8
"Video Clip: The Basic Emotions" to see a demonstration of the basic emotions
...
For instance, the amygdala may sense
fear when it senses that the body is falling, but that fear may be interpreted completely
differently (perhaps even as “excitement‖) when we are falling on a roller-coaster ride than when
we are falling from the sky in an airplane that has lost power
...
2 "The Secondary Emotions"
...
2 "The Secondary Emotions")
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Saylor
...
2 "The Secondary Emotions")

Figure 10
...
saylor
...
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524

The secondary emotions are those that have a major cognitive component
...

Source: Adapted from Russell, J
...
(1980)
...
Journal of Personality and Social
Psychology, 39, 1161–1178
...
But when your
close friend wins a prize that you thought you had deserved, you might also experience a variety
of secondary emotions (in this case, the negative ones)—for instance, feeling angry, sad,
resentful, and ashamed
...
[3]
Attributed to Charles Stangor
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...
org/books/

Saylor
...
[4] The thalamus acts as the major gatekeeper in this process (Figure
10
...
Our response to the basic emotion of fear, for
instance, is primarily determined by the fast pathway through the limbic system
...
We quickly move our foot to the brake pedal
...
When we stew in
jealousy over the loss of a partner to a rival or recollect on our win in the big tennis match, the
process is more complex
...
We experience the arousal of
emotion, but it is accompanied by a more complex cognitive appraisal, producing more refined
emotions and behavioral responses
...
3 Slow and Fast Emotional Pathways

Attributed to Charles Stangor
Saylor URL: http://www
...
org/books/

Saylor
...


Although emotions might seem to you to be more frivolous or less important in comparison to
our more rational cognitive processes, both emotions and cognitions can help us make effective
decisions
...
Emotions become particularly
important in guiding decisions when the alternatives between many complex and conflicting
alternatives present us with a high degree of uncertainty and ambiguity, making a complete
cognitive analysis difficult
...
[5]

The Cannon-Bard and James-Lange Theories of Emotion
Recall for a moment a situation in which you have experienced an intense emotional response
...
Or maybe you were calmly
cruising down a street in your neighborhood when another car suddenly pulled out in front of
you, forcing you to slam on your brakes to avoid an accident
...
Perhaps you remember being flushed, your
heart pounding, feeling sick to your stomach, or having trouble breathing
...

If you think back to a strong emotional experience, you might wonder about the order of the
events that occurred
...
saylor
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527

theories of emotion, which differ in terms of the hypothesized role of arousal in emotion (Figure
10
...


Figure 10
...
saylor
...
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528

The Cannon-Bard theory proposes that emotions and arousal occur at the same time
...
Schachter and Singer’s two-factor model proposes that arousal and
cognition combine to create emotion
...
saylor
...
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529

If your experiences are like mine, as you reflected on the arousal that you have experienced in
strong emotional situations, you probably thought something like, “I was afraid and my heart
started beating like crazy
...
According
to the theory of emotion proposed by Walter Cannon and Philip Bard, the experience of the
emotion (in this case, “I‘m afraid‖) occurs alongside our experience of the arousal (“my heart is
beating fast‖)
...
Thus, according to this model of emotion, as we become
aware of danger, our heart rate also increases
...
According to the James-Lange theory of emotion, our
experience of an emotion is the result of the arousal that we experience
...
The fear does not occur along with the racing heart but occurs because of the racing
heart
...
190)
...

There is research evidence to support each of these theories
...
3 "Slow and Fast Emotional Pathways") supports the idea that arousal and
emotions occur together
...
[7] The process happens so quickly that it may feel to us as if emotion
is simultaneous with our physical arousal
...
Patients who have spinal injuries that reduce their experience of arousal
also report decreases in emotional responses (Hohmann, 1966)
...
People
Attributed to Charles Stangor
Saylor URL: http://www
...
org/books/

Saylor
...
, 2001; Witvliet & Vrana, 1995), [9] we experience a red face and flushing
when we are embarrassed but not when we experience other emotions (Leary, Britt, Cutlip, &
Templeton, 1992), [10] and different hormones are released when we experience compassion than
when we experience other emotions (Oatley, Keltner, & Jenkins, 2006)
...
The
two-factor theory of emotion asserts that the experience of emotion is determined by the intensity
of the arousal we are experiencing, but that the cognitive appraisal of the situation determines
what the emotion will be
...
That is, she may be certain that she is
feeling arousal, but the meaning of the arousal (the cognitive factor) may be less clear
...
One day they are madly in
love with each other and the next they are in a huge fight
...
In the high arousal
relationship, for instance, the partners may be uncertain whether the emotion they are feeling is
love, hate, or both at the same time (sound familiar?)
...
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label the source of the arousal that they are experiencing is known as the
misattribution of arousal
...
The woman asked each man to
help her fill out a class questionnaire
...

More than half of the men who had been interviewed on the bridge later called the woman
...
The idea of misattribution of
arousal can explain this result—the men were feeling arousal from the height of the bridge, but
they misattributed it as romantic or sexual attraction to the woman, making them more likely to
call her
...
That is, do we know what emotion we are experiencing by monitoring our feelings (arousal) or by monitoring
our thoughts (cognition)? The bridge study you just read about might begin to provide you an answer: The men
seemed to be more influenced by their perceptions of how they should be feeling (their cognition) rather than by how
they actually were feeling (their arousal)
...
Schachter and Singer believed that the cognitive part of the emotion was critical—in fact,
they believed that the arousal that we are experiencing could be interpreted as any emotion, provided we had the right
label for it
...
On the other
hand, they argued that people who already have a clear label for their arousal would have no need to search for a
relevant label, and therefore should not experience an emotion
...
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In the research, male participants were told that they would be participating in a study on the effects of a new drug,
called ―suproxin,‖ on vision
...
The idea was to give all the participants the experience of arousal
...
The men in theepinephrine informed condition were told the truth about the effects of the drug—they were told
that they would likely experience tremors, their hands would start to shake, their hearts would start to pound, and
their faces might get warm and flushed
...
The idea was to make some of the men think that the arousal they
were experiencing was caused by the drug (the informed condition), whereas others would be unsure where the
arousal came from (the uninformed condition)
...
While they were
waiting for the experiment (which was supposedly about vision) to begin, the confederate behaved in a wild and crazy
(Schachter and Singer called it ―euphoric‖) manner
...
He kept trying to get the participant to join in with his games
...
One of the
emotions they were asked about was euphoria
...
The men in the misinformed group, on the other hand, were expected to be unsure about the source of the
arousal
...
As you can see
in Figure 10
...
The participants in
the misinformed condition were more likely to be experiencing euphoria (as measured by their behavioral responses
with the confederate) than were those in the informed condition
...
Everything was exactly the
same except for the behavior of the confederate
...
He complained about

Attributed to Charles Stangor
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...
org/books/

Saylor
...
He ended up tearing up the questionnaire that he was working on, yelling ―I don‘t have to tell them that!‖
Then he grabbed his books and stormed out of the room
...
(Figure 10
...
As Schachter and Singer put
it: ―Given a state of physiological arousal for which an individual has no immediate explanation, he will ‗label‘ this
state and describe his feelings in terms of the cognitions available to him‖ (Schachter & Singer, 1962, p
...


[15]

Figure 10
...
The participants who
did not have a clear label for their arousal took on the emotion of the confederate
...
, & Singer, J
...
(1962)
...
Psychological Review, 69, 379–399
...
My
Attributed to Charles Stangor
Saylor URL: http://www
...
org/books/

Saylor
...
This
seems to be a very strange reaction to such a positive outcome for the university and the students,
but it can be explained through the spillover of the arousal caused by happiness to destructive
behaviors
...

In sum, each of the three theories of emotion has something to support it
...
In support of the James-Lange theory, there is at least some evidence that arousal is
necessary for the experience of emotion, and that the patterns of arousal are different for
different emotions
...


Communicating Emotion
In addition to experiencing emotions internally, we also express our emotions to others, and we
learn about the emotions of others by observing them
...
One way that we perceive the emotions of others is through
theirnonverbal communication, that is, communication that does not involve words (Ambady &
Weisbuch, 2010; Anderson, 2007)
...
Table 10
...


Table 10
...
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Nonverbal cue

Description

Examples

Rules about the appropriate use of
Proxemics

Standing nearer to someone can expressing liking or

personal space

dominance
...


Body positioning

Expressions based on how our body

A more “oen‖ body position can denote liking; a faster
p

and movement

appears

walking speed can communicate dominance
...


The variety of emotions that we

Smiling or frowning and staring or avoiding looking at the

express, or attempt to hide, through

other can express liking or disliking, as well as dominance

our face

or submission
...


Gestures

Facial expressions

Paralanguage

Just as there is no “universal‖ spoken language, there is no universal nonverbal language
...
But in Britain, Ireland, Australia and New Zealand, the
“V‖ sign (made with back of the hand facing the recipient) serves a similar purpose
...

The most important communicator of emotion is the face
...
For example, happiness is expressed by smiles, which are created by two of the major
muscles surrounding the mouth and the eyes, and anger is created by lowered brows and firmly
pressed lips
...
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In addition to helping us express our emotions, the face also helps us feel emotion
...
Fritz Strack and his colleagues (1988) [17] asked their research
participants to hold a pen in their teeth (mimicking the facial action of a smile) or between their
lips (similar to a frown), and then had them rate the funniness of a cartoon
...

These results, and others like them, show that our behaviors, including our facial expressions, are
influenced by, but also influence our affect
...
And we may stand up straight because we are proud, but we are
proud because we are standing up straight (Stepper & Strack, 1993)
...




Emotional states are accompanied by arousal, our experiences of the bodily responses created by the sympathetic
division of the autonomic nervous system
...
They can be biological, such as hunger and thirst; personal, such as the
motivation for achievement; or social, such as the motivation for acceptance and belonging
...




Cognitive appraisal allows us to also experience a variety of secondary emotions
...




According to the James-Lange theory of emotion, our experience of an emotion is the result of the arousal that we
experience
...
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

According to the two-factor theory of emotion, the experience of emotion is determined by the intensity of the arousal
we are experiencing, and the cognitive appraisal of the situation determines what the emotion will be
...




We express our emotions to others through nonverbal behaviors, and we learn about the emotions of others by
observing them
...


Consider the three theories of emotion that we have discussed and provide an example of a situation in which a person
might experience each of the three proposed patterns of arousal and emotion
...


Describe a time when you used nonverbal behaviors to express your emotions or to detect the emotions of others
...
E
...
Emotion circuits in the brain
...

[2] Ekman, P
...
Are there basic emotions? Psychological Review, 99(3), 550–553; Elfenbein, H
...
, & Ambady, N
...

On the universality and cultural specificity of emotion recognition: A meta-analysis
...
J
...
, & Oster, H
...
Facial expressions of emotion
...
Siegman & S
...
), Nonverbal
behavior and communication (2nd ed
...
143–223)
...

[3] Martin, L
...
, & Tesser, A
...
Extending the goal progress theory of rumination: Goal reevaluation and growth
...
J
...
C
...
), Judgments over time: The interplay of thoughts, feelings, and behaviors (pp
...
New York,
NY: Oxford University Press
...
(2000)
...
New York, NY: Mariner
Books; LeDoux, J
...
(2000)
...
Annual Review of Neuroscience, 23, 155–184; Ochsner, K
...
, Bunge, S
...
, Gross, J
...
, & Gabrieli, J
...
E
...
Rethinking feelings: An fMRI study of the cognitive regulation of emotion
...

[5] Damasio, A
...
(1994)
...
New York, NY: Grosset/Putnam; Dijksterhuis,
A
...
W
...
F
...
B
...
On making the right choice: The deliberation-without-attention
effect
...
F
...
P
...
The devil is in the deliberation: Thinking too
much reduces preference consistency
...
D
...
W
...


Attributed to Charles Stangor
Saylor URL: http://www
...
org/books/

Saylor
...
Journal of Personality and Social
Psychology, 60(2), 181–192
...
(1884)
...

[7] LeDoux, J
...
(2000)
...
Annual Review of Neuroscience, 23,155–184
...
W
...
Some effects of spinal cord lesions on experienced emotional feelings
...

[9] Whalen, P
...
, Shin, L
...
, McInerney, S
...
, Fischer, H
...
I
...
L
...
A functional MRI study of human
amygdala responses to facial expressions of fear versus anger
...
V
...
R
...

Psychophysiological responses as indices of affective dimensions
...

[10] Leary, M
...
, Britt, T
...
, Cutlip, W
...
, & Templeton, J
...
(1992)
...
Psychological Bulletin, 112(3), 446–460
...
, Keltner, D
...
M
...
Understanding emotions (2nd ed
...

[12] Schachter, S
...
(1962)
...
Psychological
Review, 69, 379–399
...
, & Aron, A
...
Some evidence for heightened sexual attraction under conditions of high anxiety
...

[14] Schachter, S
...
E
...
Cognitive, social and physiological determinants of emotional state
...

[15] Schachter, S
...
E
...
Cognitive, social and physiological determinants of emotional state
...

[16] Ambady, N
...
(2010)
...
In S
...
Fiske, D
...
Gilbert, & G
...
), Handbook of social
psychology (5th ed
...
1, pp
...
Hoboken, NJ: John Wiley & Sons; Andersen, P
...
Nonverbal communication:
Forms and functions(2nd ed
...

[17] Strack, F
...
, & Stepper, S
...
Inhibiting and facilitating conditions of the human smile: A nonobtrusive test of
the facial feedback hypothesis
...
doi:10
...
54
...
768
[18] Stepper, S
...
(1993)
...
Journal of
Personality and Social Psychology, 64(2), 211–220
...
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10
...


Define stress and review the body’s physiological responses to it
...


Summarize the negative health consequences of prolonged stress
...


Explain the differences in how people respond to stress
...


Review the methods that are successful in coping with stress
...
And there is no emotional experience that
has a more powerful influence on us than stress
...
[1]Extreme negative events, such as being the victim of a terrorist attack, a natural disaster,
or a violent crime, may produce an extreme form of stress known
asposttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD), a medical syndrome that includes symptoms of anxiety,
sleeplessness, nightmares, and social withdrawal
...

When it is extreme or prolonged, stress can create substantial health problems
...
[2] And people in New York City who lived nearer to the site of the
9/11 terrorist attacks reported experiencing more stress in the year following it than those who
lived farther away (Pulcino et al
...
[3] But stress is not unique to the experience of
extremely traumatic events
...


The Negative Effects of Stress
The physiologist Hans Seyle (1907–1982) studied stress by examining how rats responded to
being exposed to stressors such as extreme cold, infection, shock, or excessive exercise (Seyle,
Attributed to Charles Stangor
Saylor URL: http://www
...
org/books/

Saylor
...
[4] Seyle found that regardless of the source of the stress, the rats experienced
the same series of physiological changes as they suffered the prolonged stress
...
8
"General Adaptation Syndrome")
...
8 General Adaptation Syndrome

Attributed to Charles Stangor
Saylor URL: http://www
...
org/books/

Saylor
...


Attributed to Charles Stangor
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...
org/books/

Saylor
...

The HPA axis is a physiological response to stress involving interactions among the
hypothalamus, the pituitary, and the adrenal glands
...
ACTH then directs the adrenal glands to secrete more hormones, including epinephrine,
norepinephrine, and cortisol, a stress hormone that releases sugars into the blood, helping
preparing the body to respond to threat (Rodrigues, LeDoux, & Sapolsky, 2009)
...
9 HPA Axis

Attributed to Charles Stangor
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...
org/books/

Saylor
...
The result is the secretion of epinephrine, norepinephrine, and cortisol
...
The experience of prolonged stress, however, has a direct
negative influence on our physical health, because at the same time that stress increases activity
in the sympathetic division of the ANS, it also suppresses activity in the parasympathetic
division of the ANS
...
This increased cortisol production exhausts the stress mechanism,
leading to fatigue and depression
...
[6] Stress also damages our DNA, making us less likely to be
able to repair wounds and respond to the genetic mutations that cause disease (Epel et al
...
[7] As a result, wounds heal more slowly when we are under stress, and we are more likely
to get cancer (Kiecolt-Glaser, McGuire, Robles, & Glaser, 2002; Wells, 2006)
...
Although heart disease is caused in
part by genetic factors, as well as high blood pressure, high cholesterol, and cigarette smoking, it
is also caused by stress (Krantz & McCeney, 2002)
...
Stress increases cardiac output (i
...
, the heart pumps more blood)
at the same time that it reduces the ability of the blood vessels to conduct blood through the
arteries, as the increase in levels of cortisol leads to a buildup of plaque on artery walls (Dekker
et al
...
[10] The combination of increased blood flow and arterial constriction leads to
increased blood pressure (hypertension), which can damage the heart muscle, leading to heart
attack and death
...
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The stressors for Seyle‘s rats included electric shock and exposure to cold
...
Thomas Holmes and Richard Rahe (1967) [11] developed a
measure of some everyday life events that might lead to stress, and you can assess your own
likely stress level by completing the measure in Table 10
...

You might want to pay particular attention to this score, because it can predict the likelihood that
you will get sick
...
The results were clear: The higher the scale score, the more likely the soldier was to end
up in the hospital
...
2 The Holmes and Rahe Stress Scale

Life event

Score

Death of spouse

100

Divorce

73

Marital separation from mate

65

Detention in jail, other institution

63

Death of a close family member

63

Major personal injury or illness

53

Marriage

50

Fired from work

47

Marital reconciliation

45

Retirement

45

Major change in the health or behavior of a family member

44

Pregnancy

40

Sexual difficulties

39

Attributed to Charles Stangor
Saylor URL: http://www
...
org/books/

Saylor
...
g
...
)

39

Major business readjustment (e
...
, merger, reorganization, bankruptcy)

39

Major change in financial status

38

Death of close friend

37

Change to different line of work

36

Major change in the number of arguments with spouse

35

Taking out a mortgage or loan for a major purchase

31

Foreclosure on a mortgage or loan

30

Major change in responsibilities at work

29

Son or daughter leaving home (e
...
, marriage, attending college)

29

Trouble with in-laws

29

Outstanding personal achievement

28

Spouse beginning or ceasing to work outside the home

26

Beginning or ceasing formal schooling

26

Major change in living conditions

25

Revision of personal habits (dress, manners, associations, etc
...
g
...
)

17

Attributed to Charles Stangor
Saylor URL: http://www
...
org/books/

Saylor
...
g
...
)

11

Total

______

You can calculate your score on this scale by adding the total points across each of the events
that you have experienced over the past year
...
3 "Interpretation of Holmes and
Rahe Stress Scale" to determine your likelihood of getting ill
...
3 Interpretation of Holmes and Rahe Stress Scale

Number of life-change units Chance of developing a stress-related illness (%)
Less than 150

30

150–299

50

More than 300

80

Although some of the items on the Holmes and Rahe scale are more major, you can see that even
minor stressors add to the total score
...
[13] Events that may seem rather trivial altogether,
such as misplacing our keys, having to reboot our computer because it has frozen, being late for
an assignment, or getting cut off by another car in rush-hour traffic, can produce stress
(Fiksenbaum, Greenglass, & Eaton, 2006)
...
Other research has found that even more minor stressors,
Attributed to Charles Stangor
Saylor URL: http://www
...
org/books/

Saylor
...
, 1998)
...
The cardiologists Meyer Friedman and R
...
Rosenman (1974) [17] were among the
first to study the link between stress and heart disease
...
As they tried to
explain the difference, they focused on the personality characteristics of the partners, finding that
the husbands were more likely than the wives to respond to stressors with negative emotions and
hostility
...
People who experience strong
negative emotions as a result of everyday hassles, and who respond to stress with hostility
experience more negative health outcomes than do those who react in a less negative way
(McIntyre, Korn, & Matsuo, 2008; Suls & Bunde, 2005)
...

On average, men are more likely than are women to respond to stress by activating the fight-orflight response, which is an emotional and behavioral reaction to stress that increases the
readiness for action
...
The fight-or-flight response allows men to control the source of the
stress if they think they can do so, or if that is not possible, it allows them to save face by leaving
the situation
...


Attributed to Charles Stangor
Saylor URL: http://www
...
org/books/

Saylor
...
Rather, they
are more likely to take a tend-and-befriend response (Taylor et al
...
[20] The tend-andbefriend response is a behavioral reaction to stress that involves activities designed to create
social networks that provide protection from threats
...
The tend-and-befriend response is triggered in women by the
release of the hormone ocytocin, which promotes affiliation
...
This may help explain why women, on average, have less heart disease and
live longer than men
...
But we do not need to throw up our hands in despair when things go
wrong; rather, we can use our personal and social resources to help us
...
You probably know people who seem to be stressed, depressed, or anxious, but
they cannot or will not see it in themselves
...
They seem to act as if there is no problem at all, simply
moving on with life without admitting or even trying to deal with the negative feelings
...
Have you ever had an important test to
study for or an important job interview coming up, and rather than planning and preparing for it,
you simply tried put it out of your mind entirely?
Research has found that ignoring stress is not a good approach for coping with it
...
If we experience so much stress that we get
sick, these events will be detrimental to our life even if we do not or cannot admit that they are
Attributed to Charles Stangor
Saylor URL: http://www
...
org/books/

Saylor
...
Suppressing our negative emotions is also not a very good option, at least in the long
run, because it tends to fail (Gross & Levenson, 1997)
...
We can‘t really suppress
or deny our thoughts, because we actually have to recall and face the event to make the attempt
to not think about it
...
Furthermore,
we may continually worry that our attempts to suppress will fail
...

Daniel Wegner and his colleagues (Wegner, Schneider, Carter, & White, 1987)[22] directly tested
whether people would be able to effectively suppress a simple thought
...
(Try it yourself;
can you do it?) However, participants were unable to suppress the thought as instructed
...
You might have had this experience when you were dieting or trying to study rather
than party; the chocolate bar in the kitchen cabinet and the fun time you were missing at the
party kept popping into mind, disrupting your work
...
James Pennebaker and his colleagues
(Pennebaker, Colder, & Sharp, 1990; Watson & Pennebaker, 1989) [23] have conducted many
correlational and experimental studies that demonstrate the advantages to our mental and
physical health of opening up versus suppressing our feelings
...
For instance, Pennebaker and Beall (1986) [24] randomly assigned
students to write about either the most traumatic and stressful event of their lives or trivial topics
...
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health center for illnesses during the following six months
...
Daily writing
about one‘s emotional states has also been found to increase immune system functioning (Petrie,
Fontanilla, Thomas, Booth, & Pennebaker, 2004)
...
For one, expressing our problems to others allows
us to gain information, and possibly support, from them (remember the tend-and-befriend
response that is so effectively used to reduce stress by women)
...
[26]
It is easier to respond to stress if we can interpret it in more positive ways
...

(1999) [27] found that some people interpret stress as a challenge (something that they feel that
they can, with effort, deal with), whereas others see the same stress as a threat (something that is
negative and fearful)
...


Emotion Regulation
Emotional responses such as the stress reaction are useful in warning us about potential danger
and in mobilizing our response to it, so it is a good thing that we have them
...
The ability to successfully control our emotions is known as emotion regulation
...
Consider, for instance, research by
Walter Mischel and his colleagues
...
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table in front of a yummy snack, such as a chocolate chip cookie or a marshmallow
...
However, they were also told
that if they could wait for just a couple of minutes, they‘d be able to have two snacks—both the
one in front of them and another just like it
...

Mischel found that some children were able to override the impulse to seek immediate
gratification to obtain a greater reward at a later time
...
Furthermore, the inability to delay gratification seemed to
occur in a spontaneous and emotional manner, without much thought
...
[28]
The ability to regulate our emotions has important consequences later in life
...
Thus effective
self-regulation can be recognized as an important key to success in life (Ayduk et al
...
, 2006; Mischel & Ayduk, 2004)
...

Preferences for small, immediate rewards over large but later rewards have been linked to low
levels of serotonin in animals (Bizot, Le Bihan, Peuch, Hamon, & Thiebot, 1999; Liu,
Wilkinson, & Robbins, 2004), [30] and low levels of serotonin are tied to violence and
impulsiveness in human suicides (Asberg, Traskman, & Thoren, 1976)
...


Attributed to Charles Stangor
Saylor URL: http://www
...
org/books/

[32]

If you are tired and worried

Saylor
...
It is no secret that we are more
likely fail at our diets when we are under a lot of stress, or at night when we are tired
...
They speculated that self-control was like a muscle; it
just gets tired when it is used too much
...
The scenes included
sick and dying animals and were very upsetting
...

Both before and after the movie, the experimenter asked the participants to engage in a measure of physical strength
by squeezing as hard as they could on a handgrip exerciser, a device used for strengthening hand muscles
...
Figure 10
...
It
seems that emotion regulation does indeed take effort, because the participants who had been asked to control their
emotions showed significantly less ability to squeeze the handgrip after the movie than they had showed before it,
whereas the control group showed virtually no decrease
...


Figure 10
...
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...
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Participants who were instructed to regulate their emotions, either by increasing or decreasing their emotional
responses to a move, had less energy left over to squeeze a handgrip in comparison to those who did not regulate
their emotions
...
, Tice, D
...
, & Baumeister, R
...
(1998)
...
Journal of Personality & Social Psychology, 74(3), 774–789
...


[34]

Can we improve our emotion regulation? It turns out that training in self-regulation—just like
physical training—can help
...
[35]

Attributed to Charles Stangor
Saylor URL: http://www
...
org/books/

Saylor
...




The general adaptation syndrome refers to the three distinct phases of physiological change that occur in response to
long-term stress: alarm, resistance, and exhaustion
...
But the experience of prolonged stress has a direct negative influence on
our physical health
...
It also decreases our ability to fight off colds and infections
...




Men tend to respond to stress with the fight-or-flight response, whereas women are more likely to take a tend-andbefriend response
...


Consider a time when you experienced stress, and how you responded to it
...


Are you good at emotion regulation? Can you think of a time that your emotions got the better of you? How might you
make better use of your emotions?

[1] Selye, H
...
The stress of life
...

[2] American Medical Association
...
Three-fold heart attack increase in Hurricane Katrina survivors
...
ama-assn
...
shtml
[3] Pulcino, T
...
, Ahern, J
...
, Foley, M
...
(2003)
...
Journal of Women’s Health, 12(8), 809–820
...
A syndrome produced by diverse nocuous agents
...
Retrieved
from http://neuro
...
org/cgi/reprint/10/2/230a
...
(1974)
...
Canadian Medical Association Journal, 115(1), 53–56; Seyle, H
...
The nature of
stress
...
icnr
...
html

Attributed to Charles Stangor
Saylor URL: http://www
...
org/books/

Saylor
...
M
...
E
...
M
...
The influence of stress hormones on fear circuitry
...

[6] Cohen, S
...
B
...
Health psychology: Psychological factors and physical disease from the perspective of
human psychoneuroimmunology
...
, & Smith, A
...
A prospective
diary study of the role of psychological stress and negative mood in the recurrence of herpes simplex virus (HSV1)
...
, Chen, E
...
W
...
Health psychology: Developing biologically plausible models linking the social world and physical health
...
N
...
W
...
, Campo, R
...
(2007)
...
In J
...
Cacioppo, L
...
Tassinary, & G
...
Berntson (Eds
...
, pp
...
New York, NY:
Cambridge University Press
...
, Lin, J
...
, Wolkowitz, O
...
, Adler, N
...
H
...
Cell aging in relation to stress
arousal and cardiovascular disease risk factors
...

[8] Kiecolt-Glaser, J
...
, McGuire, L
...
F
...
(2002)
...
Journal of Consulting & Clinical Psychology, 70(3), 537–547; Wells, W
...
How chronic stress
exacerbates cancer
...

[9] Krantz, D
...
, & McCeney, M
...
(2002)
...
Annual Review of Psychology, 53, 341–369
...
, Koper, J
...
, Pols, H
...
, de Jong, F
...
(2008)
...
Journal of Clinical Endocrinology & Metabolism, 93(10), 3741
...
H
...
H
...
The social readjustment rating scale
...

[12] Rahe, R
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, Mahan, J
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J
...
K
...
(1970)
...

Illness types, distribution, severities and relationships to life change
...

[13] Hutchinson, J
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, & Williams, P
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(2007)
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Personality and Individual Differences, 42(7), 1367–1378
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M
...
R
...
(2006)
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Journal of Applied Gerontology, 25(1), 17–30
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(1985)
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Psychiatry Research, 16(3), 233–239
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[16] Cacioppo, J
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, Berntson, G
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, Malarkey, W
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, Kiecolt-Glaser, J
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, Sheridan, J
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, Poehlmann, K
...
,…Glaser, R
...

Autonomic, neuroendocrine, and immune responses to psychological stress: The reactivity hypothesis
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840,
pp
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New York, NY: New York Academy of Sciences
...
, & Rosenman, R
...
(1974)
...
New York, NY: Knopf
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, Korn, J
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(2008)
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Stress & Health: Journal of the International Society for the Investigation of Stress, 24(5), 383–392
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1002/smi
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, & Bunde, J
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Anger, anxiety, and depression as risk factors for cardiovascular disease: The
problems and implications of overlapping affective dispositions
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[19] Williams, R
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(2001)
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A
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E
...
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[20] Taylor, S
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, Klein, L
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, Lewis, B
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, Gurung, R
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R
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A
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to stress in females: Tend-and-befriend, not fight-or-flight
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[21] Gross, J
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, & Levenson, R
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(1997)
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Journal
of Abnormal Psychology, 106(1), 95–103
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M
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J
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R
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L
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Paradoxical effects of thought suppression
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[23] Pennebaker, J
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, Colder, M
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(1989)
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Psychological Review, 96(2), 234–254
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[25] Petrie, K
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Effect of written emotional expression
on immune function in patients with human immunodeficiency virus infection: A randomized trial
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Attributed to Charles Stangor
Saylor URL: http://www
...
org/books/

Saylor
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(2004)
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Washington, DC: American Psychological Association
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M
...
, Tomaka, J
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L
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R
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(1999)
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Psychophysiology, 36(6), 818–831
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, & Mischel, W
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A hot/cool-system analysis of delay of gratification: Dynamics of
willpower
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, & Deutsch, R
...
The role of impulse in social behavior
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W
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T
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New York, NY: Guilford Press
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, Mendoza-Denton, R
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(2000)
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Journal of Personality and Social Psychology,
79(5), 776–792; Eigsti, I
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, Zayas, V
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, Dadlani, M
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,…Casey, B
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(2006)
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Psychological Science, 17(6), 478–484; Mischel, W
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(Eds
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Willpower in a cognitive-affective processing system: The dynamics of delay of gratification
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[30] Bizot, J
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, Le Bihan, C
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J
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, & Thiebot, M
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(1999)
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Psychopharmacology, 146(4), 400–412; Liu, Y
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, Wilkinson, L
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(2004)
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Psychopharmacology, 173(1–2), 175–185
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, Traskman, L
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(1976)
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[32] Muraven, M
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F
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Self-regulation and depletion of limited resources: Does self-control resemble a
muscle? Psychological Bulletin, 126(2), 247–259
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, Tice, D
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, & Baumeister, R
...
(1998)
...
Journal of Personality & Social Psychology, 74(3), 774–789
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D
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F
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Self-regulatory failure: A resource-depletion approach
...

[35] Baumeister, R
...
, Gailliot, M
...
N
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Journal of Personality, 74(6), 1773–

Attributed to Charles Stangor
Saylor URL: http://www
...
org/books/

Saylor
...
F
...
, & Vohs, K
...
(2007)
...
In A
...
Kruglanski & E
...
Higgins (Eds
...
2)
...
, & Cheng, K
...
Longitudinal gains in self-regulation from regular physical exercise
...


10
...


Understand the important role of positive emotions and happiness in responding to stress
...


Understand the factors that increase, and do not increase, happiness
...
The stress of the Monday through Friday grind can be offset by the
fun that we can have on the weekend, and the concerns that we have about our upcoming
chemistry exam can be offset by a positive attitude toward school, life, and other people
...

You have probably heard about the “power of positive thinking‖—the idea that thinking
positively helps people meet their goals and keeps them healthy, happy, and able to effectively
cope with the negative events that occur to them
...

People who think positively about their future, who believe that they can control their outcomes,
and who are willing to open up and share with others are healthier people (Seligman, &
Csikszentmihalyi, 2000)
...
saylor
...
org

559

The power of positive thinking comes in different forms, but they are all helpful
...
[2] Others have
focused self-efficacy, the belief in our ability to carry out actions that produce desired outcomes
...
These people too are better able to ward off their stresses
in comparison to people with less self-efficacy (Thompson, 2009)
...
Workers who have control over their work environment (e
...
, by
being able to move furniture and control distractions) experience less stress, as do patients in
nursing homes who are able to choose their everyday activities (Rodin, 1986)
...
The ability to control our outcomes may help explain why
animals and people who have higher status live longer (Sapolsky, 2005)
...
Hardy
individuals are those who are more positive overall about potentially stressful life events, who
take more direct action to understand the causes of negative events, and who attempt to learn
from them what may be of value for the future
...

Taken together, these various coping skills, including optimism, self-efficacy, and hardiness,
have been shown to have a wide variety of positive effects on our health
...
, 2005)
...
saylor
...
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560

regularly (Cohen & Pressman, 2006)
...
[10] The positive effects of
positive thinking are particularly important when stress is high
...

It is possible to learn to think more positively, and doing so can be beneficial
...

(2001) [12] found that pessimistic cancer patients who were given training in optimism reported
more optimistic outlooks after the training and were less fatigued after their treatments
...

The benefits of taking positive approaches to stress can last a lifetime
...
Students who had
a more positive outlook on life in college were less likely to have died up to 50 years later of all
causes, and they were particularly likely to have experienced fewer accidental and violent deaths,
in comparison to students who were less optimistic
...

After controlling for loneliness, marital status, economic status, and other correlates of health,
Levy and Myers found that older adults with positive attitudes and higher self-efficacy had better
health and lived on average almost 8 years longer than their more negative peers (Levy & Myers,
2005; Levy, Slade, & Kasl, 2002)
...


Finding Happiness Through Our Connections With Others
Attributed to Charles Stangor
Saylor URL: http://www
...
org/books/

Saylor
...
Psychologists have studied hundreds of variables that
influence happiness, but there is one that is by far the most important
...
[18] Married people report being happier than unmarried
people (Pew, 2006), [19] and people who are connected with and accepted by others suffer less
depression, higher self-esteem, and less social anxiety and jealousy than those who feel more
isolated and rejected (Leary, 1990)
...
Koopman, Hermanson, Diamond, Angell,
and Spiegel (1998) [21] found that women who reported higher social support experienced less
depression when adjusting to a diagnosis of cancer, and Ashton et al
...
People with social support are less
depressed overall, recover faster from negative events, and are less likely to commit suicide (Au,
Lau, & Lee, 2009; Bertera, 2007; Compton, Thompson, & Kaslow, 2005; Skärsäter, Langius,
Ågren, Häagström, & Dencker, 2005)
...
For one, having people we can trust and
rely on helps us directly by allowing us to share favors when we need them
...
But having people around us also makes us feel good about ourselves
...
Gençöz and Özlale (2004) [24] found that
students with more friends felt less stress and reported that their friends helped them, but they
also reported that having friends made them feel better about themselves
...


What Makes Us Happy?
Attributed to Charles Stangor
Saylor URL: http://www
...
org/books/

Saylor
...
As one example, many of us think that if we just had
more money we would be happier
...
[25] For instance, as you
can see in , even though income and material success has improved dramatically in many
countries over the past decades, happiness has not
...
Americans today have about three times the buying
power they had in the 1950s, and yet overall happiness has not increased
...
Csikszentmihalyi
(1999) [26] reported that people who earned $30,000 per year felt that they would be happier if
they made $50,000 per year, but that people who earned $100,000 per year said that they would
need $250,000 per year to make them happy
...
11 Income and Happiness

Attributed to Charles Stangor
Saylor URL: http://www
...
org/books/

Saylor
...

Source: Layard, R
...
Happiness: Lessons from a new science
...


These findings might lead us to conclude that we don‘t always know what does or what might
make us happy, and this seems to be at least partially true
...

Psychologists have found that people‘s ability to predict their future emotional states is not very
accurate (Wilson & Gilbert, 2005)
...
saylor
...
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564

events
...

Positive events tend to make us feel good, but their effects wear off pretty quickly, and the same
is true for negative events
...
On the other hand, the researchers found that
individuals who were paralyzed as a result of accidents were not as unhappy as might be
expected
...
For one, people are resilient; they bring
their coping skills to play when negative events occur, and this makes them feel better
...
Just as we enjoy the second
chocolate bar we eat less than we enjoy the first, as we experience more and more positive
outcomes in our daily lives we habituate to them and our life satisfaction returns to a more
moderate level (Small, Zatorre, Dagher, Evans, & Jones-Gotman, 2001)
...
People who are wealthy compare
themselves to other wealthy people, people who are poor tend to compare with other poor
people, and people who are ill tend to compare with other ill people, When our comparisons
change, our happiness levels are correspondingly influenced
...
Wilson, Wheatley, Meyers,
Gilbert, and Axsom (2000) [31] found that when people were asked to focus on all the more
regular things that they will still be doing in the future (working, going to church, socializing
with family and friends, and so forth), their predictions about how something really good or bad
would influence them were less extreme
...
saylor
...
org

565

If pleasure is fleeting, at least misery shares some of the same quality
...
, 2002)
...
But even when
health is compromised, levels of misery are lower than most people expect (Lucas, 2007; Riis et
al
...
[33] For instance, although disabled individuals have more concern about health,
safety, and acceptance in the community, they still experience overall positive happiness levels
(Marinić & Brkljačić, 2008)
...
[35] Clearly the main ingredient in happiness lies beyond, or perhaps beneath, external
factors
...




Optimism, self-efficacy, and hardiness all relate to positive health outcomes
...




People may not always know what will make them happy
...


EXERCISES AND CRITICAL THINKING
1
...


Do you know what will make you happy? Do you believe that material wealth is not as important as you might have
thought it would be?

[1] Seligman, M
...
P
...
(2000)
...
American Psychologist, 55(1), 5–14
...
S
...
F
...
Optimism
...
R
...
H
...
),Handbook of individual differences in
social behavior (pp
...
New York, NY: Guilford Press
...
C
...
The role of personal control in adaptive functioning
...
J
...
R
...
), Oxford
handbook of positive psychology (2nd ed
...
271–278)
...


Attributed to Charles Stangor
Saylor URL: http://www
...
org/books/

Saylor
...
(1986)
...
Science, 233(4770), 1271–1276
...
C
...
, & Singer, J
...
(1971)
...
Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 7(2), 244–257
...
M
...
The influence of social hierarchy on primate health
...

[7] Kobasa, S
...
, Maddi, S
...
, & Kahn, S
...
Hardiness and health: A prospective study
...

[8] Carver, C
...
, Smith, R
...
, Antoni, M
...
, Petronis, V
...
, Weiss, S
...
P
...
Optimistic personality and
psychosocial well-being during treatment predict psychosocial well-being among long-term survivors of breast cancer
...

[9] Cohen, S
...
D
...
Positive affect and health
...

[10] Dolbier, C
...
, Smith, S
...
, & Steinhardt, M
...
(2007)
...
American Journal of Health Behavior, 31(4), 423–433
...
R
...
Dispositional optimism and health status, symptoms, and behaviors: Assessing ideothetic relationships
using a prospective daily diary approach
...

[12] Antoni, M
...
, Lehman, J
...
, Klibourn, K
...
, Boyers, A
...
, Culver, J
...
, Alferi, S
...
,…Kilbourn, K
...
Cognitivebehavioral stress management intervention decreases the prevalence of depression and enhances benefit finding among
women under treatment for early-stage breast cancer
...

[13] Maddi, S
...
, Kahn, S
...
L
...
The effectiveness of hardiness training
...

[14] Peterson, C
...
E
...
, Yurko, K
...
, Martin, L
...
, & Friedman, H
...
(1998)
...
Psychological Science, 9(2), 127–130
...
, & Myers, L
...
Relationship between respiratory mortality and self-perceptions of aging
...
doi:10
...
, Slade, M
...
(2002)
...
Journals of Gerontology Series B: Psychological Sciences & Social Sciences, 57B(5),
P409
...

[16] Diener, E
...
, Lucas, R
...
(2002)
...
Social Indicators Research,
59(3), 229
...


Attributed to Charles Stangor
Saylor URL: http://www
...
org/books/

Saylor
...
M
...
, DeFries, J
...
, & Fulker, D
...
(1992)
...
Developmental Psychology, 28(1),
40–47; Lykken, D
...
(2000)
...
New York, NY: St
...

[18] Diener, E
...
M
...
E
...
L
...
Subjective well-being: Three decades of progress
...
, Tamir, M
...
N
...
Happiness, life satisfaction, and fulfillment: The social
psychology of subjective well-being
...
A
...
VanLange (Ed
...
Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates
...
Are we happy yet? Retrieved fromhttp://pewresearch
...
R
...
Responses to social exclusion: Social anxiety, jealousy, loneliness, depression, and low selfesteem
...

[21] Koopman, C
...
, Diamond, S
...
, & Spiegel, D
...
Social support, life stress, pain and emotional
adjustment to advanced breast cancer
...

[22] Ashton, E
...
, Chesney, M
...
, Koopman, C
...
,…Spiegel, D
...
Social support and
maladaptive coping as predictors of the change in physical health symptoms among persons living with HIV/AIDS
...
doi:10
...
2005
...
587
[23] Au, A
...
, & Lee, M
...
Suicide ideation and depression: The moderation effects of family cohesion and social selfconcept
...
Retrieved from Academic Search Premier Database; Bertera, E
...
The role of
positive and negative social exchanges between adolescents, their peers and family as predictors of suicide ideation
...
doi:10
...
, Thompson, N
...

(2005)
...
Social Psychiatry & Psychiatric Epidemiology, 40(3), 175–185
...
1007/s00127005-0865-6; Skärsäter, I
...
, Ågren, H
...
, & Dencker, K
...
Sense of coherence and social support in
relation to recovery in first-episode patients with major depression: A one-year prospective study
...
doi:10
...
1440-0979
...
00390
...
, & Özlale, Y
...
Direct and indirect effects of social support on psychological well-being
...


Attributed to Charles Stangor
Saylor URL: http://www
...
org/books/

Saylor
...
(2005)
...
Social Indicators
Research, 74(3), 429–443
...
1007/s11205-004-6170-z
[26] Csikszentmihalyi, M
...
If we are so rich, why aren’t we happy? American Psychologist, 54(10), 821–827
...
M
...
K
...
A
...
Parenthood and marital satisfaction: A meta-analytic review
...

[28] Wilson, T
...
, & Gilbert, D
...
(2005)
...
Current Directions in Psychological
Science, 14(3), 131–134
...
, Coates, D
...
(1978)
...

[30] Small, D
...
, Zatorre, R
...
, Dagher, A
...
C
...
(2001)
...
Brain, 124(9), 1720–1733
...
D
...
, Meyers, J
...
, Gilbert, D
...
, & Axsom, D
...
Focalism: A source of durability bias in
affective forecasting
...

[32] Bonanno, G
...
, Wortman, C
...
, Lehman, D
...
, Tweed, R
...
, Haring, M
...
,…Nesse, R
...
(2002)
...
Journal of Personality and Social Psychology,
83(5), 1150–1164
...
(2007)
...
Journal of Personality & Social Psychology, 92(4), 717–730
...
, Baron, J
...
, Jepson, C
...
, & Ubel, P
...
Ignorance of
hedonic adaptation to hemodialysis: A study using ecological momentary assessment
...
doi:10
...
134
...
3
[34] Marinid, M
...
(2008)
...
Journal of Developmental & Physical Disabilities, 20(6), 527–540
...
1007/s10882-008-9115-7
[35] Argyle, M
...
Causes and correlates of happiness
...
Kahneman, E
...
Schwarz (Eds
...
New York, NY: Russell Sage Foundation
...
saylor
...
org

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10
...


Understand the biological and social responses that underlie eating behavior
...


Understand the psychological and physiological responses that underlie sexual behavior
...

More than 1 in 10 U
...
households contain people who live without enough nourishing food, and
this lack of proper nourishment has profound effects on their abilities to create effective lives
(Hunger Notes, n
...
[1] When people are extremely hungry, their motivation to attain food
completely changes their behavior
...
Ancel Keys and his colleagues (Keys, Brožek,
Henschel, Mickelsen, & Taylor, 1950) [2] found that volunteers who were placed on severely
reduced-calorie diets lost all interest in sex and social activities, becoming preoccupied with
food
...
12 "Biological, Psychological, and Social-Cultural
Contributors to Eating")
...
The stomach is of course important
...
But we can also feel hunger even without input from the stomach
...
The lateral part of the
hypothalamus responds primarily to cues to start eating, whereas the ventromedial part of the
hypothalamus primarily responds to cues to stop eating
...
[3]

Attributed to Charles Stangor
Saylor URL: http://www
...
org/books/

Saylor
...
12 Biological, Psychological, and Social-Cultural Contributors to Eating

Attributed to Charles Stangor
Saylor URL: http://www
...
org/books/

Saylor
...
13 "Eating Is Influenced by the
Appetite Hormones")
...
Glucose levels in the bloodstream are
regulated by insulin, a hormone secreted by the pancreas gland
...
Eating and
appetite are also influenced by other hormones, including orexin, ghrelin, and leptin (Brennan &
Mantzoros, 2006; Nakazato et al
...
[4]

Figure 10
...
saylor
...
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572

Insulin, secreted by the pancreas, controls blood glucose; leptin, secreted by fat cells, monitors energy levels; orexin,
secreted by the hypothalamus, triggers hunger; ghrelin, secreted by an empty stomach, increases food intake
...
But
homeostasis varies among people; some people simply weigh more than others, and there is little
Attributed to Charles Stangor
Saylor URL: http://www
...
org/books/

Saylor
...
Weight is determined in large part by
thebasal metabolic rate, the amount of energy expended while at rest
...
A
naturally occurring low metabolic rate, which is determined entirely by genetics, makes weight
management a very difficult undertaking for many people
...
When researchers rigged clocks to move
faster, people got hungrier and ate more, as if they thought they must be hungry again because so
much time had passed since they last ate (Schachter, 1968)
...
[6]
Cultural norms about appropriate weights also influence eating behaviors
...
These
norms for excessive thinness are very difficult for most women to attain: Barbie‘s measurements,
if translated to human proportions, would be about 36 in
...
-33 in
...
[7] Many women idealize being thin and yet are unable to reach the standard that they
prefer
...
[8] Anorexia nervosais an eating disorder characterized by extremely low
body weight, distorted body image, and an obsessive fear of gaining weight
...
Anorexia begins with a severe weight loss diet and develops into a
preoccupation with food and dieting
...
saylor
...
org

574

Bulimia nervosa is an eating disorder characterized by binge eating followed by purging
...
Bulimia involves repeated
episodes of overeating, followed by vomiting, laxative use, fasting, or excessive exercise
...
The cycle in which the
person eats to feel better, but then after eating becomes concerned about weight gain and purges,
repeats itself over and over again, often with major psychological and physical results
...
[10]Eating disorders are also related psychological
causes, including low self-esteem, perfectionism, and the perception that one‘s body weight is
too high (Vohs et al
...
[12] Because eating disorders can create profound negative health outcomes,
including death, people who suffer from them should seek treatment
...


Obesity
Although some people eat too little, eating too much is also a major problem
...
In addition to causing people to be stereotyped and treated
less positively by others (Crandall, Merman, & Hebl, 2009), [13]uncontrolled obesity leads to
health problems including cardiovascular disease, diabetes, sleep apnea, arthritis, Alzheimer‘s
disease, and some types of cancer (Gustafson, Rothenberg, Blennow, Steen, & Skoog,
2003)
...
[15]
Obesity is determined by calculating the body mass index (BMI), a measurement that compares
one‘s weight and height
...
saylor
...
org

575

kg/m2 and as obese when it is greater than 30 kg/m2
...
nhlbisupport
...

Obesity is a leading cause of death worldwide
...
Although obesity is caused in part
by genetics, it is increased by overeating and a lack of physical activity (Nestle & Jacobson,
2000; James, 2008)
...
Dieting is
difficult for anyone, but it is particularly difficult for people with slow basal metabolic rates, who
must cope with severe hunger to lose weight
...
[17] Substantial weight loss of more than 50 pounds is
typically seen only when weight loss surgery has been performed (Douketis, Macie, Thabane, &
Williamson, 2005)
...

Although dieting alone does not produce a great deal of weight loss over time, its effects are
substantially improved when it is accompanied by more physical activity
...
[19] Exercise not only improves our waistline but also makes us healthier overall
...
[20] Exercise also
slows the cognitive impairments that are associated with aging (Kramer, Erickson, & Colcombe,
2006)
...
It is important to make a regular schedule, to work
exercise into one‘s daily activities, and to view exercise not as a cost but as an opportunity to

Attributed to Charles Stangor
Saylor URL: http://www
...
org/books/

Saylor
...
[22] Exercising is more fun when it is done in groups,
so team exercise is recommended (Kirchhoff, Elliott, Schlichting, & Chin, 2008)
...
[24] As for the other half of
Americans, they most likely are listening to the guidelines, but they are unable to stick to the
regimen
...
[25] This is a problem, given that exercise has long-term
benefits only if it is continued
...
Without
it, none of us would be here
...


The Experience of Sex
The sexual drive, with its reward of intense pleasure in orgasm, is highly motivating
...

Masters and Johnson found that the sexual response cycle—the biological sexual response in
humans—was very similar in men and women, and consisted of four stages:
Excitement
...
Women‘s breasts and nipples may
enlarge and the vagina expands and secretes lubricant
...
Breathing, pulse, and blood pressure increase as orgasm feels imminent
...
Vaginal secretions continue and the clitoris may retract
...
saylor
...
org

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Orgasm
...
The
spasmodic ejaculations of sperm are similar to the spasmodic contractions of vaginal walls, and
the experience of orgasm is similar for men and women
...
[27]
Resolution
...
After one orgasm,
men typically experience a refractory period, in which they are incapable of reaching another
orgasm for several minutes, hours, or even longer
...

The sexual response cycle and sexual desire are regulated by the sex hormonesestrogen in
women and testosterone in both women and in men
...

Estrogen levels in women vary across the menstrual cycle, peaking during ovulation (Pillsworth,
Haselton, & Buss, 2004)
...

In men, testosterone is essential to maintain sexual desire and to sustain an erection, and
testosterone injections can increase sexual interest and performance (Aversa et al
...
, 2009)
...
Women who
are experiencing menopause may develop a loss of interest in sex, but this interest may be
rekindled through estrogen and testosterone replacement treatments (Meston & Frohlich,
2000)
...
Men show a more consistent interest in sex, whereas the sexual
desires of women are more likely to vary over time (Baumeister, 2000)
...
saylor
...
org

578

& Henning, 1995)
...
[33]
Gender differences in sexual interest probably occur in part as a result of the evolutionary
predispositions of men and women, and this interpretation is bolstered by the finding that gender
differences in sexual interest are observed cross-culturally (Buss, 1989)
...
[35]Because they do not need to
invest a lot of time in child rearing, men may be evolutionarily predisposed to be more willing
and desiring of having sex with many different partners and may be less selective in their choice
of mates
...


The Many Varieties of Sexual Behavior
Sex researchers have found that sexual behavior varies widely, not only between men and
women but within each sex (Kinsey, Pomeroy, & Martin, 1948/1998; Kinsey,
1953/1998)
...
, 2008)
...
For about
3% to 6% of the population (mainly men), the sex drive is so strong that it dominates life
experience and may lead to hyperactive sexual desire disorder(Kingston & Firestone, 2008)
...
The vast majority of
human beings have a heterosexual orientation—their sexual desire is focused toward members of
the opposite sex
...
e
...
saylor
...
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members of their own sex)
...
Another 1% of the population reports being bisexual (having desires for both
sexes)
...
As with
heterosexuals, some gays and lesbians are celibate, some are promiscuous, but most are in
committed, long-term relationships (Laumann, Gagnon, Michael, & Michaels, 1994)
...
In Western societies such as the
United States and Europe, attitudes are becoming progressively more tolerant of homosexuality,
but it remains unacceptable in many other parts of the world
...
Because prejudice against gays and lesbians can lead to experiences of ostracism,
depression, and even suicide (Kulkin, Chauvin, & Percle, 2000), [40] these improved attitudes can
benefit the everyday lives of gays, lesbians, and bisexuals
...
[41]Areas of the hypothalamus are different in homosexual
men, as well as in animals with homosexual tendencies, than they are in heterosexual members
of the species, and these differences are in directions such that gay men are more similar to
women than are straight men (Gladue, 1994; Lasco, Jordan, Edgar, Petito, & Byrne, 2002;
Rahman & Wilson, 2003)
...
Among male identical twins, 52% of those with a gay brother
also reported homosexuality, whereas the rate in fraternal twins was just 22% (Bailey et al
...
[43] There is also evidence that sexual orientation is influenced by
exposure and responses to sex hormones (Hershberger & Segal, 2004; Williams & Pepitone,
2000)
...
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...
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Psychology in Everyday Life: Regulating Emotions to Improve Our Health
Although smoking cigarettes, drinking alcohol, using recreational drugs, engaging in unsafe sex, and eating too much
may produce enjoyable positive emotions in the short term, they are some of the leading causes of negative health
outcomes and even death in the long term (Mokdad, Marks, Stroup, & Gerberding, 2004)
...
And we (like Captain
Sullenberger) can also use our emotion regulation skills to help us do better
...


[46]

Although smoking is depicted in movies as sexy and alluring, it is

highly addictive and probably the most dangerous thing we can do to our body
...
But we can improve our diet by eating more natural and
less processed food, and by monitoring our food intake
...
Exercise
keeps us happier, improves fitness, and leads to better health and lower mortality (Fogelholm, 2010; Galper, Trivedi,
Barlow, Dunn, & Kampert, 2006; Hassmén, Koivula, & Uutela, 2000)
...


[48]

Alcohol abuse, and particularly binge drinking (i
...
, having five or more drinks in one sitting), is often the norm
among high school and college students, but it has severe negative health consequences
...


[49]

Binge-drinking students are also more likely to be involved in other risky behaviors, such as smoking, drug

use, dating violence, or attempted suicide (Miller, Naimi, Brewer, & Jones, 2007)
...
, 2009)
al
...


[52]

[51]

[50]

Binge drinking may also damage

and lead to lifelong alcohol abuse and dependency (Kim et

Illicit drug use has also been increasing and is linked to the spread of infectious diseases such as HIV,

hepatitis B, and hepatitis C (Monteiro, 2001)
...
About
half of U
...
children under 18 report having had intercourse, a rate much higher than in other parts of the world
...
Sexual activity can lead to guilt about having engaged in
the act itself, and may also lead to unwanted pregnancies and sexually transmitted infections (STIs), including HIV

Attributed to Charles Stangor
Saylor URL: http://www
...
org/books/

Saylor
...
Alcohol consumption also leads to risky sexual behavior
...
, 2009)
...
But being aware of the
dangers, working to control our emotions, and using our resources to engage in healthy behaviors and avoid
unhealthy ones are the best things we can do for ourselves
...




How we eat is also influenced by our environment, including social norms about appropriate body size
...
Low metabolic rates, which are
determined entirely by genetics, make weight management a very difficult undertaking for many people
...




Obesity is a medical condition in which so much excess body fat has accumulated in the body that it begins to have an
adverse impact on health
...




The two approaches to controlling weight are to eat less and exercise more
...




Although their biological determinants and experiences of sex are similar, men and women differ substantially in their
overall interest in sex, the frequency of their sexual activities, and the mates they are most interested in
...




There is also variety in sexual orientation: toward people of the opposite sex, people of the same sex, or people of both
sexes
...




We can outwit stress, obesity, and other health risks through appropriate healthy action
...
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...
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1
...
Are they healthy or unhealthy? What can you do to improve them?

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[17] Miller, W
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[19] Borer, K
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[20] American Heart Association
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[24] Centers for Disease Control and Prevention
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[25] American Heart Association
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[29] Aversa, A
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[30] Meston, C
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responsive
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searching for a mate: A process-tracing approach
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[36] Kinsey, A
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[37] Bogaert, A
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[41] Mustanski, B
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, Jordan, T
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(2002)
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Brain Research, 936(1/2), 95; Rahman, Q
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Saylor URL: http://www
...
org/books/

Saylor
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Personality and Individual Differences, 34(8), 1337–
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...
, Miller, M
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, Shruti Trivedi, L
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study of male sexual orientation using three independent samples
...
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...
(1998)
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Human Biology, 70(2), 347
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[44] Hershberger, S
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, & Pepitone, M
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[45] Mokdad, A
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Attributed to Charles Stangor
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...
org/books/

Saylor
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high school students
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...


10
...
Affect is guided by arousal—our experiences of the bodily responses created by
the sympathetic division of the autonomic nervous system
...
The most fundamental emotions, known as the basic emotions, are those of anger,
disgust, fear, happiness, sadness, and surprise
...
The distinction between the primary and the secondary
emotions is paralleled by two brain pathways: a fast pathway and a slow pathway
...
saylor
...
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588

There are three primary theories of emotion, each supported by research evidence
...
The James-Lange theory of emotion proposes that our experience of an
emotion is the result of the arousal that we experience
...
When
people incorrectly label the source of the arousal that they are experiencing, we say that they
have misattributed their arousal
...
The facial feedback hypothesis proposes that we also experience emotion in
part through our own facial expressions
...
When it is extreme or prolonged, stress can create
substantial health problems
...
Stress creates a long-term
negative effect on the body by activating the HPA axis, which produces the stress hormone
cortisol
...

Chronic stress is also a major contributor to heart disease
...

People who experience strong negative emotions as a result of these hassles exhibit more
negative stress responses those who react in a less negative way
...


Attributed to Charles Stangor
Saylor URL: http://www
...
org/books/

Saylor
...

It is healthier to let out the negative thoughts and feelings by expressing them, either to ourselves
or to others
...

The ability to successfully control our emotions is known as emotion regulation
...

The best antidote for stress is to think positively, have fun, and enjoy the company of others
...
Happiness is determined in part by genetic factors such that some people
are naturally happier than others, but it is also facilitated by social support—our positive social
relationships with others
...
After a minimum level of wealth is
reached, more money does not generally buy more happiness
...

A motivation is a driving force that initiates and directs behavior
...

Eating is a primary motivation determined by hormonal and social factors
...
The desire to be thin can lead to eating disorders
including anorexia nervosa and bulimia nervosa
...
It is a leading preventable cause
of death worldwide
...

Attributed to Charles Stangor
Saylor URL: http://www
...
org/books/

Saylor
...
The sexual response
cycle is similar in men and women
...

Sexual behavior varies widely, not only between men and women but within each sex
...
The love and sexual lives of homosexuals and bisexual are
little different from those of heterosexuals, except where their behaviors are constrained by
cultural norms and local laws
...
It was only at the age of 35 that the twins were reunited and discovered how similar they were to
each other
...
She loved her adopted parents and older brother
and even wrote an article titled ―Why I Don‘t Want to Find My Birth Mother
...

In 2003, 35 years after she was adopted, Elyse, acting on a whim, inquired about her biological family at the adoption
agency
...
m
...
You‘ve
got a twin sister Paula and she‘s looking for you
...

Elyse dialed Paula‘s phone number: ―It‘s almost like I‘m hearing my own voice in a recorder back at me,‖ she said
...

The two women met for the first time at a café for lunch and talked until the late evening
...
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―We had 35 years to catch up on,‖ said Paula
...
They‘d both gone to graduate
school in film
...
They have similar taste
in music
...
Looking at this person, you are able to gaze
into your own eyes and see yourself from the outside
...
We don‘t have to imagine,‖ Paula said
...

―But it‘s perhaps even closer than sisters,‖ Elyse said, ―Because we‘re also twins
...


[1]

Elyse and Paula
You can learn more about the experiences of Paula Bernstein and Elyse Schein by viewing this video
...
We say that
Bill is fun, that Marian is adventurous, or that Frank is dishonest
...
Personalityis defined as an individual’s consistent patterns of feeling,
thinking, and behaving (John, Robins, & Pervin, 2008)
...
If we can draw accurate generalizations about what other people are normally like, we can
predict how they will behave in the future, and this can help us determine how they are likely to
respond in different situations
...
In short,
personality matters because it guides behavior
...
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In this chapter we will consider the wide variety of personality traits found in human beings
...
We will also consider how psychologists measure personality, and the
extent to which personality is caused by nature versus nurture
...


[1] Spilius, A
...
Identical twins reunited after 35 years
...
Retrieved
from http://www
...
co
...
html; Kuntzman, G
...
Separated twins Paula Bernstein and Elyse Schein
...
Retrieved
fromhttp://www
...
com/stories/30/39/30_39twins
...
P
...
W
...
A
...
Handbook of personality psychology: Theory and research (3rd ed
...


11
...


Outline and critique the early approaches to assessing personality
...


Define and review the strengths and limitations of the trait approach to personality
...


Summarize the measures that have been used to assess psychological disorders
...
One
early approach, developed by the German physician Franz Joseph Gall (1758–1828) and known
as phrenology, was based on the idea that we could measure personality by assessing the patterns
of bumps on people‘s skulls (Figure 11
...
In the Victorian age, phrenology was
taken seriously and many people promoted its use as a source of psychological insight and selfknowledge
...
[1] However, because careful scientific research did not validate the predictions of the
theory, phrenology has now been discredited in contemporary psychology
...
saylor
...
org

593

Figure 11
...
saylor
...
org

594

This definition of phrenology with a chart of the skull appeared in Webster’s Academic Dictionary, circa 1895
...
wikipedia
...
png
...
saylor
...
org

595

Another approach, known as somatology, championed by the psychologist William Herbert
Sheldon (1898–1977), was based on the idea that we could determine personality from people‘s
body types (Figure 11
...
Sheldon (1940) [2] argued that people with
more body fat and a rounder physique (“endomorphs‖) were more likely to be assertive and bold,
whereas thinner people (“ectomorphs‖) were more likely to be introverted and intellectual
...


Figure 11
...


Another approach to detecting personality is known as physiognomy, or the idea that it is
possible to assess personality from facial characteristics
...
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people are able to detect some aspects of a person‘s character—for instance, whether they are
gay or straight and whether they are Democrats or Republicans—at above chance levels by
looking only at his or her face (Rule & Ambady, 2010; Rule, Ambady, Adams, & Macrae, 2008;
Rule, Ambady, & Hallett, 2009)
...
Olivola and
Todorov (2010) [4] recently studied the ability of thousands of people to guess the personality
characteristics of hundreds of thousands of faces on the website What‘s My Image?
In contrast to the predictions of physiognomy, the researchers found that these people
would have made more accurate judgments about the strangers if they had just guessed, using
their expectations about what people in general are like, rather than trying to use
the particular facial features of individuals to help them
...


Personality as Traits
Personalities are characterized in terms of traits, which are relatively enduring characteristics
that influence our behavior across many situations
...

The most popular way of measuring traits is by administering personality tests on which people
self-report about their own characteristics
...
You can see some examples of the personality dimensions
that have been studied by psychologists and their implications for behavior in Table 11
...
5 "Example of a Trait Measure"
...
saylor
...
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Table 11
...

Individualists prefer to engage in
behaviors that make them stand out from

Individualism-

Individualism is the tendency to focus on oneself

others, whereas collectivists prefer to

collectivism (Triandis,

and one‘s personal goals; collectivism is the

engage in behaviors that emphasize their

1989)

tendency to focus on one‘s relations with others
...


In comparison to those with an external locus of
control, people with an internal locus of control are People with higher internal locus of
Internal versus external

more likely to believe that life events are due

control are happier, less depressed, and

locus of control (Rotter,

largely to their own efforts and personal

healthier in comparison to those with an

1966)

characteristics
...

Those high in need for achievement

Need for achievement

The desire to make significant accomplishments by select tasks that are not too difficult to

(McClelland, 1958)

mastering skills or meeting high standards

be sure they will succeed in them
...


Refers to differences in the motivations that

People with a promotion orientation are

energize behavior, varying from apromotion

more motivated by goals of gaining

Regulatory focus (Shah,

orientation (seeking out new opportunities) to

money, whereas those with prevention

Higgins, & Friedman,

aprevention orientation (avoiding negative

orientation are more concerned about

1998)

outcomes)

losing money
...
saylor
...
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598

(Fenigstein, Sheier, &

inner self and feelings

Buss, 1975)

more time preparing their hair and
makeup before they leave the house
...


health outcomes
...


Sources: Adorno, T
...
, Frenkel-Brunswik, E
...
J
...
N
...
The authoritarian
personality
...
(1989)
...
Psychological Review, 93, 506–520; Rotter, J
...
Generalized expectancies of internal versus external
locus of control of reinforcement
...
C
...
Methods of measuring
human motivation
...
Atkinson (Ed
...
Princeton, NJ: D
...
T
...
E
...
The need for cognition
...
, Higgins, T
...
S
...
Performance incentives and means: How
regulatory focus influences goal attainment
...
, Scheier, M
...
, & Buss, A
...
(1975)
...
Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 43, 522–527; Rosenberg, M
...
Society and the
adolescent self-image
...
(2007)
...
Washington, DC: American Psychological Association
...

There are 120 questions and it should take you about 15–20 minutes to complete
...

http://www
...
net/ipip/ipipneo120
...
saylor
...
org

599

As with intelligence tests, the utility of self-report measures of personality depends on
their reliability and construct validity
...
Perhaps you have heard of a personality test known as the
Myers-Briggs Type Indicator (MBTI)
...
The MBTI categorizes people into one of four categories on each of
four
dimensions: introversion versus extraversion,sensing versus intuiting, thinking versus feeling,
and judging versusperceiving
...
People‘s classifications change over
time, and scores on the MBTI do not relate to other measures of personality or to behavior
(Hunsley, Lee, & Wood, 2003)
...

One of the challenges of the trait approach to personality is that there are so many of them; there
are at least 18,000 English words that can be used to describe people (Allport & Odbert,
1936)
...
[7]
The trait approach to personality was pioneered by early psychologists, including Gordon Allport
(1897–1967), Raymond Cattell (1905–1998), and Hans Eysenck (1916–1997)
...
Their approach was to
provide people with a self-report measure and then to use statistical analyses to look for the
Attributed to Charles Stangor
Saylor URL: http://www
...
org/books/

Saylor
...

Allport (1937) [8] began his work by reducing the 18,000 traits to a set of about 4,500 traitlike
words that he organized into three levels according to their importance
...
Cattell (1990) [9] used a statistical
procedure known as factor analysis to analyze the correlations among traits and to identify the
most important ones
...

Hans Eysenck was particularly interested in the biological and genetic origins of personality and
made an important contribution to understanding the nature of a fundamental personality
trait: extraversion versus introversion (Eysenck, 1998)
...
e
...
Eysenck argued that
extroverts have a greater desire to socialize with others to increase their arousal level, which is
naturally too low, whereas introverts, who have naturally high arousal, do not desire to engage in
social activities because they are overly stimulating
...
According to this model, there are five
fundamental underlying trait dimensions that are stable across time, cross-culturally shared, and
explain a substantial proportion of behavior(Costa & McCrae, 1992; Goldberg, 1982)
...
2 "The Five Factors of the Five-Factor Model of Personality", the five
dimensions (sometimes known as the “Big Five‖) are agreeableness, conscientiousness,
extraversion, neuroticism, and openness to experience
...
)
Attributed to Charles Stangor
Saylor URL: http://www
...
org/books/

Saylor
...
2 The Five Factors of the Five-Factor Model of Personality

Examples of behaviors predicted by
Dimension

Sample items

Description

the trait
Individuals who are highly open to
experience tend to have distinctive and
unconventional decorations in their

“I have a vivid

A general appreciation for art,

home
...
‖

and variety of experience

display
...
‖

for achievement

spontaneous behavior
...
In

people‖; ―I talk to a lot

positive emotions and to seek

groups they like to talk, assert

of different people at

out stimulation and the company themselves, and draw attention to

parties
...


A tendency to be compassionate
and cooperative rather than
“I am interested in

suspicious and antagonistic

along with others
...
‖

concern for social harmony

with those of others
...
They

relaxed‖; ―I get upset

anger, anxiety, or depression;

may have trouble thinking clearly,

easily‖; ―I am easily
Neuroticism

situations as threatening and minor

sometimes called “emotional

making decisions, and coping effectively

disturbed‖

instability‖

with stress
...
saylor
...
org

602

A large body of research evidence has supported the five-factor model
...
[12] The
Big Five dimensions also accurately predict behavior
...
[13] Scores on the Big Five dimensions also predict the
performance of U
...
presidents; ratings of openness to experience are correlated positively with
ratings of presidential success, whereas ratings of agreeableness are correlated negatively with
success (Rubenzer, Faschingbauer, & Ones, 2000)
...
[15]
An advantage of the five-factor approach is that it is parsimonious
...
The Big Five may
also capture other dimensions that have been of interest to psychologists
...
On the other hand, the Big Five factors do not seem to
capture all the important dimensions of personality
...
And there is
evidence that the Big Five factors are not exactly the same across all cultures (Cheung & Leung,
1998)
...
When we say that Malik is friendly, we mean that Malik is friendly today and will be
friendly tomorrow and even next week
...
But what if Malik were found to behave in a friendly way with his family members
but to be unfriendly with his fellow classmates? This would clash with the idea that traits are
stable across time and situation
...
saylor
...
org

603

The psychologist Walter Mischel (1968) [17] reviewed the existing literature on traits and found
that there was only a relatively low correlation (about r =
...
In one relevant study,
Hartshorne, May, Maller, & Shuttleworth (1928) [18] examined the correlations among various
behavioral indicators of honesty in children
...
The correlations among children‘s behavior was low, generally less than r =
...
And similar low correlations were found in adults on other measures,
including dependency, friendliness, and conscientiousness (Bem & Allen, 1974)
...
One possibility is that
the natural tendency for people to see traits in others leads us to believe that people have stable
personalities when they really do not
...
The fact
that people tend to use human personality traits, such as the Big Five, to judge animals in the
same way that they use these traits to judge humans is consistent with this idea (Gosling,
2001)
...
[21]
Research has also shown that people tend to see more traits in other people than they do in
themselves
...
First,
think about a person you know—your mom, your roommate, or a classmate—and choose which
of the three responses on each of the four lines best describes him or her
...

1
...


Skeptical

Trusting

Depends on the situation

Attributed to Charles Stangor
Saylor URL: http://www
...
org/books/

Saylor
...


Quiet

Talkative

Depends on the situation

4
...
As you can see in Figure 11
...
", the participants chose one of the two trait terms more
often for other people than they did for themselves, and chose “depends on the situation‖ more
frequently for themselves than they did for the other people
...


Figure 11
...


Nisbett, Caputo, Legant, and Marecek (1973) found that participants checked off a trait term (such as ―energetic‖ or
―talkative‖) rather than ―depends on the situation‖ less often when asked to describe themselves than when asked to
describe others
...
E
...
, Legant, P
...
(1973)
...
Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 27(2), 154–164
...
saylor
...
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605

The human tendency to perceive traits is so strong that it is very easy to convince people that
trait descriptions of themselves are accurate
...
You have a tendency to be critical
of yourself
...
While you have some personality weaknesses, you are generally able to compensate
for them
...

At times you have serious doubts as to whether you have made the right decision or done the
right thing
...
You probably do criticize yourself at
least sometimes, and you probably do sometimes worry about things
...

Could this description fit you too?
You frequently stand up for your own opinions even if it means that others may judge you
negatively
...
You work to the
fullest extent of your capabilities
...
You sometimes confide in others that you are concerned or worried, but inside you
maintain discipline and self-control
...

The Barnum effect refers to the observation that people tend to believe in descriptions of their
personality that supposedly are descriptive of them but could in fact describe almost anyone
...
People are likely to
accept descriptions of their personality if they think that they have been written for them, even
Attributed to Charles Stangor
Saylor URL: http://www
...
org/books/

Saylor
...
[23] Again, people seem to believe in traits more than
they should
...
One insight was that the relationship between a trait and a
behavior is less than perfect because people can express their traits in different ways (Mischel &
Shoda, 2008)
...
Although the behaviors are very different, they nevertheless all fit with
the meaning of the underlying trait
...
We might not be able to use the personality trait of openness to experience to
determine what Saul will do on Friday night, but we can use it to predict what he will do over the
next year in a variety of situations
...
[25]
Taken together, these findings make a very important point about personality, which is that it not
only comes from inside us but is also shaped by the situations that we are exposed to
...
[26] In fact, behaviorists such as B
...
Skinner explain personality
entirely in terms of the environmental influences that the person has experienced
...
And yet
personality does matter—we can, in many cases, use personality measures to predict behavior
across situations
...
saylor
...
org

607

The MMPI and Projective Tests
One of the most important measures of personality (which is used primarily to assess deviations
from a “normal‖ or “average‖ personality) is
theMinnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory (MMPI), a test used around the world to
identify personality and psychological disorders (Tellegen et al
...
[27] The MMPI was
developed by creating a list of more than 1,000 true-false questions and choosing those that best
differentiated patients with different psychological disorders from other people
...
Some of the most important of these are shown in Table 11
...
The MMPI also has questions that are
designed to detect the tendency of the respondents to lie, fake, or simply not answer the
questions
...
3 Some of the Major Subscales of the MMPI

Abbreviation

Description

What is measured

No
...
saylor
...
org

608

To interpret the results, the clinician looks at the pattern of responses across the different
subscales and makes a diagnosis about the potential psychological problems facing the patient
...
[28]Extensive research has found that the MMPI-2 can accurately predict which of
many different psychological disorders a person suffers from (Graham, 2006)
...
But much of our personality is determined by unconscious processes
of which we are only vaguely or not at all aware
...
Experts then score the responses for clues to personality
...

One commonly used projective test is the Rorschach Inkblot Test, developed by the Swiss
psychiatrist Hermann Rorschach (1884–1922)
...
5 "Rorschach Inkblots")
...
The participants are asked to respond to the inkblots, and their
responses are systematically scored in terms of what, where, and why they saw what they saw
...


Attributed to Charles Stangor
Saylor URL: http://www
...
org/books/

Saylor
...
5 Rorschach Inkblots

The Rorschach Inkblot Test is a projective test designed to assess psychological disorders
...


Attributed to Charles Stangor
Saylor URL: http://www
...
org/books/

Saylor
...
6 "Sample Card From the TAT")
...
The
TAT assumes that people may be unwilling or unable to admit their true feelings when asked
directly but that these feelings will show up in the stories about the pictures
...

Other popular projective tests include those that ask the respondent to draw pictures, such as the
Draw-A-Person test (Machover, 1949), [30] and free association tests in which the respondent
quickly responds with the first word that comes to mind when the examiner says a test word
...
Investigators allow children to play with the dolls and then try to
determine on the basis of the play if the children may have been sexually abused
...
The idea is that when people
view ambiguous stimuli they will describe them according to the aspects of personality that are
most important to them, and therefore bypass some of the limitations of more conscious
responding
...
[31] The reliability of
the measures is low because people often produce very different responses on different
occasions
...
The
projective tests often fail to distinguish between people with psychological disorders and those
without or to correlate with other measures of personality or with behavior
...
saylor
...
org

611

In sum, projective tests are more useful as icebreakers to get to know a person better, to make the
person feel comfortable, and to get some ideas about topics that may be of importance to that
person than for accurately diagnosing personality
...
Trait theories of leadership are theories based on the idea that some people are simply ―natural leaders‖
because they possess personality characteristics that make them effective (Zaccaro, 2007)
...
7 "Varieties of Leaders"
...


[33]

Other research has

found that people with good social skills, such as the ability to accurately perceive the needs and goals of the group
members and to communicate with others, also tend to make good leaders (Kenny & Zaccaro, 1983)
...
Some have considered this in terms of charisma (Sternberg & Lubart, 1995; Sternberg,
2002)
...
Charismatic
leaders express views that support and validate existing group norms but that also contain a vision of what the group
could or should be
...
And research
has found a positive relationship between a leader‘s charisma and effective leadership performance (Simonton,
1988)
...


[37]

Transactional leaders are the more regular leaders, who work with their

subordinates to help them understand what is required of them and to get the job done
...
saylor
...
org

612

the other hand, are more like charismatic leaders—they have a vision of where the group is going, and attempt to
stimulate and inspire their workers to move beyond their present status and to create a new and better future
...
In some cases the situation itself is important
...
Bush‘s ratings as a leader increased dramatically after the
September 11, 2001, terrorist attacks on the World Trade Center
...

In still other cases, different types of leaders may perform differently in different situations
...
Leaders who are
more task-oriented and directive, on the other hand, are more effective when the group is not functioning well and
needs a firm hand to guide it (Ayman, Chemers, & Fiedler, 1995)
...




Personality is driven in large part by underlying individual motivations, where motivation refers to a need or desire that
directs behavior
...
One of these approaches,
known as physiognomy, has been validated by current research
...




The most important and well-validated theory about the traits of normal personality is the Five-Factor Model of
Personality
...
This is in part because people tend to see more traits in other people than they do in

Attributed to Charles Stangor
Saylor URL: http://www
...
org/books/

Saylor
...
Personality predicts behavior better when the behaviors are aggregated or averaged across different
situations
...




Projective measures are measures of personality in which unstructured stimuli, such as inkblots, drawings of social
situations, or incomplete sentences are shown to participants, who are asked to freely list what comes to mind as they
think about the stimuli
...


EXERCISES AND CRITICAL THINKING
1
...
What traits do you enjoy in other people, and what traits
do you dislike?

2
...
What were the personality characteristics
of these people that made them so influential?

on, D
...
Phrenology and the neurosciences: Contributions of F
...
Gall and J
...
Spurzheim
...

[2] Sheldon, W
...
The varieties of human physique: An introduction to constitutional psychology
...

[3] Rule, N
...
, & Ambady, N
...
Democrats and Republicans can be differentiated from their faces
...
O
...
, Adams, R
...
, Jr
...
N
...
Accuracy and awareness in the perception and categorization
of male sexual orientation
...
O
...
, & Hallett, K
...
(2009)
...
Journal of
Experimental Social Psychology, 45(6), 1245–1251
...
Y
...
(2010)
...
Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 46(2), 315–324
...
, Lee, C
...
, & Wood, J
...
(2003)
...
In S
...
Lilienfeld, S
...

Lynn, & J
...
Lohr (Eds
...
39–76)
...

[6] Allport, G
...
, & Odbert, H
...
Trait-names: A psycho-lexical study
...
211
...


Attributed to Charles Stangor
Saylor URL: http://www
...
org/books/

Saylor
...
P
...
, & Ostendorf, F
...
The lexical approach to personality: A historical review of trait taxonomic
research
...

[8] Allport, G
...
(1937)
...
New York, NY: Holt, Rinehart, & Winston
...
B
...
Advances in Cattellian personality theory
...
A
...
),Handbook of personality: Theory and
research (pp
...
New York, NY: Guilford Press
...
(1998)
...
Piscataway, NJ: Transaction
...
T
...
, & McCrae, R
...
(1992)
...
Odessa, FL: Psychological Assessment Resources; Goldberg, L
...
(1982)
...
In C
...
Spielberger & J
...
Butcher (Eds
...
1)
...

[12] Triandis, H
...
, & Suh, E
...
(2002)
...
Annual Review of Psychology, 53(1), 133–160
...
P
...
N
...
(1991)
...
Personnel Psychology, 44(4), 703–742
...
J
...
R
...
S
...
Assessing the U
...
presidents using the revised NEO Personality
Inventory
...

[15] Oldham, J
...
Borderline personality disorder and DSM-5
...

M
...
C
...
The five-factor model and personality disorder empirical literature: A meta-analytic review
...

[16] Cheung, F
...
, & Leung, K
...
Indigenous personality measures: Chinese examples
...

[17] Mischel, W
...
Personality and assessment
...

[18] Hartshorne, H
...
A
...
B
...
K
...
Studies in the nature of character
...

[19] Bem, D
...
, & Allen, A
...
On predicting some of the people some of the time: The search for cross-situational
consistencies in behavior
...

[20] Gosling, S
...
(2001)
...


Attributed to Charles Stangor
Saylor URL: http://www
...
org/books/

Saylor
...
T
...
E
...
Social cognition, from brains to culture
...

[22] Nisbett, R
...
, Caputo, C
...
, & Marecek, J
...
Behavior as seen by the actor and as seen by the
observer
...

[23] Hines, T
...
Pseudoscience and the paranormal (2nd ed
...

[24] Mischel, W
...
(2008)
...
In O
...
John, R
...
Robins, & L
...
Pervin (Eds
...
, pp
...
New York, NY: Guilford Press
...
W
...
F
...
The rank-order consistency of personality traits from childhood to old age: A
quantitative review of longitudinal studies
...
, John, O
...
, Gosling, S
...
, &
Potter, J
...
Development of personality in early and middle adulthood: Set like plaster or persistent change? Journal of
Personality and Social Psychology, 84(5), 1041–1053
...
(1986)
...
Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall
...
, Ben-Porath, Y
...
, McNulty, J
...
, Arbisi, P
...
, Graham, J
...
, & Kaemmer, B
...
The MMPI-2 Restructured
Clinical Scales: Development, validation, and interpretation
...

[28] Garb, H
...
(1998)
...
In H
...
Garb (Ed
...
207–229)
...
P
...
The clinical
interpretation of the Thematic Apperception Test, Rorschach, and other clinical data: A reexamination of statistical versus
clinical prediction
...

[29] Graham, J
...
(2006)
...
New York, NY: Oxford University Press
...
(1949)
...
In
K
...
), Personality projection in the drawing of the human figure: A method of personality investigation (pp
...

Springfield, IL: Charles C
...

[31] Karon, B
...
(2000)
...
Professional Psychology: Research and Practice, 31(2), 230–233; Wood, J
...
, Nezworski, M
...
, Lilienfeld, S
...
, & Garb, H
...
(2003)
...
San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass
...
J
...
Trait-based perspectives of leadership
...


Attributed to Charles Stangor
Saylor URL: http://www
...
org/books/

Saylor
...
K
...
Greatness: Who makes history and why
...
K
...

Personality and intellectual predictors of leadership
...
H
...
Zeidner (Eds
...
Perspectives on individual differences (pp
...
New York, NY: Plenum
...
A
...
J
...
An estimate of variance due to traits in leadership
...

[35] Sternberg, R
...
(1995)
...
New York, NY: Free
Press; Sternberg, R
...
(2002)
...
In R
...
Riggio, S
...
Murphy, & F
...

Pirozzolo (Eds
...
9–28)
...

[36] Simonton, D
...
(1988)
...
Journal of Personality and Social
Psychology, 55, 928–936
...
M
...
Current developments in transformational leadership: Research and applications
...
N
...
, Schippers, M
...
(2010)
...
Journal of Organizational Behavior,
31(4), 609–623
...
, Chemers, M
...
, & Fiedler, F
...
The contingency model of leadership effectiveness: Its level of
analysis
...


11
...


Describe the strengths and limitations of the psychodynamic approach to explaining personality
...


Summarize the accomplishments of the neo-Freudians
...


Identify the major contributions of the humanistic approach to understanding personality
...
In this section we will consider two major theories of the origin of
personality: psychodynamic and humanistic approaches
...
saylor
...
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617

Psychodynamic Theories of Personality: The Role of the Unconscious
One of the most important psychological approaches to understanding personality is based on the
theorizing of the Austrian physician and psychologist Sigmund Freud (1856–1939), who founded
what today is known as the psychodynamic approach to understanding personality
...
[1] Freud is probably the best known of
all psychologists, in part because of his impressive observation and analyses of personality (there
are 24 volumes of his writings)
...

Freud was influenced by the work of the French neurologist Jean-Martin Charcot (1825–1893),
who had been interviewing patients (almost all women) who were experiencing what was at the
time known as hysteria
...

Charcot could find no biological reason for the symptoms
...
Charcot was experimenting
with the use of hypnosis, and he and Freud found that under hypnosis many of the hysterical
patients reported having experienced a traumatic sexual experience, such as sexual abuse, as
children (Dolnick, 1998)
...
These observations led Freud and

Attributed to Charles Stangor
Saylor URL: http://www
...
org/books/

Saylor
...

Freud used the observations that he and Charcot had made to develop his theory regarding the
sources of personality and behavior, and his insights are central to the fundamental themes of
psychology
...
Rather, he believed that all behaviors are predetermined by motivations that lie
outside our awareness, in the unconscious
...
Freud argued that we
rarely understand why we do what we do, although we can make up explanations for our
behaviors after the fact
...
8 "Mind as Iceberg")
...
8 Mind as Iceberg

Attributed to Charles Stangor
Saylor URL: http://www
...
org/books/

Saylor
...


Attributed to Charles Stangor
Saylor URL: http://www
...
org/books/

Saylor
...
[3] According to Freudian theory, the id is the component of personality that forms
the basis of our most primitive impulses
...
According to Freud, the id is driven by the pleasure principle—the desire for
immediate gratification of our sexual and aggressive urges
...

In stark contrast to the id, the superego represents our sense of morality and oughts
...
The
superego strives for perfection, and when we fail to live up to its demands we feel guilty
...
The ego is the largely conscious controller or
decision-maker of personality
...
9 "Ego, Id, and Superego in
Interaction")
...


Attributed to Charles Stangor
Saylor URL: http://www
...
org/books/

Saylor
...
9 Ego, Id, and Superego in Interaction

Freud believed that psychological disorders, and particularly the experience of anxiety, occur
when there is conflict or imbalance among the motivations of the id, ego, and superego
...
Freud believed that the defense
mechanisms were essential for effective coping with everyday life, but that any of them could be
overused (Table 11
...


Attributed to Charles Stangor
Saylor URL: http://www
...
org/books/

Saylor
...
4 The Major Freudian Defense Mechanisms

Defense
mechanism

Definition

Possible behavioral example

Diverting threatening impulses away from the

A student who is angry at her professor for a low

source of the anxiety and toward a more

grade lashes out at her roommate, who is a safer

acceptable source

target of her anger
...


Generating self-justifying explanations for our

A drama student convinces herself that getting the

Rationalization

negative behaviors

part in the play wasn‘t that important after all
...


Retreating to an earlier, more childlike, and

A college student who is worried about an important

Regression

safer stage of development

test begins to suck on his finger
...


Displacement

Projection

A person participates in sports to sublimate
Channeling unacceptable sexual or aggressive
Sublimation

aggressive drives
...


The most controversial, and least scientifically valid, part of Freudian theory is its explanations
of personality development
...
5
"Freud‘s Stages of Psychosexual Development")
...
saylor
...
org

623

and that the appropriate resolution of each stage has implications for later personality
development
...
5 Freud‘s Stages of Psychosexual Development

Stage
Oral

Approximate ages
Birth to 18 months

Description
Pleasure comes from the mouth in the form of sucking, biting, and chewing
...

Pleasure comes from the genitals, and the conflict is with sexual desires for the opposite-

Phallic

3 years to 6 years

sex parent
...


Genital

If prior stages have been properly reached, mature sexual orientation develops
...
During this oral stage, the infant
obtains sexual pleasure by sucking and drinking
...
According to Freud, a child who receives too little oral
gratification (e
...
, who was underfed or neglected) will becomeorally dependent as an adult and
be likely to manipulate others to fulfill his or her needs rather than becoming independent
...


Attributed to Charles Stangor
Saylor URL: http://www
...
org/books/

Saylor
...
During this stage children desire to experience pleasure through bowel
movements, but they are also being toilet trained to delay this gratification
...
If the child received too
little anal gratification (i
...
, if the parents had been very harsh about toilet training), the adult
personality will be anal retentive—stingy, with a compulsive seeking of order and tidiness
...

The phallic stage, which lasts from age 3 to age 6 is when the penis (for boys) and clitoris (for
girls) become the primary erogenous zone for sexual pleasure
...
Freud based his theory of sexual
development in boys (the “Oedipus complex‖) on the Greek mythological character Oedipus,
who unknowingly killed his father and married his mother, and then put his own eyes out when
he learned what he had done
...
Although it was not as important in Freud‘s
theorizing, in girls the phallic stage is often termed the “Electra complex,‖ after the Greek
character who avenged her father‘s murder by killing her mother
...

The latency stage is a period of relative calm that lasts from about 6 years to 12 years
...


Attributed to Charles Stangor
Saylor URL: http://www
...
org/books/

Saylor
...

According to Freud, sexual impulses return during this time frame, and if development has
proceeded normally to this point, the child is able to move into the development of mature
romantic relationships
...

Freud‘s Followers: The Neo-Freudians
Freudian theory was so popular that it led to a number of followers, including many of Freud‘s
own students, who developed, modified, and expanded his theories
...
The neo-Freudian theories are theories based
on Freudian principles that emphasize the role of the unconscious and early experience in
shaping personality but place less evidence on sexuality as the primary motivating force in
personality and are more optimistic concerning the prospects for personality growth and change
in personality in adults
...
Adler proposed that the primary motivation in human personality was not sex or
aggression, but rather the striving for superiority
...
We may attempt to
satisfy our need for superiority through our school or professional accomplishments, or by our
enjoyment of music, athletics, or other activities that seem important to us
...
He argued that children
who are either overly nurtured or overly neglected by their parents are later likely to develop
an inferiority complex—a psychological state in which people feel that they are not living up to
expectations, leading them to have low self-esteem, with a tendency to try to overcompensate for
the negative feelings
...


Attributed to Charles Stangor
Saylor URL: http://www
...
org/books/

Saylor
...

Carl Jung (1875–1961) was another student of Freud who developed his own theories about
personality
...
Jung argued that in addition to the personal
unconscious, there was also acollective unconscious, or a collection of shared ancestral
memories
...
Important archetypes include the mother, the goddess, the
hero, and the mandala or circle, which Jung believed symbolized a desire for wholeness or unity
...

Karen Horney (the last syllable of her last name rhymes with “eye‖; 1855–1952), was a German
physician who applied Freudian theories to create a personality theory that she thought was more
balanced between men and women
...

Horney argued that women‘s sense of inferiority was not due to their lack of a penis but rather to
their dependency on men, an approach that the culture made it difficult for them to break from
...

Another important neo-Freudian was Erich Fromm (1900–1980)
...
Fromm believed that the independence that technology brings
us also creates the need “escape from freedom,‖ that is, to become closer to others
...
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Fromm believed that the primary human motivation was to escape the fear of death, and contemporary research has
shown how our concerns about dying can influence our behavior
...
In
one relevant study, McGregor et al
...
The participants in the study had been
selected, on the basis of prior reporting, to have either politically liberal or politically conservative views
...

In addition, half of the participants (the mortality salient condition) were asked to ―briefly describe the emotions that
the thought of your own death arouses in you‖ and to ―jot down as specifically as you can, what you think will happen
to you as you physically die, and once you are physically dead
...
They were instructed to ―please briefly
describe the emotions that the thought of your next important exam arouses in you‖ and to ―jot down as specifically as
you can, what you think will happen to you as you physically take your next exam, and once you are physically taking
your next exam
...
(The other person did
not exist, but the participants didn‘t know this until the end of the experiment
...
Thus one-half of the participants were provoked by the other person by reading a
statement that strongly conflicted with their own political beliefs, whereas the other half read an essay in which the
other person‘s views supported their own (liberal or conservative) beliefs
...
Furthermore, they were told that it was necessary for the
participants in the research to administer the food samples to each other
...
In addition, the participants read some information about the other
person that indicated that he very much disliked eating spicy food
...
saylor
...
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628

was really hot!) and then instructed to place a quantity of it into a cup for the other person to sample
...

As you can see in Figure 11
...

found that the participants who had not been reminded of their own death, even if they had been insulted by the
partner, did not retaliate by giving him a lot of hot sauce to eat
...
McGregor et al
...
When we are concerned about dying we become more motivated to defend these important beliefs from the
challenges made by others, in this case by aggressing through the hot sauce
...
10Aggression as a Function of Mortality Salience and Provocation

Participants who had been provoked by a stranger who disagreed with them on important opinions, and who had
also been reminded of their own death, administered significantly more unpleasant hot sauce to the partner than
did the participants in the other three conditions
...
A
...
D
...
, Solomon, S
...
, Simon,
L
...
(1998)
...
Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 74(3), 590–605
...
saylor
...
org

629

Freud has probably exerted a greater impact on the public‘s understanding of personality than
any other thinker, and he has also in large part defined the field of psychology
...

Nevertheless, Freud‘s theories, as well as those of the neo-Freudians, have in many cases failed
to pass the test of empiricism, and as a result they are less influential now than they have been in
the past (Crews, 1998)
...

As examples, although Freud claimed that children exposed to overly harsh toilet training would
become fixated in the anal stage and thus be prone to excessive neatness, stinginess, and
stubbornness in adulthood, research has found few reliable associations between toilet training
practices and adult personality (Fisher & Greenberg, 1996)
...
And yet the psychological disorders that Freud
thought we caused by this repression have not decreased
...
For example,
studies have failed to yield evidence for the existence of repression
...
[7] Although we may attempt to push information that is anxiety-arousing into
our unconscious, this often has the ironic effect of making us think about the information even
more strongly than if we hadn‘t tried to repress it (Newman, Duff, & Baumeister, 1997)
...
saylor
...
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630

explained in terms of the brain‘s inability to form long-term memories than in terms of
repression
...

A particular problem for testing Freudian theories is that almost anything that conflicts with a
prediction based in Freudian theory can be explained away in terms of the use of a defense
mechanism
...
But a
man who expresses no anger at all toward the father also may be seen as experiencing the
Oedipus complex by repressing the anger
...

In terms of the important role of the unconscious, Freud seems to have been at least in part
correct
...
[10] And yet, although our
unconscious motivations influence every aspect of our learning and behavior Freud probably
overestimated the extent to which these unconscious motivations are primarily sexual and
aggressive
...
But the fundamental ideas about personality that Freud proposed, as well as
the use of talk therapy as an essential component of therapy, are nevertheless still a major part of
psychology and are used by clinical psychologists every day
...
In contrast to the proponents of psychoanalysis, humanists
Attributed to Charles Stangor
Saylor URL: http://www
...
org/books/

Saylor
...
Arguing that people are free to choose their own lives and make
their own decisions, humanistic psychologists focused on the underlying motivations that they
believed drove personality, focusing on the nature of the self-concept,the set of beliefs about who
we are, and self-esteem, our positive feelings about the self
...
11 "Maslow‘s
Hierarchy of Needs")
...
Maslow argued that only when people are able
to meet the lower-level needs are they able to move on to achieve the higher-level needs of selfesteem, and eventually self-actualization, which is the motivation to develop our innate potential
to the fullest possible extent
...
, Helen Keller, and Mahatma Gandhi had been able to lead such successful and
productive lives
...
They tend to have a few deep friendships
rather than many superficial ones, and are generally private
...
Self-actualized people are also likely to have peak experiences, or
transcendent moments of tranquility accompanied by a strong sense of connection with others
...
11 Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs

Attributed to Charles Stangor
Saylor URL: http://www
...
org/books/

Saylor
...
The highest of these motivations is
self-actualization
...
Rogers was positive
about human nature, viewing people as primarily moral and helpful to others, and believed that
we can achieve our full potential for emotional fulfillment if the self-concept is characterized
byunconditional positive regard—a set of behaviors including being genuine, open to
experience, transparent, able to listen to others, and self-disclosing and empathic
...
Unconditional positive regard allows us to admit our
fears and failures, to drop our pretenses, and yet at the same time to feel completely accepted for
what we are
...
[12]

Attributed to Charles Stangor
Saylor URL: http://www
...
org/books/

Saylor
...
g
...
Today the positive psychology movement argues for many of these ideas, and
research has documented the extent to which thinking positively and openly has important
positive consequences for our relationships, our life satisfaction, and our psychological and
physical health (Seligman & Csikszentmihalyi, 2000)
...
These researchers focused on
the types of emotional distress that we might experience as a result of how we are currently evaluating our selfconcept
...
Furthermore, Higgins argues that different types
of self-discrepancies lead to different types of negative emotions
...
, 1986),

[15]

participants were first asked to

describe themselves using a self-report measure
...
Then, participants also listed 10 thoughts that they
thought described the type of person they would ―ideally like to be‖ (the ideal self-concept) as well as 10 thoughts
describing the way that someone else—for instance, a parent—thinks they ―ought to be‖ (the ought self-concept)
...
Those with low self-concept discrepancies were those who
listed similar traits on all three lists
...
The other half of the participants, those
with high self-concept discrepancies, were those for whom the traits listed on the ideal and ought lists were very
different from those listed on the actual self list
...


Attributed to Charles Stangor
Saylor URL: http://www
...
org/books/

Saylor
...
After obtaining this baseline measure Higgins activated either ideal or ought discrepancies for
the participants
...
Participants in the ought self-priming condition listed their
own and their parents‘ beliefs concerning their duty and obligations
...

As you can see in Figure 11
...
For high
self-concept discrepancy participants, however, priming the ideal self-concept increased their sadness and dejection,
whereas priming the ought self-concept increased their anxiety and agitation
...

Figure 11
...
saylor
...
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635

Higgins and his colleagues documented the impact of self-concept discrepancies on emotion
...
For
those with high self-concept discrepancies (left bars), priming the ideal self increased dejection whereas priming the
ought self increased agitation
...
T
...
N
...
, & Strauman, T
...
Self-discrepancies and
emotional vulnerability: How magnitude, accessibility, and type of discrepancy influence affect
...

One of the critical aspects of Higgins‘s approach is that, as is our personality, our feelings are also influenced both by
our own behavior and by our expectations of how other people view us
...


Attributed to Charles Stangor
Saylor URL: http://www
...
org/books/

Saylor
...




For Freud the mind was like an iceberg, with the many motivations of the unconscious being much larger, but also out
of sight, in comparison to the consciousness of which we are aware
...




Freud proposed that we use defense mechanisms to cope with anxiety and to maintain a positive self-image
...




The neo-Freudian theorists, including Adler, Jung, Horney, and Fromm, emphasized the role of the unconscious and
early experience in shaping personality, but placed less evidence on sexuality as the primary motivating force in
personality
...


EXERCISES AND CRITICAL THINKING
1
...


Based on your understanding of humanistic theories, how would you try to change your behavior to better meet the
underlying motivations of security, acceptance, and self-realization?

3
...
Do you have an actual-ideal or actual-ought discrepancy? Which one is
more important for you, and why?

[1] Roudinesco, E
...
Why psychoanalysis? New York, NY: Columbia University Press; Taylor, E
...
The mystery of
personality: A history of psychodynamic theories
...


Attributed to Charles Stangor
Saylor URL: http://www
...
org/books/

Saylor
...
(1998)
...
New York, NY: Simon &
Schuster
...
(1923/1949)
...
London, England: Hogarth Press
...
A
...
D
...
, Solomon, S
...
, Simon, L
...
(1998)
...
Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 74(3), 590–605
...
C
...
Unauthorized Freud: Doubters confront a legend
...

[6] Fisher, S
...
P
...
Freud scientifically reappraised: Testing the theories and therapy
...

[7] Kihlstrom, J
...
(1997)
...
American Psychologist, 52(9), 994–995
...
S
...
J
...
F
...
A new look at defensive projection: Thought suppression, accessibility,
and biased person perception
...

[9] Baddeley, J
...
, & Pennebaker, J
...
(2009)
...
In W
...
O’Donohue & J
...
Fisher (Eds
...
295–299)
...

[10] Kihlstrom, J
...
(1987)
...
Science, 237(4821), 1445–1452
...
Motivation and personality (2nd ed
...

[12] Prochaska, J
...
, & Norcross, J
...
(2007)
...
Pacific Grove, CA:
Brooks/Cole; Yalom, I
...
Introduction
...
Rogers, A way of being
...
New York, NY: Houghton Mifflin
...
E
...
, & Csikszentmihalyi, M
...
Positive psychology: An introduction
...

[14] Higgins, E
...
, Bond, R
...
, Klein, R
...
(1986)
...
Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 51(1), 5–15; Strauman, T
...
,
& Higgins, E
...
(1988)
...
Journal of Personality, 56(4), 685–707
...
T
...
N
...
, & Strauman, T
...
Self-discrepancies and emotional vulnerability: How magnitude,
accessibility, and type of discrepancy influence affect
...


Attributed to Charles Stangor
Saylor URL: http://www
...
org/books/

Saylor
...
3 Is Personality More Nature or More Nurture? Behavioral and
Molecular Genetics
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
1
...


2
...


3
...


One question that is exceedingly important for the study of personality concerns the extent to
which it is the result of nature or nurture
...
If nurture is more important,
however, then our experiences are likely to be particularly important, and we may be able to
flexibly alter our personalities over time
...
But we will also see that genetics does not determine
everything
...
One of each pair comes
from your father, and the other comes from your mother
...
A gene is the basic biological unit that transmits characteristics from one
generation to the next
...

The genes of different members of the same species are almost identical
...
9% the same as the DNA in my genes and in the DNA of every
other human being
...
These abilities and characteristics are known as instincts—complex inborn patterns
of behaviors that help ensure survival and reproduction(Tinbergen, 1951)
...
saylor
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639

have different instincts
...

But the strength of different traits and behaviors also varies within species
...
These differences
are determined in part by the small amount (in humans, the 0
...

Personality is not determined by any single gene, but rather by the actions of many genes
working together
...
Furthermore, even
working together, genes are not so powerful that they can control or create our personality
...
Furthermore, genetic factors always work with
environmental factors to create personality
...
For example, a person may have a genetic variant that is known to increase his or
her risk for developing emphysema from smoking
...


Studying Personality Using Behavioral Genetics
Perhaps the most direct way to study the role of genetics in personality is to selectively breed
animals for the trait of interest
...
If the selective breeding creates offspring with even stronger traits, then we can assume
that the trait has genetic origins
...
saylor
...
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640

how worms respond to stimuli, how fish develop courtship rituals, how rats differ in play, and
how pigs differ in their responses to stress
...
For this psychologists rely onbehavioral genetics—a variety of research techniques that
scientists use to learn about the genetic and environmental influences on human behavior by
comparing the traits of biologically and nonbiologically related family members (Baker,
2010)
...

A family study starts with one person who has a trait of interest—for instance, a developmental
disorder such as autism—and examines the individual’s family tree to determine the extent to
which other members of the family also have the trait
...
The scientists then analyze the patterns of the trait in the family
members to see the extent to which it is shared by closer and more distant relatives
...
In
a twin study, researchers study the personality characteristics of twins
...
The idea is that if the twins are raised
in the same household, then the twins will be influenced by their environments to an equal
degree, and this influence will be pretty much equal for identical and fraternal twins
...

In a twin study, the data from many pairs of twins are collected and the rates of similarity for
identical and fraternal pairs are compared
...
saylor
...
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the extent to which the trait for one twin is associated with the trait in the other twin
...
e
...

Shared environment determinants are indicated when the correlation coefficients for identical
and fraternal twins are greater than zero and also very similar
...

Nonshared environment is indicated when identical twins do not have similar traits
...
Nonshared environmental factors are the experiences that make
individuals within the same family less alike
...

In the typical twin study, all three sources of influence are operating simultaneously, and it is
possible to determine the relative importance of each type
...
Evidence for genetic influence on a trait is found when children who
have been adopted show traits that are more similar to those of their biological parents than to
those of their adoptive parents
...

The results of family, twin, and adoption studies are combined to get a better idea of the
influence of genetics and environment on traits of interest
...
6 "Data From Twin and
Adoption Studies on the Heritability of Various Characteristics" presents data on the correlations
Attributed to Charles Stangor
Saylor URL: http://www
...
org/books/

Saylor
...
[3]

Table 11
...
14

0
...
47

0
...
06

0
...
16

0
...
46

50

56

0
...
52

0
...
52

0
...

Sources: Långström, N
...
, Carlström, E
...
(2008)
...
Archives of Sexual Behavior, doi:10
...
C
...
Genes and environment in personality development
...
saylor
...
org

643

Publications, Inc; McGue, M
...
T
...
Genetic influence on risk of divorce
...
, Fulker, D
...
, Corley, R
...
C
...
Nature, nurture, and cognitive
development from 1 to 16 years: A parent-offspring adoption study
...
, Lykken, D
...
, Bouchard, T
...
, Wilcox, K
...
, Segal, N
...
, & Rich, S
...
Personality similarity in twins reared
apart and together
...


If you look in the second column of Table 11
...

This column represents the pure effects of genetics, in the sense that environmental differences
have been controlled to be a small as possible
...
Fingerprint patterns are very highly determined by our genetics (r =

...

You can also see from the table that, overall, there is more influence of nature than of parents
...
These results show that genetics has a strong influence
on personality, and helps explain why Elyse and Paula were so similar when they finally met
...
6 "Data From Twin and Adoption
Studies on the Heritability of Various Characteristics" that the correlations between identical
twins (column 2) and heritability estimates for most traits (column 6) are substantially less than
1
...
[4] For instance, for sexual orientation the estimates of heritability vary from
18% to 39% of the total across studies, suggesting that 61% to 82% of the total influence is due
to environment
...
As you can see by looking in column 7 of Table 11
...
saylor
...
org

644

From Twin and Adoption Studies on the Heritability of Various Characteristics", research finds
that the influence of shared environment (i
...
, the effects of parents or other caretakers) plays
little or no role in adult personality (Harris, 2006)
...
By the time we reach adulthood, the impact of shared environment on our
personalities is weak at best (Roberts & DelVecchio, 2000)
...

If parents are not providing the environmental influences on the child, then what is? The last
column in Table 11
...
You can see that these factors—the largely
unknown things that happen to us that make us different from other people—often have the
largest influence on personality
...
,
2003 Strachan & Read, 1999)
...
[8] Molecular genetics researchers have also developed new techniques that allow them to
find the locations of genes within chromosomes and to identify the effects those genes have
when activated or deactivated
...
saylor
...
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645

One approach that can be used in animals, usually in laboratory mice, is the knockout study
...
[9] The
researchers harvest embryonic stem cells from mouse embryos and then modify the DNA of the
cells
...
‖ The cells are then injected into the embryos of other mice that are implanted into the
uteruses of living female mice
...
Research has found that removing
or changing genes in mice can affect their anxiety, aggression, learning, and socialization
patterns
...
In the lab, the DNA is extracted from the sampled cells and is combined with a solution
containing a marker for the particular genes of interest as well as a fluorescent dye
...
The more the gene is expressed, the stronger the reaction
...
The DNA of the two groups is compared to see
which genes differ between them
...
Research using molecular genetics has found genes associated with a variety of
personality traits including novelty-seeking (Ekelund, Lichtermann, Järvelin, & Peltonen,
1999), [10] attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (Waldman & Gizer, 2006), [11] and smoking
behavior (Thorgeirsson et al
...
[12]

Reviewing the Literature: Is Our Genetics Our Destiny?
Over the past two decades scientists have made substantial progress in understanding the
important role of genetics in behavior
...
saylor
...
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646

traits, genetics is more important than parental influence
...
The results of these
studies might lead you to believe that your destiny is determined by your genes, but this would
be a mistaken assumption
...
Over time we will learn even
more about the role of genetics, and our conclusions about its influence will likely change
...
Although these critiques may not change the overall
conclusions, it must be kept in mind that these findings are relatively new and will certainly be
updated with time (Plomin, 2000)
...
In fact, the major influence on personality is nonshared environmental influences,
which include all the things that occur to us that make us unique individuals
...

The genetic differences that exist at birth may be either amplified or diminished over time
through environmental factors
...
As a result, even genetically identical
twins have distinct personalities, resulting in large part from environmental effects
...
Although we do inherit our genes, we do not inherit personality in any fixed sense
...
saylor
...
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647

unfolds day to day
...

KEY TAKEAWAYS


Genes are the basic biological units that transmit characteristics from one generation to the next
...




Behavioral genetics refers to a variety of research techniques that scientists use to learn about the genetic and
environmental influences on human behavior
...




Overall, genetics has more influence than do parents on shaping our personality
...




The largely unknown environmental influences, known as the nonshared environmental effects, have the largest
impact on personality
...


EXERCISES AND CRITICAL THINKING
1
...
Do they seem to be very similar to each other, or does it seem that their differences
outweigh their similarities?

2
...
What does it mean to say that genetics
“determines” or “does not determine” our personality?

[1] Tinbergen, N
...
The study of instinct (1st ed
...

[2] Baker, C
...
Behavioral genetics: An introduction to how genes and environments interact through development to
shape differences in mood, personality, and intelligence
...
aaas
...
pdf
[3] Bouchard, T
...
, Lykken, D
...
, McGue, M
...
L
...
(1990)
...
Science, 250(4978), 223–228
...
sciencemag
...
, & Waldron, M
...
Nonshared environment: A theoretical, methodological, and quantitative
review
...


Attributed to Charles Stangor
Saylor URL: http://www
...
org/books/

Saylor
...
R
...
No two alike: Human nature and human individuality
...

[6] Roberts, B
...
, & DelVecchio, W
...
(2000)
...
Psychological Bulletin, 126(1), 3–25
...
, Gernsbacher, M
...
, Crabbe, J
...
, Gottesman, I
...
, Hewitt, J
...
(2003)
...
American Psychologist, 58(4), 318–319; Strachan, T
...
P
...
Human
molecular genetics(2nd ed
...
ncbi
...
nih
...
fcgi?book=hmg&part=A2858
[8] Human Genome Project
...
Information
...
ornl
...
shtml
[9] Crusio, W
...
, Goldowitz, D
...
, & Wolfer, D
...
Standards for the publication of mouse mutant studies
...

[10] Ekelund, J
...
, Järvelin, M
...
, & Peltonen, L
...
Association between novelty seeking and the type 4
dopamine receptor gene in a large Finnish cohort sample
...

[11] Waldman, I
...
, & Gizer, I
...
(2006)
...
Clinical Psychology Review,
26(4), 396–432
...
E
...
, Sulem, P
...
, Wiste, A
...
P
...
(2008)
...
Nature, 452(7187), 638–641
...
(2000)
...
International Journal of Behavioral Development, 24(1), 30–34
...
4 Chapter Summary
Personality is defined as an individual‘s consistent patterns of feeling, thinking, and behaving
...

Personalities are characterized in terms of traits, which are relatively enduring characteristics that
influence our behavior across many situations
...

Attributed to Charles Stangor
Saylor URL: http://www
...
org/books/

Saylor
...
Some popular measures of personality, such as the Myers-Briggs Type Indicator
(MBTI), do not have reliability or construct validity and therefore are not useful measures of
personality
...
The Big Five dimensions are cross-culturally valid and accurately predict behavior
...

A difficulty of the trait approach to personality is that there is often only a low correlation
between the traits that a person expresses in one situation and those that he or she expresses in
other situations
...

People may believe in the existence of traits because they use their schemas to judge other
people, leading them to believe that traits are more stable than they really are
...

An important personality test is the Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory (MMPI) used
to detect personality and psychological disorders
...
The advantage of projective tests is that they are less direct, but empirical evidence
supporting their reliability and construct validity is mixed
...

The psychodynamic approach to understanding personality, begun by Sigmund Freud, is based
on the idea that all behaviors are predetermined by motivations that lie outside our awareness, in
Attributed to Charles Stangor
Saylor URL: http://www
...
org/books/

Saylor
...
Freud proposed that the mind is divided into three components: id, ego, and
superego, and that the interactions and conflicts among the components create personality
...

Freud argued that personality is developed through a series of psychosexual stages, each
focusing on pleasure from a different part of the body, and that the appropriate resolution of each
stage has implications for later personality development
...

Freudian theory led to a number of followers known as the neo-Freudians, including Adler, Jung,
Horney, and Fromm
...
The
idea of unconditional positive regard championed by Carl Rogers has led in part to the positive
psychology movement, and it is a basis for almost all contemporary psychological therapy
...

Personality is not determined by any single gene, but rather by the actions of many genes
working together
...
These studies partition variability in
personality into the influence of genetics (known as heritability), shared environment, and
nonshared environment
...
The major influence on personality is
nonshared environmental influences
...
saylor
...
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In addition to the use of behavioral genetics, our understanding of the role of biology in
personality recently has been dramatically increased through the use of molecular genetics, the
study of which genes are associated with which personality traits in animals and humans
...
saylor
...
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Chapter 12
Defining Psychological Disorders
When Minor Body Imperfections Lead to Suicide
―I think we probably noticed in his early teens that he became very conscious about aspects of his appearance…he
began to brood over it quite a lot,‖ said Maria as she called in to the talk radio program to describe her son Robert
...
A friend had commented that he had a ―fat‖
stomach, and Robert began to cut down on eating
...

Robert scrutinized his face and body in the mirror for hours, finding a variety of imagined defects
...
―I should say it wasn‘t very significant, but it was significant to him
...
In his sophomore
year of high school, he had cosmetic surgery to remove it
...
He asked his parents for a $10,000 loan, which he said was for overseas study
...
Then, dissatisfied with the results, he had the procedure
reversed
...
His mother told the radio host,
At the time we were really happy because we thought that finally we actually knew what we were trying to
fight and to be quite honest, I must admit I thought well it sounds pretty trivial
...

However, a lighthearted comment from a friend about a noticeable vein in his forehead prompted a relapse
...
When that didn‘t solve all his problems as he had hoped, he attempted to have the
procedure reversed but learned that it would require complicated microsurgery
...

Robert committed suicide shortly afterward, in 2001 (Mitchell, 2002)
...
saylor
...
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[1] Mitchell, N
...
(2002, April 28)
...
” All in the mind
...
Retrieved fromhttp://www
...
net
...
htm

12
...


Define “psychological disorder” and summarize the general causes of disorder
...


Explain why it is so difficult to define disorder, and how the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental
Disorders (DSM) is used to make diagnoses
...


Describe the stigma of psychological disorders and their impact on those who suffer from them
...
This emphasis
on abnormal psychology—the application of psychological science to understanding and
treating mental disorders—is appropriate, as more psychologists are involved in the diagnosis
and treatment of psychological disorder than in any other endeavor, and these are probably the
most important tasks psychologists face
...
The impact of mental
illness is particularly strong on people who are poorer, of lower socioeconomic class, and from
disadvantaged ethnic groups
...
Thus the
understanding and treatment of psychological disorder has broad implications for the everyday
life of many people
...
1 "One-Year Prevalence Rates for Psychological Disorders in the
United States, 2001–2003" shows the prevalence (i
...
, the frequency of occurrence of a given
condition in a population at a given time) of some of the major psychological disorders in the
United States
...
saylor
...
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654

Table 12
...
2

81,744,000

Any anxiety disorder

18
...
7

27,144,000

Social phobia

6
...
8

2,496,000

Generalized anxiety disorder

3
...
7

8,424,000

Obsessive-compulsive disorder

1
...
5

10,920,000

9
...
7

20,904,000

Bipolar disorder

2
...
0

3,120,000

Antisocial personality disorder

1
...
5

4,680,000

Anorexia nervosa

0
...
8

11,856,000

Alcohol use disorder

4
...
8

5,616,000

Any mood disorder

Schizophrenia
Personality disorders

Attributed to Charles Stangor
Saylor URL: http://www
...
org/books/

Saylor
...
4

16,848,000

Diabetes*

10
...

Sources: Kessler, R
...
, Chiu, W
...
, Demler, O
...
E
...
Prevalence, severity, and comorbidity of 12month DSM-IV disorders in the National Comorbidity Survey Replication
...
E
...
S
...
N
...
A
...
Revised prevalence based estimates of
mental disorders in the United States: Using a clinical significance criterion to reconcile 2 surveys‘ estimates
...


In this chapter our focus is on the disorders themselves
...
Then
in Chapter 13 "Treating Psychological Disorders", we will turn to consider the treatment of these
disorders through psychotherapy and drug therapy
...
[2] Psychological disorders have much in common
with other medical disorders
...
Like medical
problems, psychological disorders have both biological (nature) as well as environmental
(nurture) influences
...
[3]
The bio-psycho-social model of illness is a way of understanding disorder that assumes that
disorder is caused by biological, psychological, and social factors (Figure 12
...
The biological componentof the bio-psycho-social model refers to the
Attributed to Charles Stangor
Saylor URL: http://www
...
org/books/

Saylor
...
Particularly
important are genetic characteristics that make some people more vulnerable to a disorder than
others and the influence of neurotransmitters
...
Thesocial component of the bio-psycho-social model refers to the
influences on disorder due to social and cultural factors such as socioeconomic status,
homelessness, abuse, and discrimination
...
1 The Bio-Psycho-Social Model

Attributed to Charles Stangor
Saylor URL: http://www
...
org/books/

Saylor
...


To consider one example, the psychological disorder of schizophrenia has a biological cause
because it is known that there are patterns of genes that make a person vulnerable to the disorder
(Gejman, Sanders, & Duan, 2010)
...
[5] Similarly, mood and anxiety disorders are caused in part by genetic factors such as
hormones and neurotransmitters, in part by the individual‘s particular thought patterns, and in
part by the ways that other people in the social environment treat the person with the disorder
...

Although they share many characteristics with them, psychological disorders are nevertheless
different from medical conditions in important ways
...
Although a medical doctor can see cancer in the lungs using an
MRI scan or see blocked arteries in the heart using cardiac catheterization, there is no
corresponding test for psychological disorder
...

Because there are no clear biological diagnoses, psychological disorders are instead diagnosed
on the basis of clinical observations of the behaviors that the individual engages in
...
‖ The behaviors that
are associated with disorder are in many cases the same behaviors we that engage in our
Attributed to Charles Stangor
Saylor URL: http://www
...
org/books/

Saylor
...
Washing one‘s hands is a normal healthy activity, but it can be overdone
by those with an obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD)
...

Whether a given behavior is considered a psychological disorder is determined not only by
whether a behavior is unusual (e
...
, whether it is “mid‖ anxiety versus “extreme‖ anxiety) but
l
also by whether a behavior is maladaptive—that is, the extent to which it causes distress (e
...
,
pain and suffering) and dysfunction (impairment in one or more important areas of functioning)
to the individual (American Psychiatric Association, 2000)
...
The focus on distress and dysfunction means that behaviors that are simply unusual (such
as some political, religious, or sexual practices) are not classified as disorders
...
2 "Diagnosing Disorder"
...
If you‘re not sure, what other information would you need to know
to be more certain of your diagnosis?

Table 12
...
Her
roommate sometimes hears her and wonders if she is OK
...
He is convinced that he was involved in the start of a nuclear
war and that the only way for him to survive is to find the answer to a difficult riddle
...
She
sometimes stays in her pajamas for the whole weekend, eating chocolate and

Attributed to Charles Stangor
Saylor URL: http://www
...
org/books/

Saylor
...

Frank seems to be afraid of a lot of things
...
But mostly he
fears mice, checking under his bed frequently to see if any are present
...
‖

A trained clinical psychologist would have checked off “need more information‖ for each of the
examples in Table 12
...

Talking to ourselves out loud is unusual and can be a symptom of schizophrenia, but just because
we do it once in a while does not mean that there is anything wrong with us
...
It is
normal to worry about things, but when does worry turn into a debilitating anxiety disorder? And
what about thoughts that seem to be irrational, such as being able to “speak the language of
angels‖? Are they indicators of a severe psychological disorder, or part of a normal religious
experience? Again, the answer lies in the extent to which they are (or are not) interfering with the
individual‘s functioning in society
...

For instance, people diagnosed with anxiety disorders also often have mood disorders (Hunt,
Slade, & Andrews, 2004), [7] and people diagnosed with one personality disorder frequently
suffer from other personality disorders as well
...
Because many psychological
disorders are comorbid, most severe mental disorders are concentrated in a small group of people
Attributed to Charles Stangor
Saylor URL: http://www
...
org/books/

Saylor
...
[8]

Psychology in Everyday Life: Combating the Stigma of Abnormal Behavior
Every culture and society has its own views on what constitutes abnormal behavior and what causes it (Brothwell,
1981)
...
Ancient Hindu tradition attributed psychological disorder to sorcery and witchcraft
...
Remedies included whipping, bloodletting, purges, and trepanation (cutting a hole in the skull)
to release the demons
...
3

Attributed to Charles Stangor
Saylor URL: http://www
...
org/books/

Saylor
...

Source: Courtesy of Peter Treveris,http://commons
...
org/wiki/File:Peter_Treveris_-_
engraving_of_Trepanation_for_Handywarke_of_surgeri_1525
...


Until the 18th century, the most common treatment for the mentally ill was to incarcerate them in
asylums or “madhouses
...
In France, one of the key reformers was Philippe
Pinel (1745–1826), who believed that mental illness was caused by a combination of physical
Attributed to Charles Stangor
Saylor URL: http://www
...
org/books/

Saylor
...
Pinel advocated the
introduction of exercise, fresh air, and daylight for the inmates, as well as treating them gently
and talking with them
...
These reformers saw mental illness as an underlying
psychological disorder, which was diagnosed according to its symptoms and which could be
cured through treatment
...
A stigma refers to a disgrace or defect that indicates that person belongs to a culturally devalued social
group
...
‖
The stigma of mental disorder affects people while they are ill, while they are healing, and even after they have healed
(Schefer, 2003)
...
Stigma about mental illness also leads to employment discrimination, despite the fact that
with appropriate support, even people with severe psychological disorders are able to hold a job (Boardman, Grove,
Perkins, & Shepherd, 2003; Leff & Warner, 2006; Ozawa & Yaeda, 2007; Pulido, Diaz, & Ramirez, 2004)
...


[12]

While media portrayal of mental illness is often sympathetic, negative stereotypes still remain in

newspapers, magazines, film, and television
...
)
Television advertisements may perpetuate negative stereotypes about the mentally ill
...


The most significant problem of the stigmatization of those with psychological disorder is that it slows their recovery
...
Stigma leads to lowered self-esteem, increased

Attributed to Charles Stangor
Saylor URL: http://www
...
org/books/

Saylor
...


[13]

Despite all of these challenges, however, many people overcome psychological disorders and go on to lead productive
lives
...
People do not
choose to have a mental illness
...

Organizations such as the National Alliance on Mental Illness (NAMI; n
...
),

[14]

for example, work to reduce the

negative impact of stigma through education, community action, individual support, and other techniques
...
These criteria are laid out in a 1,000-page manual known as
theDiagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM), a document that provides a
common language and standard criteria for the classification of mental disorders (American
Psychiatric Association, 2000)
...

The first edition of the DSM was published in 1952 on the basis of census data and psychiatric
hospital statistics
...
The last major revision was
the fourth edition (DSM-IV), published in 1994, and an update of that document was produced in
2000 (DSM-IV-TR)
...
The DSM-IV-TR was designed in
conjunction with the World Health Organization‘s 10th version of the International
Classification of Diseases (ICD-10), which is used as a guide for mental disorders in Europe and
other parts of the world
...
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As you can see in Figure 12
...
The axes are important
to remember when we think about psychological disorder, because they make it clear not only
that there are different types of disorder, but that those disorders have a variety of different
causes
...
The axes remind us that when making a diagnosis we must look at the complete
picture, including biological, personal, and social-cultural factors
...
7

The DSM organizes psychological disorders into five dimensions (known as axes) that concern the different aspects
of disorder
...
(2000)
...
, text rev
...


The DSM does not attempt to specify the exact symptoms that are required for a diagnosis
...
saylor
...
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665

the category are said to have that disorder
...
For instance, the disorder of mental retardation can
be classified as mild, moderate, or severe
...
Homosexuality, for example, was listed as a mental disorder in
the DSM until 1973, when it was removed in response to advocacy by politically active gay
rights groups and changing social norms
...
Some of the major categories are shown in Table 12
...
wikipedia
...


Table 12
...
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666

Category and description

Examples
Caffeine abuse

Schizophrenia and other psychotic disorders
Mood disorder
Major depressive disorder
Mood disorders

Bipolar disorder
Generalized anxiety disorder
Panic disorder
Specific phobia including agoraphobia
Obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD)

Anxiety disorders

Posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD)
Conversion disorder
Pain disorder

Somatoform disorders (physical symptoms that do not
have a clear physical cause and thus must be
psychological in origin)

Hypochondriasis
Body dysmorphic disorder (BDD)

Factitious disorders (conditions in which a person acts as
if he or she has an illness by deliberately producing,
feigning, or exaggerating symptoms)
Sexual dysfunctions including erectile and orgasmic disorders
Paraphilias
Gender identity disorders
Sexual disorders

Sexual abuse
Anorexia nervosa

Eating disorders

Bulimia nervosa

Sleep disorders

Narcolepsy

Attributed to Charles Stangor
Saylor URL: http://www
...
org/books/

Saylor
...
Most U
...
insurance companies will not pay for therapy unless the
patient has a DSM diagnosis
...
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668

taking into account the mental disorder in question, the patient‘s medical condition,
psychological and cultural factors, and the way the patient functions in everyday life
...
Let‘s take a closer
look at three common disorders—attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD), autistic
disorder, and Asperger’s disorder—that have recently raised controversy because they are being
diagnosed significantly more frequently than they were in the past
...
He is easily bored and distracted
...
He
is constantly fidgeting or staring into space
...
At home, he chatters constantly
and rarely settles down to do a quiet activity, such as reading a book
...
But
what do the symptoms mean? Does Zack simply have a lot of energy and a short attention span?
Boys mature more slowly than girls at this age, and perhaps Zack will catch up in the next few
years
...

But many parents, often on the advice of the child‘s teacher, take their children to a psychologist
for diagnosis
...
ADHD
is a developmental behavior disorder characterized by problems with focus, difficulty
maintaining attention, and inability to concentrate, in which symptoms start before 7 years of
age (American Psychiatric Association, 2000; National Institute of Mental Health,
Attributed to Charles Stangor
Saylor URL: http://www
...
org/books/

Saylor
...
[16] Although it is usually first diagnosed in childhood, ADHD can remain problematic in
adults, and up to 7% of college students are diagnosed with it (Weyandt & DuPaul, 2006)
...
ADHD is about 70% more
likely to occur in males than in females (Kessler, Chiu, Demler, & Walters, 2005), [18] and is
often comorbid with other behavioral and conduct disorders
...
[19] ADHD is also
being diagnosed much more frequently in adolescents and adults (Barkley, 1998)
...
Are the increases in the diagnosis of ADHD due to the fact that
today‘s children and adolescents are actually more distracted and hyperactive than their parents
were, due to a greater awareness of ADHD among teachers and parents, or due to psychologists
and psychiatrists‘ tendency to overdiagnose the problem? Perhaps drug companies are also
involved, because ADHD is often treated with prescription medications, including stimulants
such as Ritalin
...
Twin studies have found that ADHD is
heritable (National Institute of Mental Health, 2008), [21] and neuroimaging studies have found
that people with ADHD may have structural differences in areas of the brain that influence selfcontrol and attention (Seidman, Valera, & Makris, 2005)
...
, 2003; McCann et al
...
[23] Social factors, such as
family stress and poverty, also contribute to ADHD (Burt, Krueger, McGue, & Iacono, 2001)
...
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Autistic Disorder and Asperger’s Disorder
Jared‘s kindergarten teacher has voiced her concern to Jared‘s parents about his difficulties with
interacting with other children and his delay in developing normal language
...
He often responds to questions or comments with long-winded speeches about
trucks or some other topic that interests him, and he seems to lack awareness of other children‘s
wishes and needs
...
Here he was tested by a pediatric neurologist, a psychologist, and a child
psychiatrist
...
He diagnosed Jared with a pervasive developmental disorder, because
while his comprehension and expressive language was poor, he was still able to carry out
nonverbal tasks, such as drawing a picture or doing a puzzle
...
The psychologist believed that the autism diagnosis was
correct because, like other children with autism, Jared, has a poorly developed ability to see the
world from the perspective of others; engages in unusual behaviors such as talking about trucks
for hours; and responds to stimuli, such as the sound of a car or an airplane, in unusual ways
...
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communicate effectively with others and in which symptoms begin before 7 years of age
...

Imagine how Jared‘s parents must have felt at this point
...
Diagnosing
problems such as Jared‘s is difficult, yet the number of children like him is increasing
dramatically
...
, 2007)
...

Although for many years autism was thought to be primarily a socially determined disorder, in
which parents who were cold, distant, and rejecting created the problem, current research
suggests that biological factors are most important
...
[26] Scientists speculate that autism is caused by an
unknown genetically determined brain abnormality that occurs early in development
...

But does Jared have autism or Asperger‘s? The problem is that diagnosis is not exact (remember
the idea of “categories‖), and the experts themselves are often unsure how to classify behavior
...
The
American Psychiatric Association has recently posted on its website a proposal to eliminate the
term Asperger’s syndrome from the upcoming DSM-V
...

KEY TAKEAWAYS


More psychologists are involved in the diagnosis and treatment of psychological disorder than in any other endeavor,
and those tasks are probably the most important psychologists face
...
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672



The impact on people with a psychological disorder comes both from the disease itself and from the stigma associated
with disorder
...




According to the bio-psycho-social model, psychological disorders have biological, psychological, and social causes
...
The DSM is frequently revised, taking into consideration new knowledge as well as changes in cultural norms
about disorder
...


EXERCISES AND CRITICAL THINKING
1
...


Consider the psychological disorders listed in Table 12
...
Do you
know people who may suffer from any of them? Can you or have you talked to them about their experiences? If so,
how do they experience the illness?

3
...
Do you think that these disorders are overdiagnosed? How might clinicians determine if ADHD is
dysfunctional or distressing to the individual?

[1] Kessler, R
...
, Chiu, W
...
, Demler, O
...
E
...
Prevalence, severity, and comorbidity of 12-month DSMIV disorders in the National Comorbidity Survey Replication
...

[2] Butcher, J
...
, & Hooley, J
...
Abnormal psychology and modern life (13th ed
...


Attributed to Charles Stangor
Saylor URL: http://www
...
org/books/

Saylor
...
(1977)
...
Science, 196(4286), 129
...
1126/science
...
, Sanders, A
...
(2010)
...
Psychiatric Clinics of North
America, 33(1), 35–66
...
1016/j
...
2009
...
003
[5] Sawa, A
...
(2002)
...
Science, 296(5568), 692–695
...
1126/science
...
, Kestler, L
...
, & Hochman, K
...
Schizophrenia: Etiology and
course
...
doi:10
...
psych
...
090902
...
(2000)
...
, text rev
...

[7] Hunt, C
...
, & Andrews, G
...
Generalized anxiety disorder and major depressive disorder comorbidity in the
National Survey of Mental Health and Well Being
...

[8] Kessler, R
...
, Chiu, W
...
, Demler, O
...
E
...
Prevalence, severity, and comorbidity of 12-month DSMIV disorders in the National Comorbidity Survey Replication
...

[9] Brothwell, D
...
Digging up bones: The excavation, treatment, and study of human skeletal remains
...

[10] Schefer, R
...
Addressing stigma: Increasing public understanding of mental illness
...
Retrieved
from http://knowledgex
...
net/policy_health/diversity_hr/Documents/addressing_stigma_senatepres03
...
, Grove, B
...
, & Shepherd, G
...
Work and employment for people with psychiatric
disabilities
...
doi:10
...
182
...
467; Leff, J
...
(2006)
...
New York, NY: Cambridge University Press; Ozawa, A
...
(2007)
...
Journal of Vocational Rehabilitation, 26(2), 105–113;
Pulido, F
...
, & Ramírez, M
...
Work integration of people with severe mental disorder: A pending question
...

[12] Francis, C
...
, Dunt, D
...
(2001)
...

Canberra, Australia: Commonwealth Department of Health & Aged Care
...
, & Bright, J
...
Stigma and mental illness: A review and critique
...


Attributed to Charles Stangor
Saylor URL: http://www
...
org/books/

Saylor
...
(n
...
Fight stigma
...
nami
...
cfm?section=fight_stigma
[15] American Psychiatric Association
...
Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders (4th ed
...

Washington, DC: Author
...
(2000)
...
, text rev
...
(2010)
...
Retrieved
fromhttp://www
...
nih
...
shtml
[17] Weyandt, L
...
, & DuPaul, G
...
ADHD in college students
...

[18] Kessler, R
...
, Chiu, W
...
, Demler, O
...
E
...
Prevalence, severity, and comorbidity of 12-month DSMIV disorders in the National Comorbidity Survey Replication
...

[19] Olfson, M
...
, Marcus, S
...
(2003)
...
American Journal of Psychiatry, 160, 1071–1077
...
A
...
Attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder: A handbook for diagnosis and treatment (2nd ed
...

[21] National Institute of Mental Health
...
Attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD)
...
nimh
...
gov/health/topics/attention-deficit-hyperactivity-disorder-adhd/index
...
, Valera, E
...
(2005)
...
Biological
Psychiatry, 57, 1263–1272
...
, Kahn, R
...
, Auinger, P
...
(2006)
...
S
...
Environmental Health Perspectives, 114(12), 1904–1909; Linnet K
...
,
Obel, C
...
, Henriksen T
...
,…Jarvelin, M
...
Maternal lifestyle factors in pregnancy risk of attentiondeficit/hyperactivity disorder and associated behaviors: Review of the current evidence
...
, Barrett, A
...
, Crumpler, D
...
, Grimshaw, K
...
(2007)
...
Lancet, 370(9598), 1560–1567
...
saylor
...
org

675

[24] Burt, S
...
, Krueger, R
...
, McGue, M
...
G
...
Sources of covariation among attention-deficit/hyperactivity
disorder, oppositional defiant disorder, and conduct disorder: The importance of shared environment
...

[25] Kogan, M
...
, Schieve, L
...
, Perrin, J
...
,…van Dyck, P
...
Prevalence of parent-reported
diagnosis of autism spectrum disorder among children in the US, 2007
...
doi:10
...
20091522
[26] Freitag C
...
(2007)
...
Molecular
Psychiatry, 12(1), 2–22
...
O
...
Editorial: Neurobiology of autism: The new frontier
...


12
...


Outline and describe the different types of anxiety disorders
...


Outline and describe the different types of dissociative disorders
...


Explain the biological and environmental causes of anxiety and dissociative disorders
...
We all feel anxious at times, maybe when we think
about our upcoming visit to the dentist or the presentation we have to give to our class next
week
...
But too much anxiety can be debilitating, and every year millions of people
suffer from anxiety disorders, which arepsychological disturbances marked by irrational fears,
often of everyday objects and situations (Kessler, Chiu, Demler, & Walters, 2005)
...
saylor
...
org

676

For a few months now I’ve had a really bad feeling inside of me
...
It’s like I’m on trial for murder or I’m just waiting to be sent down for
something
...
I used to get it before going out for nights out with friends, and it kinda
stopped me from doing it as I’d rather not go out and stress about the feeling, but now I have it
all the time so it doesn’t really make a difference anymore
...

In addition to their feelings of anxiety, people who suffer from GAD may also experience a
variety of physical symptoms, including irritability, sleep troubles, difficulty concentrating,
muscle aches, trembling, perspiration, and hot flashes
...
In fact, the sufferer
frequently knows, at least cognitively, that there is really nothing to worry about
...
[3] Generalized anxiety disorder is most likely
to develop between the ages of 7 and 40 years, but its influence may in some cases lessen with
age (Rubio & Lopez-Ibor, 2007)
...
I was driving home, my three little girls were in
their car seats in the back, and all of a sudden I couldn‘t breathe, I broke out into a sweat, and my
heart began racing and literally beating against my ribs! I thought I was going to die
...
I remember songs playing on the CD for about 15
Attributed to Charles Stangor
Saylor URL: http://www
...
org/books/

Saylor
...
I was sure I‘d never see them again
...
I slowly got back on the road and drove home
...
(Ceejay,
2006) [5]
Ceejay is experiencing panic disorder, a psychological disorder characterized by sudden attacks
of anxiety and terror that have led to significant behavioral changes in the person’s life
...
Panic attacks
can often be mistaken for heart attacks or other serious physical illnesses, and they may lead the
person experiencing them to go to a hospital emergency room
...

Sufferers are often anxious because they fear that they will have another attack
...
[6] They may also become unsure of the source of their arousal, misattributing it to
situations that are not actually the cause
...

Panic disorder affects about 3% of the American population in a given year
...
The fear experience can range from a sense of unease to a fullblown panic attack
...
A sufferer of arachnophobia
(fear of spiders), for example, may refuse to enter a room until it has been checked thoroughly
for spiders, or may refuse to vacation in the countryside because spiders may be there
...
A person with acrophobia (a fear of

Attributed to Charles Stangor
Saylor URL: http://www
...
org/books/

Saylor
...

A common phobia is social phobia, extreme shyness around people or discomfort in social
situations
...
People with social phobia will often experience physical symptoms in public,
such as sweating profusely, blushing, stuttering, nausea, and dizziness
...
Women are somewhat
more likely than men to suffer from social phobia
...
[7] Typical places that provoke the panic
attacks are parking lots; crowded streets or shops; and bridges, tunnels, or expressways
...

Phobias affect about 9% of American adults, and they are about twice as prevalent in women as
in men (Fredrikson, Annas, Fischer, & Wik, 1996; Kessler, Meron-Ruscio, Shear, & Wittchen,
2009)
...
Table 12
...


Table 12
...
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...
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679

Name

Description

Astraphobia

Fear of thunder and lightning

Claustrophobia

Fear of closed-in spaces

Cynophobia

Fear of dogs

Mysophobia

Fear of germs or dirt

Ophidiophobia

Fear of snakes

Pteromerhanophobia Fear of flying
Social phobia

Fear of social situations

Trypanophobia

Fear of injections

Zoophobia

Fear of small animals

Obsessive-Compulsive Disorders
Although he is best known his perfect shots on the field, the soccer star David Beckham also
suffers from Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder (OCD)
...
I’ll put my Pepsi cans in the fridge and if there’s one too many
then I’ll put it in another cupboard somewhere
...
I’ll go into a hotel room
...

Everything has to be perfect
...
We all get a little obsessive
at times
...
And our everyday compulsions can be useful
...
saylor
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680

more to be sure that we really did turn off the sink faucet or checking the mirror a couple of
times to be sure that our hair is combed are not necessarily bad ideas
...
OCD is diagnosed when the obsessive thoughts are so disturbing and the
compulsive behaviors are so time consuming that they cause distress and significant dysfunction
in a person‘s everyday life
...
Keeping your fridge neat is a good idea; spending
hours a day on it is not
...

Sufferers of OCD may avoid certain places that trigger the obsessive thoughts, or use alcohol or
drugs to try to calm themselves down
...
[10] The
course of OCD varies from person to person
...


Posttraumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD)
“If you imagine burnt pork and plastic; I can still taste it,‖ says Chris Duggan, on his experiences
as a soldier in the Falklands War in 1982
...
‖
When he left the army in 1986, he suffered from PTSD
...
“I was
verbally aggressive, very uncooperative
...
I decided to change the kitchen around one day, get all new stuff, so I threw everything
Attributed to Charles Stangor
Saylor URL: http://www
...
org/books/

Saylor
...
I was 10 stories up in a flat
...

I flooded the bathroom
...
The anxiety may begin months or even years after
the event
...
They may lose
interest in things they used to enjoy; startle easily; have difficulty feeling affection; and may
experience terror, rage, depression, or insomnia
...

PTSD affects about 5 million Americans, including victims of the 9/11 terrorist attacks, the wars
in Afghanistan and Iraq, and Hurricane Katrina
...
[12] PTSD is a
frequent outcome of childhood or adult sexual abuse, a disorder that has its own Diagnostic and
Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM) diagnosis
...
[13]
Risk factors for PTSD include the degree of the trauma‘s severity, the lack of family and
community support, and additional life stressors (Brewin, Andrews, & Valentine,
2000)
...
[15]

Dissociative Disorders: Losing the Self to Avoid Anxiety
On October 23, 2006, a man appeared on the television show Weekend Today and asked America
to help him rediscover his identity
...
He was reunited with family after
Attributed to Charles Stangor
Saylor URL: http://www
...
org/books/

Saylor
...
According to a coworker of Ingram‘s fiancée, even after Ingram
was reunited with his fiancée, his memory did not fully return
...
‖
People who experience anxiety are haunted by their memories and experiences, and although
they desperately wish to get past them, they normally cannot
...

A dissociative disorder is a condition that involves disruptions or breakdowns of memory,
awareness, and identity
...


Dissociative Amnesia and Fugue
Dissociative amnesia is a psychological disorder that involves extensive, but selective, memory
loss, but in which there is no physiological explanation for the forgetting (van der Hart &
Nijenhuis, 2009)
...
These kinds of trauma
include disasters, accidents, physical abuse, rape, and other forms of severe stress (Cloninger &
Dokucu, 2008)
...
[18]
A related disorder, dissociative fugue, is a psychological disorder in which an individual loses
complete memory of his or her identity and may even assume a new one, often far from home
...
The fugue state may last for just a matter of hours or may
continue for months, as it did with Jeffrey Ingram
...
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rapid, but when people recover they commonly have no memory of the stressful event that
triggered the fugue or of events that occurred during their fugue state (Cardeña & Gleaves,
2007)
...

Mason was in therapy for many years trying to integrate these personalities into one complete
self
...

Sybil suffered from the most severe of the dissociative disorders, dissociative identity
disorder
...
[20] Dissociative identity disorder was once known as “multiple personality disorder,‖ and
this label is still sometimes used
...

In some cases of dissociative identity disorder, there can be more than 10 different personalities
in one individual
...
[21] The host personality is the personality in
control of the body most of the time, and the alter personalities tend to differ from each other in
terms of age, race, gender, language, manners, and even sexual orientation (Kluft, 1996)
...
Each
personality has unique memories and social relationships (Dawson, 1990)
...
[24]

Attributed to Charles Stangor
Saylor URL: http://www
...
org/books/

Saylor
...
In part because they are so unusual and difficult to diagnose,
clinicians and researchers disagree about the legitimacy of the disorders, and particularly about
dissociative identity disorder
...
, 2004)
...
Some experts claim that Mason was highly hypnotizable and that her
therapist unintentionally “suggested‖ the existence of her multiple personalities (Miller &
Kantrowitz, 1999)
...
In terms of our
evolutionary experiences, humans have evolved to fear dangerous situations
...
Our evolutionary experience can
account for some modern fears as well
...

Also supporting the role of biology, anxiety disorders, including PTSD, are heritable (Hettema,
Neale, & Kendler, 2001), [27] and molecular genetics studies have found a variety of genes that
are important in the expression of such disorders (Smoller et al
...
,
2009)
...
[29] People who
experience PTSD also have a somewhat smaller hippocampus in comparison with those who do
not, and this difference leads them to have a very strong sensitivity to traumatic events
(Gilbertson et al
...
[30]
Attributed to Charles Stangor
Saylor URL: http://www
...
org/books/

Saylor
...
People who were abused in childhood are more likely to be anxious than
those who had normal childhoods, even with the same genetic disposition to anxiety sensitivity
(Stein, Schork, & Gelernter, 2008)
...
One problem is
that modern life creates a lot of anxiety
...
[32]These changes suggest that most anxiety disorders stem from
perceived, rather than actual, threats to our well-being
...
Just as rats that are
shocked in their cages develop a chronic anxiety toward their laboratory environment (which has
become a conditioned stimulus for fear), rape victims may feel anxiety when passing by the
scene of the crime, and victims of PTSD may react to memories or reminders of the stressful
event
...
A single dog
bite can lead to generalized fear of all dogs; a panic attack that follows an embarrassing moment
in one place may be generalized to a fear of all public places
...
Behaviors become compulsive because they provide relief from
the torment of anxious thoughts
...

In contrast to the anxiety disorders, the causes of the dissociative orders are less clear, which is
part of the reason that there is disagreement about their existence
...
Severe emotional trauma during childhood, such as physical or
sexual abuse, coupled with a strong stressor, is typically cited as the underlying cause (Alpher,
1992; Cardeña & Gleaves, 2007)
...

Attributed to Charles Stangor
Saylor URL: http://www
...
org/books/

Saylor
...
[35]
KEY TAKEAWAYS


Anxiety is a natural part of life, but too much anxiety can be debilitating
...




People who suffer from generalized anxiety disorder experience anxiety, as well as a variety of physical symptoms
...




Phobias are specific fears of a certain object, situation, or activity
...




A common phobia is social phobia, extreme shyness around people or discomfort in social situations
...




People who have survived a terrible ordeal, such as combat, torture, rape, imprisonment, abuse, natural disasters, or
the death of someone close to them, may develop PTSD
...
The dissociation is used as a defense against the trauma
...




Both nature and nurture contribute to the development of anxiety disorders
...


Under what situations do you experience anxiety? Are these experiences rational or irrational? Does the anxiety keep
you from doing some things that you would like to be able to do?

2
...
, Chiu, W
...
, & Walters, E
...
Prevalence, severity, and comorbidity of 12-month DSM-IV disorders
in the National Comorbidity Survey Replication
...


Attributed to Charles Stangor
Saylor URL: http://www
...
org/books/

Saylor
...
(2010, February 28)
...
Mental Health Forum
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mentalhealthforum
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php?t=9359
[3] Kessler, R
...
, Demler, O
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(2005)
...
Archives of General Psychiatry, 62(6), 617–27; Robins, L
...
A
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Psychiatric disorders in America: The Epidemiologic Catchment Area Study
...

[4] Rubio, G
...
(2007)
...
Acta Psychiatric Scandinavica,
115, 372–379
...
(2006, September)
...
Panic Survivor
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panicsurvivor
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php/2007102366/Survivor-Stories/My-Dance-With-Panic
...
, Rutherford, E
...
, Ebsworthy, G
...
(2002)
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Journal
of Abnormal Psychology, 111(1), 107–123
...
(2000)
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, text rev
...

[8] Fredrikson, M
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, Fischer, H
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(1996)
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Behaviour Research and Therapy, 34(1), 33–39
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1016/0005-7967(95)00048-3; Kessler, R
...
,
Shear, K
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(2009)
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In M
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Stein (Eds)
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New York, NY: Oxford University Press
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(2006, April 3)
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Daily Mail
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dailymail
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uk/tvshowbiz/article-381802/The-obsessive-disorder-haunts-life
...
, & Weissman, M
...
The epidemiology and cross-national presentation of obsessive-compulsive
disorder
...
doi:10
...
, & Nestadt, G
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Epidemiology and genetics of obsessive-compulsive disorder
...

[11] Gould, M
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You can teach a man to kill but not to see dying
...
Retrieved
fromhttp://www
...
co
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socialcare2
[12] Hoge, C
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(2006)
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S
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Lancet, 368, 867
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[13] Davidson, J
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Trauma: The impact of post-traumatic stress disorder
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[14] Brewin, C
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, & Valentine, J
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Meta-analysis of risk factors for posttraumatic stress disorder in traumaexposed adults
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doi:10
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68
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748
[15] Brady, K
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, Back, S
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, & Coffey, S
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(2004)
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Current Directions in
Psychological Science, 13(5), 206–209
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, & Nijenhuis, E
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S
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Dissociative disorders
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H
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M
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), Oxford textbook of
psychological disorder (2nd ed
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452–481)
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[17] Cloninger, C
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(2008)
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Totowa, NJ: Humana Press
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1007/978-1-59745-252-6_11
[18] van der Hart, O
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R
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(2009)
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Blaney & T
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Millon (Eds
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New York, NY: Oxford University Press
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, & Gleaves, D
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Dissociative disorders
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M
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psychological disorder and diagnosis (5th ed
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473–503)
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[20] van der Hart, O
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R
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(2009)
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Blaney, & T
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Millon (Eds
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, pp
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New York, NY: Oxford University Press
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M
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Dissociative identity disorder: A controversial diagnosis
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[22] Kluft, R
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(1996)
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InThe Hatherleigh guide to psychiatric
disorders (1st ed
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1, pp
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New York, NY: Hatherleigh Press
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L
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Understanding and cooperation among alter and host personalities
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[24] American Psychiatric Association
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Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders (4th ed
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Washington, DC: Author
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(2005)
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Australian and New Zealand Journal of Psychiatry, 39, 109–110;
Kihlstrom, J
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(2004)
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Clinical Psychology: Science and Practice, 11(1), 34–41; Lilienfeld, S
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, & Lynn, S
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(2003)
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Lynn, & J
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clinical psychology (pp
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New York, NY: Guilford Press; Lipsanen, T
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, Peltola, P
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, Langen, K
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(2004)
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European
Psychiatry, 19(1), 53–55
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, & Kantrowitz, B
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Unmasking Sybil: A reexamination of the most famous psychiatric patient in
history
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11–16
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M
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C
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A review and meta-analysis of the genetic epidemiology of anxiety
disorders
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[28] Smoller, J
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, Fagerness, J
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, Yamaki, L
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,…Stein, M
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Influence of RGS2 on
anxiety-related temperament, personality, and brain function
...

doi:10
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2007
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, Ripke, S
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, Lucae, S
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, Bettecken, T
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(2009)
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Journal of Neural Transmission, 116(6),
649–657
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1007/s00702-008-0075-y
[29] Brown, T
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(2009)
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Behaviour Research and Therapy, 47(6), 487–493
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1016/j
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2009
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016; Damsa, C
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, & Moussally,
J
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Current status of brain imaging in anxiety disorders
...

doi:10
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0b013e328319bd10
[30] Gilbertson, M
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, Shenton, M
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, Ciszewski, A
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, Lasko, N
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, Orr, S
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,…Pitman, R
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(2002)
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Nature Neuroscience, 5(11), 1242
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, Schork, N
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(2008)
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Neuropsychopharmacology, 33(2), 312–
319
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1038/sj
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1301422
[32] Twenge, J
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Generation me
...

[33] Alpher, V
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(1992)
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Journal of Personality Assessment
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doi:10
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, &
Gleaves, D
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Dissociative disorders
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M
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M
...
C
...
), Adult psychological disorder and
diagnosis (5th ed
...
473–503)
...


Attributed to Charles Stangor
Saylor URL: http://www
...
org/books/

Saylor
...
F
...
L
...
J
...
Dissociative tendencies and dissociative disorders
...

[35] Lilienfeld, S
...
, & Lynn, S
...
(2003)
...
In S
...

Lilienfeld, S
...
Lynn, & J
...
Lohr (Eds
...
109–142)
...


12
...


Summarize and differentiate the various forms of mood disorders, in particular dysthymia, major depressive disorder,
and bipolar disorder
...


Explain the genetic and environmental factors that increase the likelihood that a person will develop a mood disorder
...
In most cases we are in a relatively good mood, and this positive mood has some
positive consequences—it encourages us to do what needs to be done and to make the most of
the situations we are in (Isen, 2003)
...
We are more friendly and helpful to others when
we are in a good mood than we are when we are in a bad mood, and we may think more
creatively (De Dreu, Baas, & Nijstad, 2008)
...

It is not unusual to feel “down‖ or “low‖ at times, particularly after a painful event such as the
death of someone close to us, a disappointment at work, or an argument with a partner
...
Mood (or affective) disorders are psychological disorders in which the
Attributed to Charles Stangor
Saylor URL: http://www
...
org/books/

Saylor
...
People who suffer from mood disorders tend to experience more intense—and
particularly more intense negative—moods
...
S
...

The most common symptom of mood disorders is negative mood, also known as sadness
or depression
...
I didn’t really want to do anything
for myself…I couldn’t sit down for a minute really to do anything that took deep
concentration…It was like I had big huge weights on my legs and I was trying to swim and just
kept sinking
...
It was just constantly, constantly just fighting, fighting, fighting, fighting, fighting
...
[4] Recurrence of depressive episodes is fairly common and is
greatest for those who first experience depression before the age of 15 years
...
[5]This gender difference is
consistent across many countries and cannot be explained entirely by the fact that women are
more likely to seek treatment for their depression
...
, 2003)
...
In addition to the loss of interest, productivity, and social contact that accompanies
depression, the person‘s sense of hopelessness and sadness may become so severe that he or she
considers or even succeeds in committing suicide
...
Almost all the people
who commit suicide have a diagnosable psychiatric disorder at the time of their death (American
Attributed to Charles Stangor
Saylor URL: http://www
...
org/books/

Saylor
...
[7]

Behaviors Associated with Depression


Changes in appetite; weight loss or gain



Difficulty concentrating, remembering details, and making decisions



Fatigue and decreased energy



Feelings of hopelessness, helplessness, and pessimism



Increased use of alcohol or drugs



Irritability, restlessness



Loss of interest in activities or hobbies once pleasurable, including sex



Loss of interest in personal appearance



Persistent aches or pains, headaches, cramps, or digestive problems that do not improve with treatment



Sleep disorders, either trouble sleeping or excessive sleeping



Thoughts of suicide or attempts at suicide

Dysthymia and Major Depressive Disorder
The level of depression observed in people with mood disorders varies widely
...
If the depression is mild but long-lasting, they will be diagnosed
with dysthymia, a condition characterized by mild, but chronic, depressive symptoms that last
for at least 2 years
...
Major depressive disorder (clinical depression) is a mental disorder
characterized by an all-encompassing low mood accompanied by low self-esteem and by loss of
interest or pleasure in normally enjoyable activities
...
saylor
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pleasure
...
[8]
About 21 million American adults suffer from a major depressive disorder in any given year; this
is approximately 7% of the American population
...
,
2003)
...
In these cases the depression
includes delusions and hallucinations
...
Over the past several years she had been treated by a
psychologist for depression, but for the past few months she had been feeling a lot better
...
She told her friends and
parents that she had been feeling particularly good—her energy level was high and she was
confident in herself and her life
...
But the trip didn‘t turn out well because Juliana became impulsive,
impatient, and easily angered
...
She danced into
the early morning and ended up having sex with several of the men
...
Juliana was hospitalized, where she was
diagnosed with bipolar disorder
...
saylor
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high‖ to sad and hopeless, and back again, with periods of near-normal mood in between
...
Without treatment, it is likely that Juliana would cycle back into
depression and then eventually into mania again, with the likelihood that she would harm herself
or others in the process
...

Although the normal pattern involves swings from high to low, in some cases the person may
experience both highs and lows at the same time
...
Bipolar disorder is more likely to be diagnosed when it is initially observed at an early
age, when the frequency of depressive episodes is high, and when there is a sudden onset of the
symptoms (Bowden, 2001)
...
(Berrettini,
2006; Merikangas et al
...
[12]Neurotransmitters also play an important role in mood
disorders
...

The brains of those with mood disorders may in some cases show structural differences from
those without them
...
[15] Antidepressant drugs may alleviate depression in part by
increasing neurogenesis (Duman & Monteggia, 2006)
...
saylor
...
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695

Research Focus: Using Molecular Genetics to Unravel the Causes of Depression
Avshalom Caspi and his colleagues (Caspi et al
...

Their research focused on a particular gene, the 5-HTT gene, which is known to be important in the production and
use of the neurotransmitter serotonin
...

People who experience stressful life events, for instance involving threat, loss, humiliation, or defeat, are likely to
experience depression
...
The researchers therefore expected that people with one type of genetic pattern would
show depression following stress to a greater extent than people with a different type of genetic pattern
...
Genetic analysis on the basis of DNA
samples allowed the researchers to divide the sample into two groups on the basis of the characteristics of their 5HTT gene
...

The participants also completed a measure where they indicated the number and severity of stressful life events that
they had experienced over the past 5 years
...
The dependent measure in the study was the level of depression reported by the participant, as
assessed using a structured interview test (Robins, Cottler, Bucholtz, & Compton, 1995)
...
12 "Results From Caspi et al
...
But for the participants who did not have a short allele, increasing stress did not
increase depression (bottom panel)
...

Figure 12
...
, 2003

Attributed to Charles Stangor
Saylor URL: http://www
...
org/books/

Saylor
...
(2003) found that the number of stressful life experiences was associated with increased depression for
people with the short allele of the 5-HTT gene (top panel) but not for people who did not have the short allele
(bottom panel)
...
, Sugden, K
...
E
...
, Craig, I
...
, Harrington, H
...

(2003)
...
Science, 301(5631),
386–389
...


But psychological and social determinants are also important in creating mood disorders and
depression
...
Negative thoughts about ourselves and our relationships to others create negative
moods, and a goal of cognitive therapy for mood disorders is to attempt to change people‘s
Attributed to Charles Stangor
Saylor URL: http://www
...
org/books/

Saylor
...
Negative moods also create negative behaviors toward others,
such as acting sad, slouching, and avoiding others, which may lead those others to respond
negatively to the person, for instance by isolating that person, which then creates even more
depression (Figure 12
...
You can see how it might become difficult for
people to break out of this “cycle of depression
...
13 Cycle of Depression

Negative emotions create negative behaviors, which lead people to respond negatively to the individual, creating
even more depression
...
(1996) [19] found that rates of depression varied greatly among countries, with
the highest rates in European and American countries and the lowest rates in Asian countries
...
People from European and American cultures report
that it is important to experience emotions such as happiness and excitement, whereas the
Chinese report that it is more important to be stable and calm
...
saylor
...
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698

they are not happy or excited but that they are supposed to be, this may increase their depression
(Tsai, Knutson, & Fung, 2006)
...




We all may get depressed in our daily lives, but people who suffer from mood disorders tend to experience more
intense—and particularly more intense negative—moods
...




If a person experiences mild but long-lasting depression, she will be diagnosed with dysthymia
...




Bipolar disorder is characterized by swings in mood from overly “high” to sad and hopeless, and back again, with
periods of near-normal mood in between
...


EXERCISES AND CRITICAL THINKING
1
...
13 "Cycle of Depression"
...


Given the discussion about the causes of negative moods and depression, what might people do to try to feel better on
days that they are experiencing negative moods?

[1] Isen, A
...
(2003)
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...
179–195)
...

[2] De Dreu, C
...
W
...
, & Nijstad, B
...
(2008)
...
Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 94(5), 739–756
...
(2010, April 8)
...
Retrieved
from http://www
...
nih
...
shtml
[4] Kessler, R
...
, Berglund, P
...
, Demler, O
...
, & Walters, E
...
(2005)
...
Archives of General Psychiatry, 62(6), 593–602
...
M
...
Depression and gender: An international review
...


Attributed to Charles Stangor
Saylor URL: http://www
...
org/books/

Saylor
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C
...
, Demler, O, Jin, R
...
, Merikangas, K
...
,…Wang, P
...
(2003)
...
Journal of the American Medical
Association, 289(23), 3095–3105
...
(2010, June 29)
...
Retrieved
from http://www
...
org/c/document_library/get_file?folderId=232&name=DLFE-246
...
(2007)
...
National statistics
...
afsp
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cfm?fuseaction=home
...
S
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Suicide
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...
A
...
), Kaplan & Sadock’s comprehensive textbook of psychiatry
...

[8] Fairchild, K
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(2008)
...
In K
...
Knight (Eds
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New York, NY: Oxford University Press
...
C
...
T
...
, & Walters, E
...
(2005)
...
Archives of General Psychiatry, 62(6), 617–27; Kessler, R
...
,
Berglund, P
...
, Koretz, D
...
R
...
S
...
The epidemiology of major depressive
disorder: Results from the National Comorbidity Survey Replication (NCS-R)
...

[10] Thomas, P
...
(2001)
...
British Medical Journal,
323, 1434
...
L
...
Strategies to reduce misdiagnosis of bipolar depression
...

[12] Berrettini, W
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Genetics of bipolar and unipolar disorders
...
J
...
J
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F
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), Textbook of mood disorders
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, Chakravarti, A
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, Araj, H
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, Burmeister, M,…Takahashi, A
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(2002)
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Biological
Psychiatry, 52(6), 457–477
...
, & Mann, J
...
(2003)
...
In A
...
Kay, & J
...
Lieberman
(Eds
...
New York, NY: John Wiley & Sons
...
, & Ravnkilde, B
...
Hippocampal volume and depression: A meta-analysis of MRI studies
...


Attributed to Charles Stangor
Saylor URL: http://www
...
org/books/

Saylor
...
L
...
S
...
Hippocampal neurogenesis: Opposing effects of stress and antidepressant
treatment
...

[16] Duman, R
...
, & Monteggia, L
...
(2006)
...
Biological Psychiatry, 59,
1116–1127
...
, Sugden, K
...
E
...
, Craig, I
...
, Harrington, H
...
(2003)
...
Science, 301(5631), 386–389
...
N
...
, Bucholtz, K
...
(1995)
...
St
...

[19] Weissman, M
...
, Bland, R
...
, Canino, G
...
, Greenwald, S
...
, Joyce, P
...
,…Yeh, E-K
...
Cross-national
epidemiology of major depression and bipolar disorder
...


[20] Tsai, J
...
, Knutson, B
...
H
...
Cultural variation in affect valuation
...


12
...


Categorize and describe the three major symptoms of schizophrenia
...


Differentiate the five types of schizophrenia and their characteristics
...


Identify the biological and social factors that increase the likelihood that a person will develop schizophrenia
...
Schizophrenia is a serious psychological disorder
marked by delusions, hallucinations, loss of contact with reality, inappropriate affect,
disorganized speech, social withdrawal, and deterioration of adaptive behavior
...
It affects men
and women equally, occurs in similar rates across ethnicities and across cultures, and affects at
any one time approximately 3 million people in the United States (National Institute of Mental
Health, 2010)
...
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after the age of 45 or in children (Mueser & McGurk, 2004; Nicholson, Lenane, Hamburger,
Fernandez, Bedwell, & Rapoport, 2000)
...
[3] As you can see inTable 12
...
[4]Positive symptoms refer to the presence of
abnormal behaviors or experiences (such as hallucinations) that are not observed in normal
people, whereas negative symptoms (such as lack of affect and an inability to socialize with
others) refer to the loss or deterioration of thoughts and behaviors that are typical of normal
functioning
...
[5]Because the patient has lost contact with reality, we say that
he or she is experiencing psychosis, which is a psychological condition characterized by a loss of
contact with reality
...
5 Positive, Negative, and Cognitive Symptoms of Schizophrenia

Positive symptoms
Hallucinations

Negative symptoms
Social withdrawal

Cognitive symptoms
Poor executive control

Delusions (of grandeur or persecution) Flat affect and lack of pleasure in everyday life Trouble focusing
Derailment

Apathy and loss of motivation

Working memory problems

Grossly disorganized behavior

Distorted sense of time

Poor problem-solving abilities

Inappropriate affect

Lack of goal-oriented activity

Movement disorders

Limited speech
Poor hygiene and grooming

Attributed to Charles Stangor
Saylor URL: http://www
...
org/books/

Saylor
...

Auditory hallucinations are the most common and are reported by approximately three quarters
of patients (Nicolson, Mayberg, Pennell, & Nemeroff, 2006)
...
[7] Visual
hallucinations are less common and frequently involve seeing God or the devil (De Sousa,
2007)
...
People with delusions of grandeur believe that they are important, famous, or
powerful
...
Some claim to have been assigned to a
special covert mission (Buchanan & Carpenter, 2005)
...
They may think that people are
able to read their minds and control their thoughts (Maher, 2001)
...
[11]
People suffering from schizophrenia also often suffer from the positive symptom
of derailment—the shifting from one subject to another, without following any one line of
thought to conclusion—and may exhibit grossly disorganized behavior including inappropriate
sexual behavior, peculiar appearance and dress, unusual agitation (e
...
, shouting and swearing),
strange body movements, and awkward facial expressions
...
For example, a patient may laugh uncontrollably
when hearing sad news
...
[12]
Attributed to Charles Stangor
Saylor URL: http://www
...
org/books/

Saylor
...
[13] Patients often
suffer from flat affect, which means that they express almost no emotional response (e
...
, they
speak in a monotone and have a blank facial expression) even though they may report feeling
emotions (Kring, 1999)
...
Some schizophrenics
experience motor disturbances, ranging from complete catatonia and apparent obliviousness to
their environment to random and frenzied motor activity during which they become hyperactive
and incoherent (Kirkpatrick & Tek, 2005)
...
[16]Negative symptoms are predictors of
deteriorated functioning in everyday life and often make it impossible for sufferers to work or to
care for themselves
...
These symptoms include difficulty
comprehending information and using it to make decisions (the lack of executive control),
difficulty maintaining focus and attention, and problems with working memory (the ability to use
information immediately after it is learned)
...
Rather, a variety of biological and environmental risk
factors interact in a complex way to increase the likelihood that someone might develop
schizophrenia (Walker, Kestler, Bollini, & Hochman, 2004)
...
[18]As you can see in Figure 12
...
saylor
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Disposition to Develop Schizophrenia", the likelihood of developing schizophrenia increases
dramatically if a close relative also has the disease
...
15 Genetic Disposition to Develop Schizophrenia

The risk of developing schizophrenia increases substantially if a person has a relative with the disease
...
I
...
Schizophrenia genesis: The origins of madness
...
H
...


Neuroimaging studies have found some differences in brain structure between schizophrenic and
normal patients
...
[19] People
with schizophrenia also frequently show an overall loss of neurons in the cerebral cortex, and
some show less activity in the frontal and temporal lobes, which are the areas of the brain
involved in language, attention, and memory
...
saylor
...
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705

in language and thought processing that is commonly experienced by schizophrenic patients
(Galderisi et al
...
[20]
Many researchers believe that schizophrenia is caused in part by excess dopamine, and this
theory is supported by the fact that most of the drugs useful in treating schizophrenia inhibit
dopamine activity in the brain (Javitt & Laruelle, 2006)
...
, 1996)
...
It also remains unclear whether
observed differences in the neurotransmitter systems of people with schizophrenia cause the
disease, or if they are the result of the disease itself or its treatment (Csernansky & Grace,
1998)
...
Even if a person has an identical twin with schizophrenia, he still has less than a 50%
chance of getting it himself, and over 60% of all schizophrenic people have no first- or seconddegree relatives with schizophrenia (Gottesman & Erlenmeyer-Kimling, 2001; Riley & Kendler,
2005)
...

One hypothesis is that schizophrenia is caused in part by disruptions to normal brain
development in infancy that may be caused by poverty, malnutrition, and disease (Brown et al
...
, 1996; Waddington, Lane, Larkin, O‘Callaghan,
1999)
...
[26] However, it may be that people who develop
schizophrenia are more vulnerable to stress than others and not necessarily that they experience
more stress than others (Walker, Mittal, & Tessner, 2008)
...

Another social factor that has been found to be important in schizophrenia is the degree to which
one or more of the patient‘s relatives is highly critical or highly emotional in their attitude toward
Attributed to Charles Stangor
Saylor URL: http://www
...
org/books/

Saylor
...
Hooley and Hiller (1998)[28] found that schizophrenic patients who ended a stay in a
hospital and returned to a family with high expressed emotion were three times more likely to
relapse than patients who returned to a family with low expressed emotion
...


KEY TAKEAWAYS


Schizophrenia is a serious psychological disorder marked by delusions, hallucinations, and loss of contact with reality
...




Because the schizophrenic patient has lost contact with reality, we say that he or she is experiencing psychosis
...




Negative symptoms of schizophrenia include social withdrawal, poor hygiene and grooming, poor problem-solving
abilities, and a distorted sense of time
...




There is no single cause of schizophrenia
...


EXERCISE AND CRITICAL THINKING
1
...
(2010, April 26)
...
nimh
...
gov/health/topics/schizophrenia/index
...
saylor
...
org

707

[2] Mueser, K
...
, & McGurk, S
...
(2004)
...
Lancet, 363(9426), 2063–2072; Nicolson, R
...
, Hamburger, S
...
, Fernandez, T
...
, & Rapoport, J
...
(2000)
...
Brain Research Review,
31(2–3), 147–156
...
P
...
(2006)
...
In J
...
Lieberman, T
...
Stroup, & D
...
Perkins (Eds
...
187–222)
...

[4] American Psychiatric Association
...
Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders (4th ed
...

Washington, DC: Author; National Institute of Mental Health
...
What is schizophrenia? Retrieved
fromhttp://www
...
nih
...
shtml
[5] Skrabalo, A
...
Negative symptoms in schizophrenia(s): The conceptual basis
...

[6] Nicolson, S
...
, Mayberg, H
...
, Pennell, P
...
, & Nemeroff, C
...
(2006)
...
The American Journal of Psychiatry, 163, 1153–1159
...
1176/appi
...
163
...
1153
[7] National Institute of Mental Health
...
What are the symptoms of schizophrenia? Retrieved
fromhttp://www
...
nih
...
shtml
[8] De Sousa, A
...
Types and contents of hallucinations in schizophrenia
...

[9] Buchanan, R
...
, & Carpenter, W
...
(2005)
...
In B
...
Sadock & V
...
Sadock (Eds
...
Philadelphia, PA: Lippincott Williams & Wilkins
...
A
...
Delusions
...
B
...
E
...
), Comprehensive handbook of psychological disorder (3rd
ed
...
309–370)
...

[11] Buchanan, R
...
, & Carpenter, W
...
(2005)
...
In B
...
Sadock & V
...
Sadock (Eds
...
Philadelphia, PA: Lippincott Williams & Wilkins
...
, Holi, M
...
, & Wahlbeck, K
...
Prevalence of neuroleptic-induced movement disorders in chronic
schizophrenia patients
...
I
...
F
...
Catatonia and
its treatment
...
doi:10
...
(2000)
...
Harvard Brain, 7, 7–10
...
M
...
Emotion in schizophrenia: Old mystery, new understanding
...


Attributed to Charles Stangor
Saylor URL: http://www
...
org/books/

Saylor
...
, & Tek, C
...
Schizophrenia: Clinical features and psychological disorder concepts
...
J
...
V
...
), Kaplan & Sadock’s comprehensive textbook of psychiatry (pp
...
Philadelphia, PA: Lippincott Williams &
Wilkins
...
S
...
H
...
Antecedents, symptom progression, and long-term outcome of the deficit
syndrome in schizophrenia
...

[17] Walker, E
...
, Bollini, A
...
(2004)
...
Annual Review of Psychology,
55, 401–430
...
, & Tessner, K
...
Schizophrenia
...

[19] Suddath, R
...
, Christison, G
...
, Torrey, E
...
, Casanova, M
...
, & Weinberger, D
...
(1990)
...
New England Journal of Medicine, 322(12), 789–794
...
, Quarantelli, M
...
, Mucci, A
...
B
...
,…Maj, M
...
Patterns of structural MRI
abnormalities in deficit and nondeficit schizophrenia
...

[21] Javitt, D
...
, & Laruelle, M
...
Neurochemical theories
...
A
...
S
...
O
...
), Textbook
of schizophrenia (pp
...
Washington, DC: American Psychiatric Publishing
...
, Yoneda, H
...
, Ishida, T
...
, Kono, Y
...
(1996)
...
American Journal of Medical Genetics, 67(1), 103–105
...
G
...
A
...
New models of the pathophysiology of schizophrenia: Editors’
introduction
...

[24] Gottesman, I
...
, & Erlenmeyer-Kimling, L
...
Family and twin studies as a head start in defining prodomes and
endophenotypes for hypothetical early interventions in schizophrenia
...
P
...
S
...
Schizophrenia: Genetics
...
J
...
A
...
), Kaplan & Sadock’s comprehensive textbook
of psychiatry (pp
...
Philadelphia, PA: Lippincott Williams & Wilkins
...
S
...
D
...
, Schaefer, C
...
, Wyatt, R
...
, Bresnahan, M
...
S
...
Serologic
evidence of prenatal influenza in the etiology of schizophrenia
...
M
...
(2005)
...
In B
...
Sadock & V
...
Sadock (Eds
...
1381–1395)
...
B
...
, Hock, H
...
, Brown, A
...
, Lin, S
...
, & Gorman, J
...
(1996)
...
saylor
...
org

709

Further evidence
...
L
...
, Larkin, C
...
(1999)
...
Biological Psychiatry, 46(1), 31–9
...
, Mittal, V
...
(2008)
...
Annual Review of Clinical Psychology, 4, 189–216
...
, Mittal, V
...
(2008)
...
Annual Review of Clinical Psychology, 4, 189–216
...
M
...
B
...
Expressed emotion and the pathogenesis of relapse in schizophrenia
...
F
...
H
...
), Origins and development of schizophrenia: Advances in experimental psychopathology (pp
...
Washington, DC: American Psychological Association
...
5 Personality Disorders
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
1
...


2
...


To this point in the chapter we have considered the psychological disorders that fall on Axis I of
the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders(DSM) categorization system
...
Axis II consists primarily of personality disorders
...
Personality
disorders tend to emerge during late childhood or adolescence and usually continue throughout
adulthood (Widiger, 2006)
...


Attributed to Charles Stangor
Saylor URL: http://www
...
org/books/

Saylor
...
6 "Descriptions of the Personality
Disorders (Axis II)"
...
As you consider the personality types described in Table 12
...
Probably you know someone who
seems a bit suspicious and paranoid, who feels that other people are always “ganging up on
him,‖ and who really doesn‘t trust other people very much
...
Or you might have a friend who is overly
dependent on others and can‘t seem to get a life of her own
...
[2] What is
perhaps common to all the disorders is the person‘s inability to accurately understand and be
sensitive to the motives and needs of the people around them
...
6 Descriptions of the Personality Disorders (Axis II)

Personality
Cluster

disorder

Characteristics
Peculiar or eccentric manners of speaking or dressing
...
“Magical
thinking‖ such as belief in ESP or telepathy
...
May
react oddly in conversation, not respond, or talk to self
...
(Possibly a mild form of schizophrenia
...
Apt to challenge the

A
...
saylor
...
Prone to anger

Saylor
...
Often jealous, guarded,
secretive, overly serious
...
Prefers to be alone, little
interest in others
...
Fearful of closeness, with poor social skills, often seen as a

Schizoid

“loner
...
‖ History of deception, crime, legal
problems, impulsive and aggressive or violent behavior
...
Manipulative, careless, callous
...

Unstable moods and intense, stormy personal relationships
...
Self-mutilation or suicidal threats or gestures to
get attention or manipulate others
...
‖
Constant attention seeking
...
Believes that everyone loves him
...

Inflated sense of self-importance, absorbed by fantasies of self and success
...

Dramatic/erratic

Exaggerates own achievement, assumes others will recognize they are superior
...
Exploitative of others
...
In
contrast with schizoid person, yearns for social contact
...
Avoids social situations due to fear of

Avoidant

rejection
...

Clings to people and fears losing them
...
Uncomfortable
when alone
...


C
...
Excessive need to do everything “right
...
Fear

Attributed to Charles Stangor
Saylor URL: http://www
...
org/books/

Saylor
...
Poor expression of emotions
...
)

Source: American Psychiatric Association
...
Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders (4th ed
...
Washington, DC: Author
...
For one, it is frequently difficult
for the clinician to accurately diagnose which of the many personality disorders a person has,
although the friends and colleagues of the person can generally do a good job of it (Oltmanns &
Turkheimer, 2006)
...
Also, the number of people with personality disorders is
estimated to be as high as 15% of the population (Grant et al
...

Although they are considered as separate disorders, the personality disorders are essentially
milder versions of more severe Axis I disorders (Huang et al
...
[5] For example, obsessivecompulsive personality disorder is a milder version of obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD),
and schizoid and schizotypal personality disorders are characterized by symptoms similar to
those of schizophrenia
...
But clinicians
normally differentiate Axis I and Axis II disorders, and thus the distinction is useful for them
(Krueger, 2005; Phillips, Yen, & Gunderson, 2003; Verheul, 2005)
...
The first, borderline
personality disorder (BPD), is important because it is so often associated with suicide, and the
second,antisocial personality disorder (APD), because it is the foundation of criminal behavior
...
BPD (more frequently found in women than
Attributed to Charles Stangor
Saylor URL: http://www
...
org/books/

Saylor
...
g
...
APD (mostly found in men), on the other
hand, is a type of externalizing disorder in which the problem behaviors (e
...
, lying, fighting,
vandalism, and other criminal activity) focus primarily on harm to others
...

BPD is widely diagnosed—up to 20% of psychiatric patients are given the diagnosis, and it may
occur in up to 2% of the general population (Hyman, 2002)
...

People with BPD fear being abandoned by others
...
They become angry
if the other person limits the relationship, but also deny that they care about the person
...
But their
behaviors, including their intense anger, demands, and suspiciousness, repel people
...
These behaviors are designed to call forth a
“saving‖ response from the other person
...
Borderline individuals also show disturbance in their concepts of
identity: They are uncertain about self-image, gender identity, values, loyalties, and goals
...

BPD has both genetic as well as environmental roots
...
,
Attributed to Charles Stangor
Saylor URL: http://www
...
org/books/

Saylor
...
[9] In terms of
environment, many theories about the causes of BPD focus on a disturbed early relationship
between the child and his or her parents
...
Others focus on parental abuse (both sexual and physical) in adolescence, as
well as on divorce, alcoholism, and other stressors (Lobbestael & Arntz, 2009)
...
The problems are amplified when the diagnosis is
comorbid (as it often is) with other disorders, such as substance abuse disorder, major depressive
disorder, and posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD; Skodol et al
...
[11]

Research Focus: Affective and Cognitive Deficits in BPD
Posner et al
...
g
...
Specifically, they hypothesized that the fast emotional pathway through the amygdala is too
active, and the slow cognitive-emotional pathway through the prefrontal cortex is not active enough in those with
BPD
...
All participants
were tested in a functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) machine while they performed a task that required
them to read emotional and nonemotional words, and then press a button as quickly as possible whenever a word
appeared in a normal font and not press the button whenever the word appeared in an italicized font
...
These errors primarily occurred on the negative emotional words
...
16 "Results From Posner et al
...
In comparison to the controls, the
borderline patients showed relatively larger affective responses when they were attempting to quickly respond to the
negative emotions, and showed less cognitive activity in the prefrontal cortex in the same conditions
...
saylor
...
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715

suggests that excessive affective reactions and lessened cognitive reactions to emotional stimuli may contribute to the
emotional and behavioral volatility of borderline patients
...
16Results From Posner et al
...

Source: Adapted from Posner, M
...
, Vizueta, N
...
, Levy, K
...
,…Kernberg, O
...
An approach to the psychobiology of personality disorders
...
doi:10
...


Antisocial Personality Disorder (APD)
In contrast to borderline personality disorder, which involves primarily feelings of inadequacy
and a fear of abandonment,antisocial personality disorder (APD) is characterized by a disregard
of the rights of others, and a tendency to violate those rights without being concerned about
Attributed to Charles Stangor
Saylor URL: http://www
...
org/books/

Saylor
...
APD is a pervasive pattern of violation of the rights of others that begins in childhood
or early adolescence and continues into adulthood
...
To be diagnosed with APD the person must be 18 years of age
or older and have a documented history of conduct disorder before the age of 15
...
‖
People with APD feel little distress for the pain they cause others
...
They are
egocentric and frequently impulsive, for instance suddenly changing jobs or relationships
...
The intensity of
antisocial symptoms tends to peak during the 20s and then may decrease over time
...
[13] Twin and adoption studies suggest a genetic
predisposition (Rhee & Waldman, 2002), [14]and biological abnormalities include low autonomic
activity during stress, biochemical imbalances, right hemisphere abnormalities, and reduced gray
matter in the frontal lobes (Lyons-Ruth et al
...
[15] Environmental factors include neglectful and abusive parenting styles, such as the use
of harsh and inconsistent discipline and inappropriate modeling (Huesmann & Kirwil, 2007)
...




Personality disorders are categorized into three clusters: those characterized by odd or eccentric behavior, dramatic or
erratic behavior, and anxious or inhibited behavior
...




Borderline personality disorder is a prolonged disturbance of personality accompanied by mood swings, unstable
personal relationships, and identity problems, and it is often associated with suicide
...
saylor
...
org

717



Antisocial personality disorder is characterized by a disregard of others’ rights and a tendency to violate those rights
without being concerned about doing so
...


What characteristics of men and women do you think make them more likely to have APD and BDP, respectively? Do
these differences seem to you to be more genetic or more environmental?

2
...
A
...
Understanding personality disorders
...
K
...
),Rorschach assessment to the personality
disorders
...
3–25)
...

[2] Lynam, D
...
(2001)
...
Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 110(3), 401–412
...
F
...
(2006)
...
In R
...

Krueger & J
...
Tackett (Eds
...
71–111)
...

[4] Grant, B
...
, Stinson, F
...
, Chou, S
...
, & Pickering, R
...
(2004)
...
Journal of Clinical Psychiatry, 65(7), 948–958
...
, Kotov, R
...
, Preti, A
...
, Benjet, C
...
C
...
DSM-IV personality
disorders in the WHO World Mental Health Surveys
...

doi:10
...
bp
...
058552
[6] Krueger, R
...
(2005)
...
Journal of Personality Disorders, 19, 233–261; Phillips, K
...
, Yen, S
...
G
...
Personality disorders
...
E
...
C
...
), Textbook of clinical psychiatry
...
(2005)
...
Journal of Personality Disorders, 19, 283–302
...
E
...
A new beginning for research on borderline personality disorder
...

[8] Zweig-Frank, H
...
, Kin, N
...
N
...
, Schwartz, G
...
, & Nair, N
...
V
...
Childhood sexual abuse in relation
to neurobiological challenge tests in patients with borderline personality disorder and normal controls
...


Attributed to Charles Stangor
Saylor URL: http://www
...
org/books/

Saylor
...
J
...
H
...
(2008)
...
Development and Psychological disorder
...
doi:10
...
, & Arntz, A
...
Emotional, cognitive and physiological correlates of abuse-related stress in borderline
and antisocial personality disorder
...
doi:10
...
brat
...
09
...
E
...
G
...
, Widiger, T
...
, Livesley, W
...
, & Siever, L
...
(2002)
...
Biological Psychiatry, 51(12), 936–950
...
, Rothbart, M
...
, Thomas, K
...
, Fossella, J
...
(2003)
...
Development and Psychopathology, 15(4), 1093–1106
...
1017/S0954579403000506
[13] Rhee, S
...
, & Waldman, I
...
(2002)
...
Psychological Bulletin, 128(3), 490–529
...
H
...
D
...
Genetic and environmental influences on anti-social behavior: A meta-analysis of twin
and adoptions studies
...

[15] Lyons-Ruth, K
...
M
...
, Ronai, Z
...
, & Pauls, D
...
Serotonin transporter
polymorphism and borderline or antisocial traits among low-income young adults
...
,
Lencz, T
...
, LaCasse, L
...
(2000)
...
Archive of General Psychiatry, 57, 119–127
...
R
...
(2007)
...
In D
...

Flannery, A
...
Vazsonyi, & I
...
Waldman (Eds
...
545–570)
...


12
...


Differentiate the symptoms of somatoform and factitious disorders
...


Summarize the sexual disorders and paraphilias
...
saylor
...
org

719

Although mood, anxiety, and personality disorders represent the most prevalent psychological
disorders, as you saw in Table 12
...
This complexity of symptoms and
classifications helps make it clear how difficult it is to accurately and consistently diagnose and
treat psychological disorders
...


Somatoform and Factitious Disorders
Somatoform and factitious disorders both occur in cases where psychological disorders are
related to the experience or expression of physical symptoms
...

One case in which psychological problems create real physical impairments is in the somatoform
disorder known assomatization disorder (also called Briquet‘s syndrome or BrissaudMarie syndrome)
...
A person with somatization disorder might complain of joint aches,
vomiting, nausea, muscle weakness, as well as sexual dysfunction
...
The somatoform disorder is more likely to occur when the person is
under stress, and it may disappear naturally over time
...

Another type of somatoform disorder is conversion disorder, a psychological disorder in which
patients experience specific neurological symptoms such as numbness, blindness, or paralysis,
Attributed to Charles Stangor
Saylor URL: http://www
...
org/books/

Saylor
...
[1] The
difference between conversion and somatoform disorders is in terms of the location of the
physical complaint
...

Conversion disorder gets its name from the idea that the existing psychological disorder is
“converted‖ into the physical symptoms
...
Conversion disorder is not common (a
prevalence of less than 1%), but it may in many cases be undiagnosed
...

There are two somatoform disorders that involve preoccupations
...
Body dysmorphic disorder (BDD) is a psychological disorder accompanied
by an imagined or exaggerated defect in body parts or body odor
...
BDD usually begins
in adolescence
...
The patient often
misinterprets normal body symptoms such as coughing, perspiring, headaches, or a rapid
heartbeat as signs of serious illness, and the patient‘s concerns remain even after he or she has
been medically evaluated and assured that the health concerns are unfounded
...

Two other psychological disorders relate to the experience of physical problems that are not real
...
They may lie about symptoms, alter
Attributed to Charles Stangor
Saylor URL: http://www
...
org/books/

Saylor
...
In the more severe form of factitious disorder known asMünchausen syndrome,
the patient has a lifelong pattern of a series of successive hospitalizations for faked symptoms
...

The somatoform disorders are almost always comorbid with other psychological disorders,
including anxiety and depression and dissociative states (Smith et al
...
[2] People with
BDD, for instance, are often unable to leave their house, are severely depressed or anxious, and
may also suffer from other personality disorders
...
People with these disorders frequently follow through with potentially dangerous
medical tests and are at risk for drug addiction from the drugs they are given and for injury from
the complications of the operations they submit to (Bass, Peveler, & House, 2001; Looper &
Kirmayer, 2002)
...
To help combat these costs, emergency room and hospital
workers use a variety of tests for detecting these disorders
...

These include disorders related to sexual function, gender identity, and sexual preference
...
There are a variety of potential
problems (Table 12
...
saylor
...
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men and women (Figure 12
...
Sexual
disorders affect up to 43% of women and 31% of men (Laumann, Paik, & Rosen,
1999)
...


Table 12
...
(2000)
...
,
text rev
...

Figure 12
...
saylor
...
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723

This chart shows the percentage of respondents who reported each type of sexual difficulty over the previous 12
months
...
O
...
, & Rosen, R
...
(1999)
...
Journal of the American Medical Association, 281(6), 537–544
...
How “low sexual desire‖ is defined, however, is
problematic because it depends on the person‘s sex and age, on cultural norms, as well as on the
relative desires of the individual and the partner
...
If neither partner is much interested in sex, for instance, the lack of interest
may not cause a problem
...
[5]
Sexual aversion disorder refers to an avoidance of sexual behavior caused by disgust or aversion
to genital contact
...
[6]

Attributed to Charles Stangor
Saylor URL: http://www
...
org/books/

Saylor
...
The disorder may be
comorbid with hypoactive sexual desire or orgasmic disorder, or mood or anxiety disorders
...
Prevalence rates vary by age, from about 6% of college-aged males to 35% of men in
their 70s
...
‖
Most erectile dysfunction occurs as a result of physiological factors, including illness, and the
use of medications, alcohol, or other recreational drugs
...
Assessment for
physiological causes of erectile dysfunction is made using a test in which a device is attached to
the man‘s penis before he goes to sleep
...
If the man has erections while sleeping, this provides
assurance that the problem is not physiological
...
It is not possible
to exactly specify what defines “premature,‖ but if the man ejaculates before or immediately
upon insertion of the penis into the vagina, most clinicians will identify the response as
premature
...
[7] Premature ejaculation is one of the most prevalent sexual
disorders and causes much anxiety in many men
...
The woman enjoys
sex and foreplay and shows normal signs of sexual arousal but cannot reach the peak experience
of orgasm
...


Attributed to Charles Stangor
Saylor URL: http://www
...
org/books/

Saylor
...
In most cases
these problems are biological and can be treated with hormones, creams, or surgery
...
In some cases the primary problem is biological,
and the disorder may be treated with medication
...
[8] In some cases the sex problem may be
due to the fact that the person has a different sexual orientation than he or she is engaging in
...

It is important to remember that most sexual disorders are temporary—they are experienced for a
period of time, in certain situations or with certain partners, and then (without, or if necessary
with, the help of therapy) go away
...
Couples with happy sex lives work together to find ways that work
best for their own styles
...

Gender Identity Disorder
Gender identity refers to the identification with a sex
...
In some cases, however, children or adolescents—sometimes even
those as young as 3 or 4 years old—believe that they have been trapped in a body of the wrong
sex
...

GID usually appears in adolescence or adulthood and may intensify over time (Bower,
2001)
...

Attributed to Charles Stangor
Saylor URL: http://www
...
org/books/

Saylor
...
[10] The causes of GID are as of yet unknown, although
they seem to be related in part to the amount of testosterone and other hormones in the uterus
(Kraemer, Noll, Delsignore, Milos, Schnyder, & Hepp, 2009)
...
People suffering from GID often argue that a
“normal‖ gender identity may not necessarily involve an identification with one‘s own biological
sex
...


Paraphilias
A third class of sexual disorders relates to sexual practices and interest
...
Paraphilias may
sometimes be only fantasies, and in other cases may result in actual sexual behavior (Table 12
...


Table 12
...
saylor
...
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727

Paraphilia

Behavior or fantasy that creates arousal

Masochism

Being beaten, humiliated, bound, or otherwise made to suffer

Pedophilia

Sexual activity with a prepubescent child

Sadism

Witnessing suffering of another person

Voyeurism

Observing an unsuspecting person who is naked, disrobing, or engaged in intimate behavior

People with paraphilias are usually rejected by society but for two different reasons
...
But other paraphilias
are rejected simply because they are unusual, even though they are consensual and do not cause
distress or dysfunction to the partners
...
A
recent survey found that individuals who engage in sadism and masochism are as
psychologically healthy as those who do not (Connolly, 2006)
...

KEY TAKEAWAYS


Somatoform disorders, including body dysmorphic disorder and hypochondriasis, occur when people become
excessively and inaccurately preoccupied with the potential that they have an illness or stigma
...
In the more severe form of factitious disorder known as Münchhausen syndrome, the
patient has a lifelong pattern with a series of successive hospitalizations for faked symptoms
...
The types of problems experienced are different for men and women
...


Attributed to Charles Stangor
Saylor URL: http://www
...
org/books/

Saylor
...




The classification of GID as a mental disorder has been challenged because people who suffer from it do not regard
their own cross-gender feelings and behaviors as a disorder and do not feel that they are distressed or dysfunctional
...
Some
paraphilias are illegal because they involve a lack of consent on the part of the recipient of the sexual advance, but
other paraphilias are simply unusual, even though they may not cause distress or dysfunction
...


Consider the biological, personal, and social-cultural aspects of gender identity disorder
...


Consider the paraphilias in Table 12
...
Do they seem like disorders to you, and how would one
determine if they were or were not?

3
...


[1] Akagi, H
...
O
...
The epidemiology of hysterical conversion
...
Halligan, C
...
Marshall
(Eds
...
73–87)
...

[2] Smith, R
...
, Gardiner, J
...
, Lyles, J
...
, Sirbu, C
...
C
...
,…Goddeeris, J
...
Exploration of DSMIV criteria in primary care patients with medically unexplained symptoms
...

[3] Bass, C
...
, & House, A
...
Somatoform disorders: Severe psychiatric illnesses neglected by
psychiatrists
...
J
...
J
...
Behavioral medicine approaches to
somatoform disorders
...

[4] Laumann, E
...
, Paik, A
...
(1999)
...
Journal of the American Medical
Association, 281(6), 537–544
...
saylor
...
org

729

[5] Donahey, K
...
, & Carroll, R
...
(1993)
...
Journal of Sex
& Marital Therapy, 19(1), 25–40
...
A
...
W
...
The sexual aversions
...
B
...
B
...
E
...
), Handbook of
clinical sexuality for mental health professionals (pp
...
New York, NY: Brunner-Routledge
...
D
...
Rapid ejaculation
...
B
...
B
...
E
...
), Handbook of clinical sexuality for
mental health professionals (pp
...
New York, NY: Brunner-Routledge
...
H
...
J
...
E
...
A
...
A review of the long-term effects of child sexual
abuse
...

[9] Bower, H
...
The gender identity disorder in the DSM-IV classification: A critical evaluation
...

[10] Olsson, S
...
, & Möller, A
...
(2003)
...
Archives of
Sexual Behavior, 32(4), 381–386
...
, Noll, T
...
, Milos, G
...
, & Hepp, U
...
Finger length ratio (2D:4D) in adults with
gender identity disorder
...

[12] Connolly, P
...
Psychological functioning of bondage/domination/sado-masochism (BDSM) practitioners
...
doi:10
...
7 Chapter Summary
More psychologists are involved in the diagnosis and treatment of psychological disorder than in
any other aspect of psychology
...
The impact of mental illness is particularly strong on
people who are poorer, of lower socioeconomic class, and from disadvantaged ethnic groups
...
Psychological disorders are often comorbid, meaning that a given person
suffers from more than one disorder
...
saylor
...
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The stigma of mental disorder affects people while they are ill, while they are healing, and even
after they have healed
...

All psychological disorders are multiply determined by biological, psychological, and social
factors
...
The DSM organizes the diagnosis of disorder according to five dimensions (or
axes) relating to different aspects of disorder or disability
...

One critique of the DSM is that many disorders—for instance, attention-deficit/hyperactivity
disorder (ADHD), autistic disorder, and Asperger‘s disorder—are being diagnosed significantly
more frequently than they were in the past
...
They include generalized anxiety disorder (GAD), panic disorder, phobia,
obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD), and posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD)
...

Dissociative disorders are conditions that involve disruptions or breakdowns of memory,
awareness, and identity
...

Mood disorders are psychological disorders in which the person‘s mood negatively influences
his or her physical, perceptual, social, and cognitive processes
...
Mood disorders affect about 30 million Americans
every year
...
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Schizophrenia is a serious psychological disorder marked by delusions, hallucinations, loss of
contact with reality, inappropriate affect, disorganized speech, social withdrawal, and
deterioration of adaptive behavior
...

A personality disorder is a long-lasting but frequently less severe disorder characterized by
inflexible patterns of thinking, feeling, or relating to others that causes problems in personal,
social, and work situations
...
Two of the most important personality
disorders are borderline personality disorder (BPD) and antisocial personality disorder (APD)
...

Somatization disorders include conversion disorder, body dysmorphic disorder (BDD), and
hypochondriasis
...

Sexual disorders refer to a variety of problems revolving around performing or enjoying sex
...

Gender identity disorder (GID, also called transsexualism) is diagnosed when the individual
displays a repeated and strong desire to be the other sex, a persistent discomfort with one‘s sex,
and a belief that one was born the wrong sex, accompanied by significant dysfunction and
distress
...


Attributed to Charles Stangor
Saylor URL: http://www
...
org/books/

Saylor
...


Chapter 13
Treating Psychological Disorders
Therapy on Four Legs
Lucien Masson, a 60-year-old Vietnam veteran from Arizona, put it simply: ―Sascha is the best medicine I‘ve ever
had
...

Lucien suffers from posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD), a disorder that has had a profoundly negative impact on
his life for many years
...
Lucien has tried many
solutions, consulting with doctors, psychiatrists, and psychologists, and using a combination of drugs, group therapy,
and anger-management classes
...
He helps out in many ways
...
Sascha is trained to sense when Lucien is about to have a
nightmare, waking him before it starts
...

In the same way, former Army medic Jo Hanna Schaffer speaks of her Chihuahua, Cody: ―I never took a pill for PTSD
that did as much for me as Cody has done
...

Sometimes I’ll scratch my hand until it’s raw and won’t realize until she comes up to me and brings me out
...


Attributed to Charles Stangor
Saylor URL: http://www
...
org/books/

Saylor
...
‖ The dogs are trained to
help people with a variety of mental disorders, including panic attacks, anxiety disorder, obsessive-compulsive
disorder, and bipolar disorder
...

The dogs are trained to perform specific behaviors that are helpful to their owners
...
The serenity shown by the dogs in all situations seems to reassure the PTSD sufferer
that all must be well
...


[1]

Despite the reports of success from many users, it is important to keep in mind that the utility of psychiatric service
dogs has not yet been tested, and thus would never be offered as a therapy by a trained clinician or paid for by an
insurance company
...


Psychological disorders create a tremendous individual, social, and economic drain on society
...
Disorders lead to disability and absenteeism in the workplace, as well
as physical problems, premature death, and suicide
...
It
has been estimated that the annual financial burden of each case of anxiety disorder is over
$3,000 per year, meaning that the annual cost of anxiety disorders alone in the United States runs
into the trillions of dollars (Konnopka, Leichsenring, Leibing, & König, 2009; Smit et al
...
[3]
The goal of this chapter is to review the techniques that are used to treat psychological disorder
...

Attributed to Charles Stangor
Saylor URL: http://www
...
org/books/

Saylor
...

The biomedical approach to reducing disorder is based on the use of medications to treat mental
disorders such as schizophrenia, depression, and anxiety, as well as the employment of brain
intervention techniques, including electroconvulsive therapy (ECT), transcranial magnetic
stimulation (TMS), and psychosurgery
...
These approaches include group,
couples, and family therapy, as well as community outreach programs
...
[4]
A clinician may focus on any or all of the three approaches to treatment, but in making a
decision about which to use, he or she will always rely on his or her knowledge about existing
empirical tests of the effectiveness of different treatments
...
Taken together, these
studies have confirmed that many types of therapies are effective in treating disorder
...
(2008, January 29)
...
CNN
...
cnn
...
veterans; Lorber, J
...
For the battle-scarred,
comfort at leash’s end
...
Retrieved fromhttp://www
...
com/2010/04/04/us/04dogs
...
A
...
Psychiatric service dogs use senses to aid owners
...
Retrieved
fromhttp://azstarnet
...
html; Schwartz, A
...
(2008, March 16)
...
Dr
...
Retrieved
from http://www
...
net/poc/view_doc
...
saylor
...
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[2] Odendaal, J
...
J
...
Animal-assisted therapy—Magic or medicine? Journal of Psychosomatic Research, 49(4), 275–280
...
, Leichsenring, F
...
, & König, H
...
(2009)
...
Journal of Affective Disorders, 114(1–3), 14–31; Smit, F
...
, Oostenbrink, J
...
, de Graaf, R
...
(2006)
...
Journal of Mental Health Policy and Economics, 9(4), 193–200
...
(2004)
...
Retrieved fromhttp://www
...
int/mental_health/evidence/en/Prevention_of_Mental_Disorders
...
1 Reducing Disorder by Confronting It: Psychotherapy
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
1
...


2
...


Treatment for psychological disorder begins when the individual who is experiencing distress
visits a counselor or therapist, perhaps in a church, a community center, a hospital, or a private
practice
...
During the assessment the psychologist may give personality tests such as the
Minnesota Multiphasic Personal Inventory (MMPI-2) or projective tests, and will conduct a
thorough interview with the patient
...

In addition to the psychological assessment, the patient is usually seen by a physician to gain
information about potential Axis III (physical) problems
...
For instance, men who are experiencing erectile dysfunction disorder may need surgery
to increase blood flow or local injections of muscle relaxants
...
saylor
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736

medications (Viagra, Cialis, or Levitra) that provide an increased blood supply to the penis,
which are successful in increasing performance in about 70% of men who take them
...
The therapist will summarize the
information about the patient on each of the five DSM axes, and the diagnosis will likely be sent
to an insurance company to justify payment for the treatment
...
Six or more of the following symptoms of inattention have been present for at least 6 months to a
point that is disruptive and inappropriate for developmental level:



Often does not give close attention to details or makes careless mistakes in schoolwork, work, or other activities



Often has trouble keeping attention on tasks or play activities



Often does not seem to listen when spoken to directly



Often does not follow instructions and fails to finish schoolwork, chores, or duties in the workplace (not due to
oppositional behavior or failure to understand instructions)



Often has trouble organizing activities



Often avoids, dislikes, or doesn‘t want to do things that take a lot of mental effort for a long period of time (such as
schoolwork or homework)



Often loses things needed for tasks and activities (e
...
, toys, school assignments, pencils, books, or tools)



Is often easily distracted



Is often forgetful in daily activities
B
...
saylor
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737



Often gets up from seat when remaining in seat is expected



Often runs about or climbs when and where it is not appropriate (adolescents or adults may feel very restless)



Often has trouble playing or enjoying leisure activities quietly



Is often ―on the go‖ or often acts as if ―driven by a motor‖



Often talks excessively



Often blurts out answers before questions have been finished



Often has trouble waiting one‘s turn



Often interrupts or intrudes on others (e
...
, butts into conversations or games)

If a diagnosis is made, the therapist will select a course of therapy that he or she feels will be
most effective
...
The fundamental aspect of psychotherapy is that the patient directly confronts the
disorder and works with the therapist to help reduce it
...
Therapy is practiced by thousands of psychologists
and other trained practitioners in the United States and around the world, and is responsible for
billions of dollars of the health budget
...
Though this approach to therapy (known
as psychoanalysis) is still practiced, it is in the minority
...
2 "The Many Types of Therapy Practiced in the United States"
...


Figure 13
...
saylor
...
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738

These data show the proportion of psychotherapists who reported practicing each type of therapy
...
C
...
, & Castle, P
...
(2002)
...
Psychotherapy: Theory, Research, Practice, Training, 39(1), 97–
102
...
The decision to not seek help is a
very poor choice because the effectiveness of mental health treatments is well documented and, no matter where a
person lives, there are treatments available (U
...
Department of Health and Human Services, 1999)
...
saylor
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739

The first step in seeking help for psychological problems is to accept the stigma
...
But you must get past these unfair and close-minded responses
...

One question is how to determine if someone needs help
...
Most generally, you will know that you or others
need help when the person‘s psychological state is negatively influencing his or her everyday behavior, when the
behavior is adversely affecting those around the person, and when the problems continue over a period of time
...
But therapy is also effective for general depression and anxiety, as well as for
specific everyday problems
...
Begin in your school, community, or church,
asking about community health or counseling centers and pastoral counseling
...
You‘ll probably be surprised at how many people have been to counseling,
and how many recommend it
...
Be sure to ask about the degrees that the therapist
has earned, and about the reputation of the center in which the therapy occurs
...
This will allow you to be more open, and you will get more out of
the experience
...

Remember also that confronting issues requires time to reflect, energy to get to the appointments and deal with
consequential feelings, and discipline to explore your issues on your own
...

The bottom line is that going for therapy should not be a difficult decision for you
...
Just as you go to a dentist for a
toothache, you may go to therapy for psychological difficulties
...
saylor
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740

practices
...




Psychologists inform their clients/patients as early as possible in the therapeutic relationship about the nature and
anticipated course of therapy, fees, involvement of third parties, and limits of confidentiality, and provide sufficient
opportunity for the client/patient to ask questions and receive answers
...




When the therapist is a trainee, the client/patient is informed that the therapist is in training and is being supervised,
and is given the name of the supervisor
...




If it becomes apparent that a psychologist may be called on to perform potentially conflicting roles (such as family
therapist and then witness for one party in divorce proceedings), the psychologist takes reasonable steps to clarify and
modify, or withdraw from, roles appropriately
...




Psychologists do not engage in sexual intimacies with current therapy clients/patients, or with individuals they know
to be close relatives, guardians, or significant others of current clients/patients
...
Psychologists do not accept as therapy clients/patients persons with whom they
have engaged in sexual intimacies, nor do they have sexual intimacies with former clients/patients for at least 2 years
after cessation or termination of therapy
...


Psychodynamic Therapy
Psychodynamic therapy (psychoanalysis) is a psychological treatment based on Freudian and
neo-Freudian personality theories in which the therapist helps the patient explore the
Attributed to Charles Stangor
Saylor URL: http://www
...
org/books/

Saylor
...
The analyst engages with the patient, usually in one-onone sessions, often with the patient lying on a couch and facing away
...
The analyst may try out some interpretations on the
patient and observe how he or she responds to them
...
The client may also be asked to report on his or her dreams, and the therapist will
usedream analysis to analyze the symbolism of the dreams in an effort to probe the unconscious
thoughts of the client and interpret their significance
...

The goal of psychotherapy is to help the patient develop insight—that is, an understanding of the
unconscious causes of the disorder (Epstein, Stern, & Silbersweig, 2001; Lubarsky & Barrett,
2006), [4] but the patient often showsresistance to these new understandings, using defense
mechanisms to avoid the painful feelings in his or her unconscious
...
The therapist attempts to
help the patient develop insight into the causes of the resistance
...
For instance, the patient may transfer
feelings of guilt that come from the father or mother to the therapist
...


Important Characteristics and Experiences in Psychoanalysis


Free association
...
The therapist then tries to interpret these free associations, looking for unconscious causes of symptoms
...
saylor
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742



Dream analysis
...




Insight
...




Interpretation
...
The analyst may try out some interpretations on the patient and observe how he or she responds to them
...
The patient‘s use of defense mechanisms to avoid the painful feelings in his or her unconscious
...
The therapist
attempts to help the patient develop insight into the causes of the resistance
...
The unconscious redirection of the feelings experienced in an important personal relationship
toward the therapist
...


One problem with traditional psychoanalysis is that the sessions may take place several times a
week, go on for many years, and cost thousands of dollars
...

In these “brief psychodynamic therapies,‖ the therapist helps the client determine the important
issues to be discussed at the beginning of treatment and usually takes a more active role than in
classic psychoanalysis (Levenson, 2010)
...
Humanistic therapy is based on the idea that
people develop psychological problems when they are burdened by limits and expectations
placed on them by themselves and others, and the treatment emphasizes the person‘s capacity for
self-realization and fulfillment
...

Attributed to Charles Stangor
Saylor URL: http://www
...
org/books/

Saylor
...
In his book, A Way of Being (1980), [6] Rogers argued
that therapy was most productive when the therapist created a positive relationship with the
client—a therapeutic alliance
...
e
...
e
...
e
...

The development of a positive therapeutic alliance has been found to be exceedingly important to
successful therapy
...
[7]
Psychodynamic and humanistic therapies are recommended primarily for people suffering from
generalized anxiety or mood disorders, and who desire to feel better about themselves overall
...
A person with a social phobia may
want to be able to leave his or her house, a person with a sexual dysfunction may want to
improve his or her sex life, and a person with OCD may want to learn to stop letting his
obsessions or compulsions interfere with everyday activities
...

Cognitive-behavior therapy (CBT) is a structured approach to treatment that attempts to reduce
psychological disorders through systematic procedures based on cognitive and behavioral
Attributed to Charles Stangor
Saylor URL: http://www
...
org/books/

Saylor
...
As you can see inFigure 13
...
For
instance, if we are feeling depressed, our negative thoughts (“I am doing poorly in my chemistry
class‖) lead to negative feelings (“I feel hopeless and sad‖), which then contribute to negative
behaviors (lethargy, disinterest, lack of studying)
...
[8] Similarly, in panic disorder a patient may misinterpret his or her feelings of anxiety as
a sign of an impending physical or mental catastrophe (such as a heart attack), leading to an
avoidance of a particular place or social situation
...
Again, the thoughts, feelings, and behavior amplify
and distort each other
...
4 Cognitive-Behavior Therapy

Cognitive-behavior therapy (CBT) is based on the idea that our thoughts, feelings, and behavior reinforce each
other and that changing our thoughts or behavior can make us feel better
...
saylor
...
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745

CBT is a very broad approach that is used for the treatment of a variety of problems, including
mood, anxiety, personality, eating, substance abuse, attention-deficit, and psychotic disorders
...
The goal is simply to stop the negative
cycle by intervening to change cognition or behavior
...
The procedures are problem-solving and action-oriented, and the
client is forced to take responsibility for his or her own treatment
...
The
treatment usually lasts between 10 and 20 sessions
...
But almost all CBT treatments use a combination of behavioral and cognitive
approaches
...
Behavioral therapy is psychological treatment that is based on principles of learning
...

Reinforcement may be used to teach new skills to people, for instance, those with autism or
schizophrenia (Granholm et al
...
, 2005; Scattone, 2007)
...
If the patient has trouble interacting with
others, reinforcement will be used to teach the client how to more appropriately respond in
public, for instance, by maintaining eye contact, smiling when appropriate, and modulating tone
of voice
...
saylor
...
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746

As the patient practices the different techniques, the appropriate behaviors are shaped through
reinforcement to allow the client to manage more complex social situations
...
People who learn to
improve their interpersonal skills through skills training may be more accepted by others and this
social support may have substantial positive effects on their emotions
...
Exposure therapy is a behavioral therapy based on the
classical conditioning principle of extinction, in which people are confronted with a feared
stimulus with the goal of decreasing their negative emotional responses to it (Wolpe,
1973)
...

In flooding, a client is exposed to the source of his fear all at once
...
The assumption is that the fear will subside as the client habituates to the situation
while receiving emotional support from the therapist during the stressful experience
...

More frequently, the exposure is done more gradually
...
[11] The client and the therapist work together to prepare a hierarchy of
fears, starting with the least frightening, and moving to the most frightening scenario
surrounding the object (Table 13
...

The patient then confronts her fears in a systematic manner, sometimes using her imagination but
usually, when possible, in real life
...
saylor
...
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747

Table 13
...


10

Look at a photo of a spider
...


50

Hold the box with the spider
...


70

Let a spider crawl on your shoe
...


90

Let a spider crawl on your sleeve
...


100

Desensitization techniques use the principle of counterconditioning, in which a second
incompatible response (relaxation, e
...
, through deep breathing) is conditioned to an already
conditioned response (the fear response)
...

Behavioral therapy works best when people directly experience the feared object
...
But it is often difficult and
expensive to create these experiences for the patient
...
In virtual
reality CBT, the therapist uses computer-generated, three-dimensional, lifelike images of the
feared stimulus in a systematic desensitization program
...
A common use is in
Attributed to Charles Stangor
Saylor URL: http://www
...
org/books/

Saylor
...

Some of the advantages of the virtual reality treatment approach are that it is economical, the
treatment session can be held in the therapist‘s office with no loss of time or confidentiality, the
session can easily be terminated as soon as a patient feels uncomfortable, and many patients who
have resisted live exposure to the object of their fears are willing to try the new virtual reality
option first
...
An unpleasant stimulus is intentionally paired with a
harmful or socially unacceptable behavior until the behavior becomes associated with unpleasant
sensations and is hopefully reduced
...
Over time, the positive punishment produced by
the alarm reduces the bedwetting behavior (Houts, Berman, & Abramson, 1994)
...
[13]
Alcoholism has long been treated with aversion therapy (Baker & Cannon, 1988)
...
The technique works
very well if the user keeps taking the drug (Krampe et al
...


Cognitive Aspects of CBT
While behavioral approaches focus on the actions of the patient, cognitive therapy is a
psychological treatment that helps clients identify incorrect or distorted beliefs that are
contributing to disorder
...
The idea of

Attributed to Charles Stangor
Saylor URL: http://www
...
org/books/

Saylor
...
4 "Cognitive-Behavior Therapy")
...
For instance, a person who thinks “no one cares about me‖ is likely to
feel rejected, isolated, and lonely
...
Similarly, changing
beliefs from “I have to be perfect‖ to “No one is always perfect—I‘m doing pretty good,‖ from
“I am a terrible student‖ to “I am doing well in some of my courses,‖ or from “She did that on
purpose to hurt me‖ to “Maybe she didn‘t realize how important it was to me‖ may all be
helpful
...
Beck and the psychologist Albert Ellis (1913–2007) together provided
the basic principles of cognitive therapy
...
Ellis noticed that people experiencing strong negative emotions
tend to personalize and overgeneralize their beliefs, leading to an inability to see situations
accurately (Leahy, 2003)
...

Beck‘s (Beck, 1995; Beck, Freeman, & Davis, 2004))[18] cognitive therapy was based on his
observation that people who were depressed generally had a large number of highly accessible
negative thoughts that influenced their thinking
...
Beck‘s approach challenges the
client to test his beliefs against concrete evidence
...
At the
same time the therapist might point out contrary evidence, such as the fact that a certain
coworker is actually a loyal friend or that the patient‘s boss had recently praised him
...
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...
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Combination (Eclectic) Approaches to Therapy
To this point we have considered the different approaches to psychotherapy under the
assumption that a therapist will use only one approach with a given patient
...
2 "The Many Types of Therapy Practiced in the United States", the
most commonly practiced approach to therapy is an eclectic therapy, an approach to treatment in
which the therapist uses whichever techniques seem most useful and relevant for a given patient
...
[19] Treatment for major depressive disorder usually involves antidepressant drugs as well
as CBT to help the patient deal with particular problems (McBride, Farvolden, & Swallow,
2007)
...
Consider this description, typical
of the type of borderline patient who arrives at a therapist‘s office:
Even as an infant, it seemed that there was something different about Bethany
...
She had very severe separation anxiety—if her
mother left the room, Bethany would scream until she returned
...
She started acting out more and more—yelling at her
parents and teachers and engaging in impulsive behavior such as promiscuity and running away
from home
...

By the time Bethany turned 17, her mood changes were totally unpredictable
...

At times she seemed terrified to be without her mother, but at other times she would leave the
house in a fit of rage and not return for a few days
...
saylor
...
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Bethany’s arms
...
She said I didn’t really care for him that much, but I had to do something dramatic
...
Her
suicide attempt was not successful, but the authorities required that she seek psychological help
...
First, because
her negative mood states are so severe, they will likely recommend that she start taking
antidepressant medications
...
Therefore, the therapist will also provide psychotherapy
...
Person-centered
approaches will be used in which the therapist attempts to create a therapeutic alliance conducive
to a frank and open exchange of information
...
The therapist may focus on
childhood experiences related to Bethany‘s attachment difficulties but will also focus in large
part on the causes of the present behavior
...

The therapist will also realize that Bethany will probably try to resist the work of the therapist
...
For one, cognitive therapy will likely
be used in an attempt to change Bethany‘s distortions of reality
...
If she can learn to better
understand the meaning of other people‘s actions, she may feel better
...

Attributed to Charles Stangor
Saylor URL: http://www
...
org/books/

Saylor
...
Hopefully, Bethany will stay
in treatment long enough to make some real progress in repairing her broken life
...
[21] DBT is essentially a
cognitive therapy, but it includes a particular emphasis on attempting to enlist the help of the
patient in his or her own treatment
...
In DBT the therapist aims to accept and validate the client‘s
feelings at any given time while nonetheless informing the client that some feelings and
behaviors are maladaptive, and showing the client better alternatives
...

KEY TAKEAWAYS


Psychoanalysis is based on the principles of Freudian and neo-Freudian personality theories
...




Humanist therapy, derived from the personality theory of Carl Rogers, is based on the idea that people experience
psychological problems when they are burdened by limits and expectations placed on them by themselves and others
...




Behavior therapy applies the principles of classical and operant conditioning, as well as observational learning, to the
elimination of maladaptive behaviors and their replacement with more adaptive responses
...




Eclectic therapy is the most common approach to treatment
...


EXERCISES AND CRITICAL THINKING

Attributed to Charles Stangor
Saylor URL: http://www
...
org/books/

Saylor
...


Imagine that your friend has been feeling depressed for several months but refuses to consider therapy as an option
...


Imagine that you have developed a debilitating fear of bees after recently being attacked by a swarm of them
...


Imagine that your friend has a serious drug abuse problem
...
(2000)
...
, text rev
...

[2] U
...
Department of Health and Human Services
...
Mental health: A report of the surgeon general
...
S
...

[3] American Psychological Association
...
Ethical principles of psychologists and code of conduct
...
apa
...
aspx?item=7#402
[4] Epstein J
...
, & Silbersweig, D
...
Neuropsychiatry at the millennium: The potential for mind/brain integration
through emerging interdisciplinary research strategies
...
, & Barrett, M
...

(2006)
...
Annual Review of Clinical Psychology, 2, 1–19
...
(2010)
...
Washington, DC: American Psychological Association
...
(1980)
...
New York, NY: Houghton Mifflin
...
O
...
C
...
Systems of psychotherapy: A transtheoretical analysis (6th ed
...

[8] Beck, A
...
(1976)
...
New York, NY: New American Library
...
, McQuaid, J
...
, Link, P
...
, Fish, S
...
, & Jeste, D
...
(2008)
...
Schizophrenia Research,
100, 133–143
...
1016/j
...
2007
...
032; Herbert, J
...
, Gaudini, B
...
, Rheingold, A
...
, Myers, V
...
, Dalrymple, K
...
M
...
Social skills training augments the effectiveness of cognitive behavioral group therapy for social anxiety
disorder
...
(2007)
...
Psychology in
the schools, 44, 717–726
...
saylor
...
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754

[10] Wolpe J
...
The practice of behavior therapy
...

[11] Wolpe J
...
The practice of behavior therapy
...

[12] Houts, A
...
, Berman, J
...
, & Abramson, H
...
Effectiveness of psychological and pharmacological treatments for
nocturnal enuresis
...

[13] Allen K
...
(1996)
...
Behaviour Research and Therapy, 34, 269–272
...
1016/0005-7967(95)00078-X
[14] Baker, T
...
, & Cannon, D
...
(1988)
...
New York, NY: Praeger
...
, Stawicki, S
...
, Bartels, C
...
, Rüther, E
...
(2006)
...
Alcoholism: Clinical and
Experimental Research, 30(1), 86–95
...
(2004)
...
Journal of Rational-Emotive & Cognitive-Behavior Therapy, 22, 85–92
...
L
...
Cognitive therapy techniques: A practitioner’s guide
...

[18] Beck, J
...
(1995)
...
New York, NY: Guilford Press; Beck, A
...
, Freeman, A
...

D
...
Cognitive therapy of personality disorders(2nd ed
...

[19] Newman, C
...
, Leahy, R
...
, Beck, A
...
, Reilly-Harrington, N
...
, & Gyulai, L
...
Clinical management of depression,
hopelessness, and suicidality in patients with bipolar disorder
...
F
...
L
...
T
...
A
...
Gyulai (Eds
...
79–100)
...
doi:10
...
, Farvolden, P
...
R
...
Major depressive disorder and cognitive schemas
...
P
...
L
...
J
...
E
...
), Cognitive schemas and core beliefs in psychological problems: A scientist-practitioner
guide (pp
...
Washington, DC: American Psychological Association
...
M
...
(2001)
...
The California Psychologist, 34, 10–13
...
2 Reducing Disorder Biologically: Drug and Brain Therapy
LEARNING OBJECTIVES

Attributed to Charles Stangor
Saylor URL: http://www
...
org/books/

Saylor
...


Classify the different types of drugs used in the treatment of mental disorders and explain how they each work to
reduce disorder
...


Critically evaluate direct brain intervention methods that may be used by doctors to treat patients who do not respond
to drug or other therapy
...
Biomedical therapies are treatments designed to reduce psychological disorder by
influencing the action of the central nervous system
...


Drug Therapies
Psychologists understand that an appropriate balance of neurotransmitters in the brain is
necessary for mental health
...

The most frequently used biological treatments provide the patient with medication that
influences the production and reuptake of neurotransmitters in the central nervous system (CNS)
...

Unlike some medical therapies that can be targeted toward specific symptoms, current
psychological drug therapies are not so specific; they don‘t change particular behaviors or
thought processes, and they don‘t really solve psychological disorders
...
The best drug combination for the individual patient is usually found through trial and
error (Biedermann & Fleischhacker, 2009)
...
saylor
...
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756

The major classes and brand names of drugs used to treat psychological disorders are shown
in Table 13
...


Table 13
...
saylor
...
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757

Class

Type

Brand names
Zyprexa

Disorder

Notes
increasing the transmission of
serotonin

Using Stimulants to Treat ADHD
Attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) is frequently treated with biomedical therapy,
usually along with cognitive-behavior therapy (CBT)
...
Short-acting forms of
the drugs are taken as pills and last between 4 and 12 hours, but some of the drugs are also
available in long-acting forms (skin patches) that can be worn on the hip and last up to 12 hours
...

Stimulants improve the major symptoms of ADHD, including inattention, impulsivity, and
hyperactivity, often dramatically, in about 75% of the children who take them (Greenhill,
Halperin, & Abikof, 1999)
...
Additionally, the best
drug and best dosage varies from child to child, so it may take some time to find the correct
combination
...
The answer lies in the dosage
...
[3]
The most common side effects of psychostimulants in children include decreased appetite,
weight loss, sleeping problems, and irritability as the effect of the medication tapers off
...
[4]

Attributed to Charles Stangor
Saylor URL: http://www
...
org/books/

Saylor
...
Although they are used
primarily in the treatment of depression, they are also effective for patients who suffer from
anxiety, phobias, and obsessive-compulsive disorders
...
Although exactly why they work is not yet known, as the amount
of the neurotransmitters in the CNS is increased through the action of the drugs, the person often
experiences less depression
...
These medications work by
increasing the amount of serotonin, norepinephrine, and dopamine at the synapses, but they also
have severe side effects including potential increases in blood pressure and the need to follow
particular diets
...

SSRIs are safer and have fewer side effects than the tricyclics or the MAOIs (Fraser, 2000;
Hollon, Thase, & Markowitz, 2002)
...

Recently, there has been concern that SSRIs may increase the risk of suicide among teens and
young adults, probably because when the medications begin working they give patients more
energy, which may lead them to commit the suicide that they had been planning but lacked the
energy to go through with
...
[6]
Attributed to Charles Stangor
Saylor URL: http://www
...
org/books/

Saylor
...
In some cases other types of
antidepressants may be used instead of or in addition to the SSRIs
...
Brand names of these medications include Effexor and Wellbutrin
...

Treatment is more complicated for these patients, often involving a combination of
antipsychotics and antidepressants along with mood stabilizing medications (McElroy & Keck,
2000)
...
Anticonvulsant medications can also be used as mood stabilizers
...
, 2000)
...
Potential negative side effects of lithium are loss of coordination, slurred
speech, frequent urination, and excessive thirst
...

There is no cure for bipolar disorder, but drug therapy does help many people
...
They work by increasing the
action of the neurotransmitter GABA
...


Attributed to Charles Stangor
Saylor URL: http://www
...
org/books/

Saylor
...
These drugs, which are prescribed millions of times a year, include Ativan,
Valium, and Xanax
...
They are addictive, frequently leading to tolerance,
and they can cause drowsiness, dizziness, and unpleasant withdrawal symptoms including
relapses into increased anxiety (Otto et al
...
[9] Furthermore, because the effects of the
benzodiazepines are very similar to those of alcohol, they are very dangerous when combined
with it
...
As a
result, schizophrenics were locked in asylums to protect them from themselves and to protect
society from them
...
Chlorpromazine was the first of
many antipsychotic drugs
...
Today there are many antipsychotics, including Thorazine, Haldol,
Clozaril, Risperdal, and Zyprexa
...

The discovery of chlorpromazine and its use in clinics has been described as the single greatest
advance in psychiatric care, because it has dramatically improved the prognosis of patients in
psychiatric hospitals worldwide
...


Attributed to Charles Stangor
Saylor URL: http://www
...
org/books/

Saylor
...
[10] Despite their
effectiveness, antipsychotics have some negative side effects, including restlessness, muscle
spasms, dizziness, and blurred vision
...
[11] Newer
antipsychotics treat more symptoms with fewer side effects than older medications do (Casey,
1996)
...
Electroconvulsive therapy (ECT) is a
medical procedure designed to alleviate psychological disorder in which electric currents are
passed through the brain, deliberately triggering a brief seizure (Figure 13
...
ECT has been used since the 1930s to treat severe depression
...
The patient was knocked out by the shock, went into severe
convulsions, and awoke later, usually without any memory of what had happened
...
The patient is first given muscle relaxants and a general anesthesia, and precisely
calculated electrical currents are used to achieve the most benefit with the fewest possible risks
...
ECT reduces suicidal thoughts and is assumed to have prevented
many suicides (Kellner et al
...
[13] On the other hand, the positive effects of ECT do not
always last; over one-half of patients who undergo ECT experience relapse within one year,
although antidepressant medication can help reduce this outcome (Sackheim et al
...
saylor
...
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762

2001)
...
, 2007)
...
7 Electroconvulsive Therapy (ECT)

Attributed to Charles Stangor
Saylor URL: http://www
...
org/books/

Saylor
...

Although ECT continues to be used, newer approaches to treating chronic depression are also
being developed
...
8 "Transcranial Magnetic Stimulation (TMS)")
...
TMS can be performed without sedation, does not cause seizures
or memory loss, and may be as effective as ECT (Loo, Schweitzer, & Pratt, 2006; Rado, Dowd,
& Janicak, 2008)
...


Attributed to Charles Stangor
Saylor URL: http://www
...
org/books/

Saylor
...
8 Transcranial Magnetic Stimulation (TMS)

Attributed to Charles Stangor
Saylor URL: http://www
...
org/books/

Saylor
...
Recently, TMS
has been used in the treatment of Parkinson’s disease
...
One approach involves implanting a device in the chest that stimulates the
vagus nerve, a major nerve that descends from the brain stem toward the heart (Corcoran,
Thomas, Phillips, & O‘Keane, 2006; Nemeroff et al
...
[17] When the vagus nerve is
stimulated by the device, it activates brain structures that are less active in severely depressed
people
...
The most well-known psychosurgery is
the prefrontal lobotomy
...
Lobotomies were performed on thousands of patients
...
[18] Perhaps the most notable failure was the lobotomy performed on Rosemary Kennedy,
the sister of President John F
...

There are very few centers that still conduct psychosurgery today, and when such surgeries are
performed they are much more limited in nature and calledcingulotomy (Dougherty et al
...
[19] The ability to more accurately image and localize brain structures using modern
neuroimaging techniques suggests that new, more accurate, and more beneficial developments in
psychosurgery may soon be available (Sachdev & Chen, 2009)
...




Antipsychotic drugs play a crucial role in the treatment of schizophrenia
...


Attributed to Charles Stangor
Saylor URL: http://www
...
org/books/

Saylor
...

They gradually elevate mood by working to balance neurotransmitters in the CNS
...




Antianxiety drugs (tranquilizers) relieve apprehension, tension, and nervousness and are prescribed for people with
diagnoses of generalized anxiety disorder (GAD), obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD), posttraumatic stress disorder
(PTSD), and panic disorder
...




Electroconvulsive therapy (ECT) is a controversial procedure used to treat severe depression, in which electric currents
are passed through the brain, deliberately triggering a brief seizure
...


EXERCISES AND CRITICAL THINKING
1
...


Based on what you have just read, would you be willing to undergo ECT or TMS if you were chronically depressed and
drug therapy had failed? Why or why not?

[1] Biedermann, F
...
W
...
Antipsychotics in the early stage of development
...

[2] Greenhill, L
...
, Halperin, J
...
, & Abikof, H
...
Stimulant medications
...

[3] Zahn, T
...
, Rapoport, J
...
, & Thompson, C
...
(1980)
...
Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 8(2), 145–160
...
J
...
, Harding, M
...
(1996)
...


Attributed to Charles Stangor
Saylor URL: http://www
...
org/books/

Saylor
...
R
...
Antidepressant choice to minimize treatment resistance
...
D
...
E
...
C
...
Treatment and prevention of depression
...

[6] Healy, D
...
J
...
Antidepressants and suicide: Risk-benefit conundrums
...
E
...
The antidepressant quandary—Considering suicide risk when treating
adolescent depression
...
E
...
, Operskalski, B
...
S
...
Suicide risk during antidepressant treatment
...

doi:10
...
ajp
...
1
...
L
...
E
...
Pharmacologic agents for the treatment of acute bipolar mania
...

[8] Kowatch, R
...
, Suppes, T
...
J
...
P
...
H
...
,…Rush, A
...
(2000)
...
Journal of the American Academy of
Child & Adolescent Psychiatry, 39, 713–20
...
W
...
H
...
S
...
R
...
, & Rosenbaum, J
...
(1993)
...
American Journal of
Psychiatry, 150, 1485–1490
...
B
...
M
...
C
...
C
...
Psychopharmacology and electroconvulsive therapy
...

E
...
C
...
), The American Psychiatric Publishing textbook of clinical psychiatry (4th ed
...
1047–1149)
...

[11] National Institute of Mental Health
...
Mental health medications (NIH Publication No
...
Retrieved
fromhttp://www
...
nih
...
shtml#pub4
[12] Casey, D
...
(1996)
...
Journal of Clinical Psychiatry, 57(Suppl
...

[13] Kellner, C
...
, Fink, M
...
, Petrides, G
...
, Rummans, T
...
(2005)
...
The American Journal of Psychiatry, 162(5), 977–982
...
A
...
F
...
H
...
E
...
J
...
,…Prudic, J
...
Continuation
pharmacotherapy in the prevention of relapse following electroconvulsive therapy: A randomized controlled trial
...


Attributed to Charles Stangor
Saylor URL: http://www
...
org/books/

Saylor
...
(1997)
...
Oxford, England: Oxford University Press; Sackeim, H
...
, Prudic, J
...
, Keilp, J
...
, Lavori, P
...
, & Olfson, M
...
The cognitive effects of electroconvulsive therapy in community
settings
...
doi:10
...
npp
...
K
...
, & Pratt, C
...
Recent advances in optimizing electroconvulsive therapy
...
, Dowd, S
...
, & Janicak, P
...
(2008)
...
Directions in Psychiatry, 28(4), 315–332
...
D
...
, Phillips, J
...
(2006)
...
The British Journal of Psychiatry, 189, 282–283; Nemeroff, C
...
, Krahl, S
...
, Frazer, A
...
,…Brannan, S
...
VNS therapy in treatment-resistant depression: Clinical
evidence and putative neurobiological mechanisms
...

[18] Valenstein, E
...
Great and desperate cures: The rise and decline of psychosurgery and other radical treatments for
mental illness
...

[19] Dougherty, D
...
, Cosgrove, G
...
, Price, B
...
,…Rauch, S
...
(2002)
...
American Journal
of Psychiatry, 159(2), 269
...
S
...
(2009)
...
Current Opinion in Psychiatry, 22(1), 25–31
...
3 Reducing Disorder by Changing the Social Situation
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
1
...


2
...


Although the individual therapies that we have discussed so far in this chapter focus primarily on
the psychological and biological aspects of the bio-psycho-social model of disorder, the social
dimension is never out of the picture
...
A person with
schizophrenia does not live in a vacuum
...
saylor
...
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769

other members of the community, and the behavior of those people may influence his disease
...
Thus prevention and treatment are
influenced in large part by the social context in which the person is living
...
Group therapy is psychotherapy in which clients receive psychological
treatment together with others
...
[1]
Group therapy provides a safe place where people come together to share problems or concerns,
to better understand their own situations, and to learn from and with each other
...
Group therapy allows people to help each other, by
sharing ideas, problems, and solutions
...
Group therapy makes explicit the idea
that our interactions with others may create, intensify, and potentially alleviate disorders
...
[2] Group therapy is particularly effective for people who have life-altering illness,
as it helps them cope better with their disease, enhances the quality of their lives, and in some
cases has even been shown to help them live longer (American Group Psychotherapy
Association, 2000)
...
saylor
...
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770

Sometimes group therapy is conducted with people who are in close relationships
...
These therapies
are in some cases educational, providing the couple with information about what is to be
expected in a relationship
...
g
...

Family therapy involves families meeting together with a therapist
...
Family therapy is based on the assumption that the problem, even if it is
primarily affecting one person, is the result of an interaction among the people in the family
...
One way for people to gain this social support is by joining a self-help group,
which is a voluntary association of people who share a common desire to overcome
psychological disorder or improve their well-being (Humphreys & Rappaport, 1994)
...

Three of the best-known self-help groups are Alcoholics Anonymous, of which there are more
than two million members in the United States, Gamblers Anonymous, and Overeaters
Anonymous
...
As in group therapy, the benefits include social support, education,
and observational learning
...
Regular group meetings are held with the supervision of a trained leader
...
saylor
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771

The social aspect of disorder is also understood and treated at the community
level
...
Community mental health services are provided by nurses,
psychologists, social workers, and other professionals in sites such as schools, hospitals, police
stations, drug treatment clinics, and residential homes
...
[5]
Unlike traditional therapy, the primary goal of community mental health services is prevention
...
[6]Community prevention can be focused on one more of three levels: primary prevention,
secondary prevention, and tertiary prevention
...

Examples of primary prevention are programs designed to encourage all pregnant women to
avoid cigarettes and alcohol because of the risk of health problems for the fetus, and programs
designed to remove dangerous lead paint from homes
...
Risk factors are the social, environmental,
and economic vulnerabilities that make it more likely than average that a given individual will
develop a disorder (Werner & Smith, 1992)
...


Some Risk Factors for Psychological Disorders
Community mental health workers practicing secondary prevention will focus on youths with these markers of future
problems
...
saylor
...
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

Child abuse and neglect



Developmental disorders



Drug and alcohol abuse



Dysfunctional family



Early pregnancy



Emotional immaturity



Homelessness



Learning disorder



Low birth weight



Parental mental illness



Poor nutrition



Poverty

Finally, tertiary prevention is treatment, such as psychotherapy or biomedical therapy, that
focuses on people who are already diagnosed with disorder
...
Interventions include such things as help with housing,
counseling, group therapy, emotional regulation, job and skills training, literacy training, social
responsibility training, exercise, stress management, rehabilitation, family therapy, or removing a
child from a stressful or dangerous home situation
...
Community mental health services are designed to
make it less likely that vulnerable populations will end up in institutions or on the streets
...


Attributed to Charles Stangor
Saylor URL: http://www
...
org/books/

Saylor
...
Suicide is a leading
cause of death worldwide, and prevention efforts can help people consider other alternatives, particularly if it can be
determined who is most at risk
...
One recent study
found that 78% of patients who die by suicide explicitly deny suicidal thoughts in their last verbal communications
before killing themselves (Busch, Fawcett, & Jacobs, 2003)
...
(2010)

[9]

[8]

tested the possibility that implicit measures of the association between the self-concept and

death might provide a more direct behavioral marker of suicide risk that would allow professionals to more accurately
determine whether a person is likely to commit suicide in comparison to existing self-report measures
...

The participants all completed a version of the Implicit Association Test (IAT), which was designed to assess the
strength of a person‘s mental associations between death and the self (Greenwald, McGhee, & Schwartz,
1998)
...
e
...
e
...
e
...
e
...
Response latencies for
all trials were recorded and analyzed, and the strength of each participant‘s association between ―death‖ and ―me‖ was
calculated
...
The authors also tested whether scores on the IAT
would add to prediction of risk above and beyond other measures of risk, including questionnaire and interview
measures of suicide risk
...
These results suggest that
measures of implicit cognition may be useful for determining risk factors for clinical behaviors such as suicide
...
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

Group therapy is psychotherapy in which clients receive psychological treatment together with others
...
Types of group therapy include couples therapy and family therapy
...




The goal of community health service programs is to act during childhood or early adolescence with the hope that
interventions might prevent disorders from appearing or keep existing disorders from expanding
...


EXERCISE AND CRITICAL THINKING
1
...
How
would you expect such an event to affect the prevalence of psychological disorders in the community? What
recommendations would you make in terms of setting up community support centers to help the people in the city?

[1] Yalom, I
...
(2005)
...
New York, NY: Basic Books
...
, Miller, I
...
, & Brown, R
...
(2001)
...
Clinical Psychology: Science and Practice, 8(1), 98–116
...
(2000)
...
Retrieved
from http://www
...
org/group/consumersguide2000
...
, & Rappaport, J
...
Researching self-help/mutual aid groups and organizations: Many roads, one
journey
...

[5] Gonzales, L
...
, Kelly, J
...
, Mowbray, C
...
, Hays, R
...
, & Snowden, L
...
(1991)
...
In M
...

E
...
S
...
), The clinical psychology handbook (2nd ed
...
762–779)
...

[6] Institute of Medicine
...
Reducing risks for mental disorders: Frontiers for preventive intervention research
...

[7] Werner, E
...
, & Smith, R
...
(1992)
...
New York, NY: Cornell
University Press
...
A
...
, & Jacobs, D
...
(2003)
...
Journal of Clinical Psychiatry, 64(1),
14–19
...
K
...
M
...
T
...
L
...
J
...
R
...
Measuring the suicidal mind: Implicit
cognition predicts suicidal behavior
...


Attributed to Charles Stangor
Saylor URL: http://www
...
org/books/

Saylor
...
G
...
E
...
L
...
(1998)
...
Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 74, 1464–1480
...
4 Evaluating Treatment and Prevention: What Works?
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
1
...


2
...


We have seen that psychologists and other practitioners employ a variety of treatments in their
attempts to reduce the negative outcomes of psychological disorders
...
Accurate
empirical answers to these questions are important as they help practitioners focus their efforts
on the techniques that have been proven to be most promising, and will guide societies as they
make decisions about how to spend public money to improve the quality of life of their citizens
(Hunsley & Di Giulio, 2002)
...
As you can see in Figure 13
...
In most
cases characteristics of the client (e
...
, his or her gender, age, disease severity, and prior
psychological histories) are also collected as control variables
...
In some cases we might simply ask the client if
she feels better, and in other cases we may directly measure behavior: Can the client now get in
the airplane and take a flight? Has the client remained out of juvenile detention?

Figure 13
...
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The design of an outcome study includes a dependent measure of benefit received by the client, as predicted by
independent variables including type of treatment and characteristics of the individual
...

One threat to the validity of outcome research studies is natural improvement—the possibility
that people might get better over time, even without treatment
...
After
being in a program over a period of time, people frequently feel that they are getting better
...
To demonstrate that the treatment is effective, the
people who participate in it must be compared with another group of people who do not get
treatment
...
Nonspecific treatment effects occur when the patient gets better over time simply by coming
Attributed to Charles Stangor
Saylor URL: http://www
...
org/books/

Saylor
...
The idea
is that therapy works, in the sense that it is better than doing nothing, but that all therapies are
pretty much equal in what they are able to accomplish
...


Effectiveness of Psychological Therapy
Thousands of studies have been conducted to test the effectiveness of psychotherapy, and by and
large they find evidence that it works
...
For instance, Ruwaard, Broeksteeg,
Schrieken, Emmelkamp, and Lange (2010) [2] found that patients who interacted with a therapist
over a website showed more reduction in symptoms of panic disorder than did a similar group of
patients who were on a waiting list but did not get therapy
...
The
people in the treatment group might have improved simply by being in the therapy (nonspecific
effects), or they may have improved because they expected the treatment to help them (placebo
effects)
...
For instance, Keller et al
...
However, one-half of the
patients were randomly assigned to actually receive the antianxiety drug Paxil, while the other
half received a placebo drug that did not have any medical properties
...

Attributed to Charles Stangor
Saylor URL: http://www
...
org/books/

Saylor
...
If the researchers believe that their treatment is
going to work, why would they deprive some of their participants, who are in need of help, of the
possibility for improvement by putting them in a control group?
Another type of outcome study compares different approaches with each other
...
(2005) [4] tested whether social skills training could boost the results received for
the treatment of social anxiety disorder with cognitive-behavioral therapy (CBT) alone
...
11, they found that people in both groups improved, but CBT coupled with
social skills training showed significantly greater gains than CBT alone
...
11

Herbert et al
...
Both
groups improved, but the group that received both therapies had significantly greater gains than the group that
received CBT alone
...
D
...
A
...
A
...
H
...
, & Nolan, E
...

(2005)
...
Behavior Therapy, 36(2), 125–138
...
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Other studies (Crits-Christoph, 1992; Crits-Christoph et al
...
[6] These studies are advantageous because they compare the specific effects of one type of
treatment with another, while allowing all patients to get treatment
...
A metaanalysis is a statistical technique that uses the results of existing studies to integrate and draw conclusions about
those studies
...
To find the studies, the researchers systematically searched computer databases and the
reference sections of previous research reports to locate every study that met the inclusion criteria
...

The results of each of these studies were systematically coded, and a measure of the effectiveness of treatment known
as the effect size was created for each study
...
85, indicating that psychotherapy had a relatively large positive effect on recovery
...
12 "Normal Curves of Those Who Do and Do Not Get Treatment")
...

Figure 13
...
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Meta-analyses of the outcomes of psychotherapy have found that, on average, the distribution for people who get
treatment is higher than for those who do not get treatment
...


[10]

[8]

couples and

On the basis of these and other

meta-analyses, a list ofempirically supported therapies—that is, therapies that are known to be effective—has been
developed (Chambless & Hollon, 1998; Hollon, Stewart, & Strunk (2006)
...


Smith, Glass, and Miller (1980) [12] did not find much evidence that any one type of therapy was
more effective than any other type, and more recent meta-analyses have not tended to find many
differences either (Cuijpers, van Straten, Andersson, & van Oppen, 2008)
...
This is true partly because there are
fewer distinctions among the ways that different therapies are practiced than the theoretical
differences among them would suggest
...

Attributed to Charles Stangor
Saylor URL: http://www
...
org/books/

Saylor
...
[14] This is why many self-help groups are also likely to be effective and
perhaps why having a psychiatric service dog may also make us feel better
...
For instance, the use of
psychostimulants to reduce the symptoms of attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) is
well known to be successful, and many studies find that the positive and negative symptoms of
schizophrenia are substantially reduced by the use of antipsychotic medications (Lieberman et
al
...
[15]
People who take antidepressants for mood disorders or antianxiety medications for anxiety
disorders almost always report feeling better, although drugs are less helpful for phobic disorder
and obsessive-compulsive disorder
...
An analysis of U
...
Food and Drug Administration databases found effect sizes of
0
...
26 for Zoloft, 0
...
31 for Lexapro, and 0
...
The
overall average effect size for antidepressant medications approved by the FDA between 1987
and 2004 was 0
...
, 2008; Turner, Matthews, Linardatos, Tell, & Rosenthal,
2008)
...
Once the patient stops taking the drug, the symptoms often
return in full force
...
Different people have different reactions, and all drugs carry

Attributed to Charles Stangor
Saylor URL: http://www
...
org/books/

Saylor
...
As a result, although these drugs are frequently prescribed, doctors attempt to
prescribe the lowest doses possible for the shortest possible periods of time
...
Older
people are more sensitive to drugs, and drug interactions are more likely because older patients
tend to take a variety of different drugs every day
...

Like all types of drugs, medications used in the treatment of mental illnesses can carry risks to an
unborn infant
...
Some selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs) may also
increase risks to the fetus (Louik, Lin, Werler, Hernandez, & Mitchell, 2007; U
...
Food and
Drug Administration, 2004), [18] as do antipsychotics (Diav-Citrin et al
...
[19]
Decisions on medication should be carefully weighed and based on each person‘s needs and
circumstances
...
All people must be monitored closely while
they are on medications
...
Nevertheless, research has found that a variety of
community interventions can be effective in preventing a variety of psychological disorders
(Price, Cowen, Lorion, & Ramos-McKay,1988)
...
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their children, are successful
...
[21] And the average bloodlead levels among children have fallen approximately 80% since the late 1970s as a result of
federal legislation designed to remove lead paint from housing (Centers for Disease Control and
Prevention, 2000)
...
[23] This does not necessarily mean that the
programs are not useful
...
[24] The most beneficial preventive interventions for young people involve coordinated,
systemic efforts to enhance their social and emotional competence and health
...

KEY TAKEAWAYS


Outcome research is designed to differentiate the effects of a treatment from natural improvement, nonspecific
treatment effects, and placebo effects
...




Research shows that getting psychological therapy is better at reducing disorder than not getting it, but many of the
results are due to nonspecific effects
...




Biomedical treatments are effective, at least in the short term, but overall they are less effective than psychotherapy
...


Attributed to Charles Stangor
Saylor URL: http://www
...
org/books/

Saylor
...


EXERCISES AND CRITICAL THINKING
1
...
” What factors might lead you to believe
that such “therapy” would or would not be effective? How would you propose to empirically test the effectiveness of
the therapy?

2
...
, & Di Giulio, G
...
Dodo bird, phoenix, or urban legend? The question of psychotherapy equivalence
...

[2] Ruwaard, J
...
, Schrieken, B
...
, & Lange, A
...
Web-based therapist-assisted cognitive
behavioral treatment of panic symptoms: A randomized controlled trial with a three-year follow-up
...

[3] Keller, M
...
, Ryan, N
...
, Strober, M
...
G
...
P
...
,…McCafferty, J
...
(2001)
...
Journal of the American Academy
of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry, 40(7), 762–772
...
D
...
A
...
A
...
H
...
, & Nolan, E
...
(2005)
...
Behavior Therapy, 36(2), 125–138
...
(1992)
...
American Journal of Psychiatry,
149, 151–158; Crits-Christoph, P
...
B
...
, Narducci, J
...
, & Gallop, R
...
Who benefits
from brief psychodynamic therapy for generalized anxiety disorder? Canadian Journal of Psychoanalysis, 12, 301–324
...
(2004)
...
Psychological Bulletin, 130, 228–260; Hollon, S
...
, Thase, M
...
, & Markowitz, J
...
(2002)
...
Psychological Science in the Public Interest, 3, 39–77
...
L
...
V
...
L
...
The benefits of psychotherapy
...


Attributed to Charles Stangor
Saylor URL: http://www
...
org/books/

Saylor
...
C
...
E
...
M
...
T
...
The empirical status of cognitive-behavioral therapy: A review
of meta-analyses
...
doi:10
...
cpr
...
07
...
J
...
S
...
Cognitive and behavioral treatments for anxiety disorders: A review of meta-analytic findings
...

[9] Shadish, W
...
, & Baldwin, S
...
(2002)
...
In D
...
Sprenkle (Ed
...
339–370)
...

[10] Shedler, J
...
The efficacy of psychodynamic psychotherapy
...

[11] Chambless, D
...
, & Hollon, S
...
(1998)
...
Journal of Consulting and Clinical
Psychology, 66(1), 7–18; Hollon, S
...
, & Strunk, D
...
Enduring effects for cognitive therapy in the treatment of
depression and anxiety
...

[12] Smith, M
...
, Glass, G
...
, & Miller, R
...
(1980)
...
Baltimore, MD: Johns Hopkins University
Press
...
, van Straten, A
...
, & van Oppen, P
...
Psychotherapy for depression in adults: A metaanalysis of comparative outcome studies
...

[14] Ahn, H
...
, & Wampold, B
...
(2001)
...
Journal of Counseling Psychology, 48(3), 251–257
...
, Stroup, T
...
, Swartz, M
...
, Perkins, D
...
D
...
Effectiveness of
antipsychotic drugs in patients with chronic schizophrenia
...

[16] Cardeña, E
...
(2000)
...

[17] Deshauer, D
...
, Fergusson, D
...
, Sampson, M
...
(2008)
...
Canadian Medical
Association Journal, 178(10), 1293–301
...
1503/cmaj
...
H
...
M
...
, Tell, R
...
, &
Rosenthal, R
...
Selective publication of antidepressant trials and its influence on apparent efficacy
...


Attributed to Charles Stangor
Saylor URL: http://www
...
org/books/

Saylor
...
, Lin, A
...
, Werler M
...
, Hernandez, S
...
A
...
First-trimester use of selective serotoninreuptake inhibitors and the risk of birth defects
...
S
...
(2004)
...
Retrieved
fromhttp://www
...
gov/medwatch/safety/2004/safety04
...
, Shechtman, S
...
, Arnon, J
...
, Garbis, H
...
(2005)
...
Journal of Clinical Psychiatry, 66, 317–322
...
H
...
L
...
P
...
(Eds
...
Fourteen ounces of prevention: A casebook for
practitioners
...

[21] Ripple, C
...
, & Zigler, E
...
Research, policy, and the federal role in prevention initiatives for children
...

[22] Centers for Disease Control and Prevention
...
Blood lead levels in young children: United States and selected states,
1996–1999
...

[23] Wandersman, A
...
(2003)
...
American Psychologist, 58(6–7),
441–448; Wilson, D
...
, Gottfredson, D
...
, & Najaka, S
...
(2001)
...
Journal of Quantitative Criminology, 17(3), 247–272
...
P
...
L
...
E
...
(2003)
...
American Psychologist, 58(6–7), 425–432
...
5 Chapter Summary
Psychological disorders create a tremendous individual, social, and economic drain on society
...
Psychologists base
this treatment and prevention of disorder on the bio-psycho-social model, which proposes that
disorder has biological, psychological, and social causes, and that each of these aspects can be
the focus of reducing disorder
...
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Treatment for psychological disorder begins with a formal psychological assessment
...

One approach to treatment is psychotherapy
...

Psychodynamic therapy (also known as psychoanalysis) is a psychological treatment based on
Freudian and neo-Freudian personality theories
...
The goal of the therapy is to help the patient develop insight—
that is, an understanding of the unconscious causes of the disorder
...
Humanistic therapies attempt to promote growth and
responsibility by helping clients consider their own situations and the world around them and
how they can work to achieve their life goals
...
CBT is a very broad approach used for the treatment of a variety of problems
...
When
the disorder is anxiety or phobia, then the goal of the CBT is to reduce the negative affective
responses to the feared stimulus through exposure therapy, flooding, or systematic
Attributed to Charles Stangor
Saylor URL: http://www
...
org/books/

Saylor
...
Aversion therapy is a type of behavior therapy in which positive punishment is
used to reduce the frequency of an undesirable behavior
...

The most commonly used approaches to therapy are eclectic, such that the therapist uses
whichever techniques seem most useful and relevant for a given patient
...
These therapies primarily involve the use of medications
but also include direct methods of brain intervention, including electroconvulsive therapy (ECT),
transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS), and psychosurgery
...

Mood disorders are most commonly treated with the antidepressant medications known as
selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs), including Prozac, Paxil, and Zoloft
...
Bipolar disorder is treated with mood
stabilizing medications
...

Schizophrenia is treated with antipsychotic drugs, including Thorazine, Haldol, Clozaril,
Risperdal, and Zyprexa
...


Attributed to Charles Stangor
Saylor URL: http://www
...
org/books/

Saylor
...
One way for people to gain this social support
is by joining a self-help group
...
These centers provide primary, secondary, and tertiary
prevention
...
These
studies help determine if improvement is due to natural improvement, nonspecific treatment
effects, or placebo effects
...
What all good therapies have in common is that they give people
hope; help them think more carefully about themselves and about their relationships with others;
and provide a positive, empathic, and trusting relationship with the therapist—the therapeutic
alliance
...
Once the patient stops taking the drug, the symptoms often
return in full force
...


Chapter 14
Psychology in Our Social Lives
Binge Drinking and the Death of a Homecoming Queen

Attributed to Charles Stangor
Saylor URL: http://www
...
org/books/

Saylor
...
But despite her outstanding credentials and
her hopes and plans for the future, Sam Spady died on September 5, 2004, after a night of binge drinking with her
friends
...
When she passed out, after consuming 30 to 40 beers and shots
over the evening, her friends left her alone in an empty room in a fraternity house to sleep it off
...


[1]

Sam is one of an estimated 1,700 college students between the ages of 18 and 24 who die from alcohol-related injuries
each year
...


[2]

―Nobody is immune,‖ said Sam‘s father
...
And if it could happen to her, it
could happen to anybody
...
The bars still have 25-cent shot night and two-for-ones and no
cover for girls‖(Sidman, 2006)
...
You can learn
more at http://samspadyfoundation
...


We have now reached the last chapter of our journey through the field of psychology
...
This topic, known associal psychology, is defined as the scientific study of how
we feel about, think about, and behave toward the other people around us, and how those people
influence our thoughts, feelings, and behavior
...
Questions these psychologists ask include why we are often
Attributed to Charles Stangor
Saylor URL: http://www
...
org/books/

Saylor
...
A fundamental principle of social psychology is that, although we may not
always be aware of it, our cognitions, emotions, and behaviors are substantially influenced by
the social situation, or the people with whom we are interacting
...
We‘ll explore how
we form impressions of other people, and what makes us like or dislike them
...

Then we will consider the social psychology of interpersonal relationships, including the
behaviors of altruism, aggression, and conformity
...
And we will see howsocial norms, the accepted beliefs about what we do or what we
should do in particular social situations (such as the norm of binge drinking common on many
college campuses), influence our behavior
...

The principles of social psychology can help us understand tragic events such as the death of
Sam Spady
...

Attributed to Charles Stangor
Saylor URL: http://www
...
org/books/

Saylor
...
(2006, June 26)
...
USA Today
...
usatoday
...
htm

[2] National Institute on Alcohol Abuse and Alcoholism
...
Statistical snapshot of college drinking
...
(2006, June 26)
...
USA Today
...
usatoday
...
htm

14
...


Review the principles of social cognition, including the fundamentals of how we form judgments about other people
...


Define the concept of attitude and review the ways that attitudes are developed and changed, and how attitudes
relate to behavior
...
Making
these judgments quickly and accurately helps us guide our behavior to interact appropriately with
the people we know
...


Perceiving Others
Our initial judgments of others are based in large part on what we see
...
[1]
Although it may seem inappropriate or shallow to admit it, we are strongly influenced by the
physical attractiveness of others, and many cases physical attractiveness is the most important
determinant of our initial liking for other people (Walster, Aronson, Abrahams, & Rottmann,
Attributed to Charles Stangor
Saylor URL: http://www
...
org/books/

Saylor
...
[2] Infants who are only a year old prefer to look at faces that adults consider to be
attractive than at unattractive faces (Langlois, Ritter, Roggman, & Vaughn,
1991)
...
[4]
One indicator of health is youth
...

These features include large, round, and widely spaced eyes, a small nose and chin, prominent
cheekbones, and a large forehead
...

Another indicator of health is symmetry
...
, 2001)
...
Langlois and Roggman (1990) [7] showed college students the faces of men and
women
...
The
researchers found that the more faces that were averaged into the stimulus, the more attractive it
was judged
...

Although preferences for youthful, symmetrical, and average faces have been observed crossculturally, and thus appear to be common human preferences, different cultures may also have
unique beliefs about what is attractive
...
[8] The need to be thin
to be attractive is particularly strong for women in contemporary society, and the desire to
maintain a low body weight can lead to low self-esteem, eating disorders, and other unhealthy
Attributed to Charles Stangor
Saylor URL: http://www
...
org/books/

Saylor
...
However, the norm of thinness has not always been in place; the preference for
women with slender, masculine, and athletic looks has become stronger over the past 50 years
...
[9]

Forming Judgments on the Basis of Appearance: Stereotyping, Prejudice, and
Discrimination
We frequently use people‘s appearances to form our judgments about them and to determine our
responses to them
...
Our
stereotypes about physically attractive people lead us to see them as more dominant, sexually
warm, mentally healthy, intelligent, and socially skilled than we perceive physically unattractive
people (Langlois et al
...
[10] And our stereotypes lead us to treat people differently—the
physically attractive are given better grades on essay exams, are more successful on job
interviews, and receive lighter sentences in court judgments than their less attractive counterparts
(Hosoda, Stone-Romero, & Coats, 2003; Zebrowitz & McDonald, 1991)
...
[12] Stereotyping is unfair to the people we judge
because stereotypes are based on our preconceptions and negative emotions about the members
of the group
...
Stereotyping, prejudice, and discrimination work together
...

Some stereotypes may be accurate in part
...
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(Langlois et al
...
[13] And, consistent with the stereotype that women are “emotional,‖
women are, on average, more empathic and attuned to the emotions of others than are men (Hall
& Schmid Mast, 2008)
...

A self-fulfilling prophecyoccurs when our expectations about the personality characteristics of
others lead us to behave toward those others in ways that make those beliefs come true
...
This friendly behavior may be reciprocated by the attractive person, and if
many other people also engage in the same positive behaviors with the person, in the long run he
or she may actually become friendlier
...
And even if women are, on average, more
emotional than men, not all men are less emotional than all women
...
[15] Furthermore, many of our stereotypes and prejudices occur out of our awareness, such
that we do not even know that we are using them
...

https://implicit
...
edu/implicit/demo

We use our stereotypes and prejudices in part because they are easy; if we can quickly size up
people on the basis of their physical appearance, that can save us a lot of time and effort
...
Because our primitive ancestors needed to
accurately separate members of their own kin group from those of others, categorizing people
into “us‖ (the ingroup) and “them‖ (the outgroup) was useful and even necessary (Neuberg,
Kenrick, & Schaller, 2010)
...
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group memberships—known associal identity—can be an important and positive part of our
everyday experiences (Hogg, 2003)
...

But the fact that we may use our stereotypes does not mean that we should use them
...
[18] In some cases getting
beyond our prejudices is required by law, as detailed in the U
...
Civil Rights Act of 1964, the
Equal Opportunity Employment Act of 1972, and the Fair Housing Act of 1978
...
[19] For instance, some people believe
in group hierarchies—that some groups are naturally better than others—whereas other people
are more egalitarian and hold fewer prejudices (Sidanius & Pratto, 1999; Stangor & Leary,
2006)
...
The tendency to hold
stereotypes and prejudices and to act on them can be reduced, for instance, through positive
interactions and friendships with members of other groups, through practice in avoiding using
them, and through education (Hewstone, 1996)
...
Ambady and Rosenthal (1993) [22] made videotapes of six female and seven male graduate students
while they were teaching an undergraduate course
...
For each teacher, three 10-second video clips were
taken: 10 seconds from the first 10 minutes of the class, 10 seconds from the middle of the class, and 10 seconds
from the last 10 minutes of the class
...
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The researchers then asked nine female undergraduates to rate the clips of the teachers on 15 dimensions
including optimistic, confident, active,enthusiastic, dominant, likable, warm, competent, and supportive
...
‖ As you can see in Table 14
...


Table 14
...
50

Active

0
...
48

Competent

0
...
82

Dominant

0
...
45

Enthusiastic

0
...
32

Likable

0
...
26

Optimistic

0
...
53

Supportive

0
...
saylor
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org

798

Variable

Pearson Correlation Coefficient (r)

Warm

0
...
76

This table shows the Pearson correlation coefficients between the impressions that a group of students made after they
had seen a video of instructors teaching for only 30 seconds and the teaching ratings of the same instructors made by
students who had spent a whole semester in the class
...
The conclusion is that people are sometimes able to draw accurate impressions about other people
very quickly
...
, & Rosenthal, R
...
Half a minute: Predicting teacher evaluations from thin slices of
nonverbal behavior and physical attractiveness
...

If the finding that judgments made about people in 30 seconds correlate highly with judgments made about the
same people after a whole semester surprises you, then perhaps you may be even more surprised to hear that
we do not even need that much time
...
Other research has found that we can make accurate
judgments, for instance, about our perceptions of salespersons (Ambady, Krabbenhoft, & Hogan, 2006) [24] and
about the sexual orientation of other people (Ambady, Hallahan, & Conner, 1999), [25] in just a few seconds
...

Taken together, this research shows that we are well able to form initial impressions of others quickly and often
quite accurately
...
These relationships include acquaintanceships and friendships but also the more
important close relationships, which are the long-term intimate and romantic relationships that
we develop with another person—for instance, in a marriage (Hendrick & Hendrick,
2000)
...
saylor
...
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799

rearing, it is useful to know what psychologists have learned about the principles of liking and
loving within them
...
One important factor is a perceived similarity in values
and beliefs between the partners (Davis & Rusbult, 2001)
...

Liking is also enhanced by self-disclosure, the tendency to communicate frequently, without fear
of reprisal, and in an accepting and empathetic manner
...
[29] But self-disclosure must be balanced
...
If the self-disclosure is
not reciprocal, the relationship may not last
...
Research has found that we are more likely to develop friendships with
people who are nearby, for instance, those who live in the same dorm that we do, and even with
people who just happen to sit nearer to us in our classes (Back, Schmukle, & Egloff, 2008)
...

Moreland and Beach (1992) [31] studied mere exposure by having female confederates attend a
large lecture class of over 100 students 0, 5, 10, or 15 times during a semester
...
The number of times
the confederates had attended class didn‘t influence the other students‘ ability to recognize them,
Attributed to Charles Stangor
Saylor URL: http://www
...
org/books/

Saylor
...
As predicted by the mere exposure hypothesis, students
who had attended class more often were liked more (Figure 14
...


Figure 14
...
Then the students rated their liking of the confederates
...

Source: Adapted from Moreland, R
...
, & Beach, S
...
(1992)
...
Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 28(3), 255–276
...
Infants tend to
smile at a photograph of someone they have seen before more than they smile at a photograph of
someone they are seeing for the first time (Brooks-Gunn & Lewis, 1981), [32] and people prefer
side-to-side reversed images of their own faces over their normal (nonreversed) face, whereas
their friends prefer their normal face over the reversed one (Mita, Dermer, & Knight,
1977)
...

Attributed to Charles Stangor
Saylor URL: http://www
...
org/books/

Saylor
...
We have an initial fear of the unknown, but
as things become more familiar they seem more similar and safe, and thus produce more positive
affect and seem less threatening and dangerous (Freitas, Azizian, Travers, & Berry, 2005)
...
[35] When the stimuli are people, there may well be an
added effect
...
Leslie Zebrowitz and her colleagues found that
we like people of our own race in part because they are perceived as similar to us (Zebrowitz,
Bornstad, & Lee, 2007)
...

Arthur Aron and his colleagues (Aron, Aron, & Smollan, 1992) [37] assessed the role of closeness
in relationships using the Inclusion of Other in the Self Scale as shown in Figure 14
...
You might try completing the measure yourself for some
different people that you know—for instance, your family members, friends, spouse, or girlfriend
or boyfriend
...
But if they
choose the circles that are less overlapping, then the relationship is less so
...
6 The Inclusion of Other in the Self Scale

Attributed to Charles Stangor
Saylor URL: http://www
...
org/books/

Saylor
...
The respondent simply circles which of the
seven figures he or she feels best characterizes the relationship
...
, Aron, E
...
, & Smollan, D
...
Inclusion of other in the self scale and the
structure of interpersonal closeness
...


Although the closeness measure is very simple, it has been found to be predictive of people‘s
satisfaction with their close relationships, and of the tendency for couples to stay together (Aron,
Aron, Tudor, & Nelson, 1991; Aron, Paris, & Aron, 1995)
...
[39]
When a couple begins to take care of a household together, has children, and perhaps has to care
for elderly parents, the requirements of the relationship become correspondingly bigger
...

Relationships are close in part because the couple becomes highly interdependent, relying on
each other to meet important goals (Berscheid & Reis, 1998)
...
Commitment refers to the feelings and actions that keep partners working
together to maintain the relationship (Rusbult, Olsen, Davis, Hannon, 2001) [41] and is
characterized by mutual expectations that the self and the partner will be responsive to each
other‘s needs (Clark & Mills, 2004)
...
[43]
People also find relationships more satisfactory, and stay in them longer, when they feel that they
are being rewarded by them
...
saylor
...
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803

the relationship is in trouble
...
But over the long term, both partners must
benefit from the relationship
...
Indeed, intimacy is also dependent
on passion—the partners must display positive affect toward each other
...
People are happier in
their relationships when they view the other person in a positive or even an “idealized‖ sense,
rather than a more realistic and perhaps more negative one (Murray, Holmes, & Griffin,
1996)
...
People are happy, healthy, and likely to stay in relationships in which they are
sure that they can trust the other person to understand, validate, and care for them
...


Causal Attribution: Forming Judgments by Observing Behavior
When we observe people‘s behavior we may attempt to determine if the behavior really reflects
their underlying personality
...
If Leslie leaves a big tip for the waitress, we might wonder
if she is a generous person or if the service was particularly excellent
...
, 1987)
...
saylor
...
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Making causal attributions is a bit like conducting an experiment
...
After we have
made our observations, we draw our conclusions
...
At other times, we
may determine that the behavior was caused primarily by the situation; this is called making
a situation attribution
...

It is easier to make personal attributions when behavior is more unusual or unexpected
...
Tess shakes your hand and says “Nice to
meet you!‖ Can you readily conclude, on the basis of this behavior, that Tess is a friendly
person? Probably not
...
Imagine, however, that instead
of shaking your hand, Tess sticks out her tongue at you and walks away
...
[47]
Although people are reasonably accurate in their attributions (we could say, perhaps, that they
are “good enough‖; Fiske, 2003), [48] they are far from perfect
...
If you did well on a test, you will probably
attribute that success to person causes (“I‘m smart,‖ “I studied really hard‖), but if you do poorly
on the test you are more likely to make situation attributions (“The test was hard,‖ “I had bad
luck‖)
...

Another way that our attributions are often inaccurate is that we are, by and large, too quick to
attribute the behavior of other people to something personal about them rather than to something
about their situation
...
saylor
...
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than “Leslie left a big tip, but perhaps that was because the service was really excellent
...

The fundamental attribution error occurs in part because other people are so salient in our social
environments
...
If the situation is reversed such that people see situations from the
perspectives of others, the fundamental attribution error is reduced (Storms, 1973)
...
It‘s easy for you to think that your
math professor is “picky and detail-oriented‖ because that describes her behavior in class, but
you don‘t know how she acts with her friends and family, which might be completely different
...
We are more likely to
commit the fundamental attribution error—quickly jumping to the conclusion that behavior is
caused by underlying personality—when we are tired, distracted, or busy doing other things
(Trope & Alfieri, 1997)
...
It is easy to think that poor people are lazy, that people who say something harsh
are rude or unfriendly, and that all terrorists are insane madmen
...
[51] Sometimes people are
lazy and rude, and some terrorists are probably insane, but these people may also be influenced
by the situation in which they find themselves
...
When you find yourself
making strong person attributions for the behaviors of others, I hope you will stop and think
more carefully
...
saylor
...
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the same situation, or would you prefer that they more fully consider the situation surrounding
your behavior? Are you perhaps making the fundamental attribution error?

Attitudes and Behavior
Attitude refer

to our relatively enduring evaluations of people and things(Albarracín, Johnson, & Zanna,

2005)
...

Some of our attitudes, including those about sports, roller coaster rides, and capital punishment,
are heritable, which explains in part why we are similar to our parents on many dimensions
(Olson, Vernon, Harris, & Jang, 2001)
...
[54]
Attitudes are important because they frequently (but not always) predict behavior
...
If we
know that Charlie is madly in love with Charlene, then we will not be surprised when he
proposes marriage
...
Table 14
...
[55]

Attributed to Charles Stangor
Saylor URL: http://www
...
org/books/

Saylor
...
2 Techniques That Can Be Effective in Persuading Others
Technique

Examples
Communicators who are attractive, expert, trustworthy, and similar to the listener are

Choose effective communicators
...

If the listener wants to be entertained, then it is better to use a humorous ad; if the listener

Consider the goals of the listener
...


Use humor
...

Try to associate your product with positive stimuli such as funny jokes or attractive

Use classical conditioning
...

Humorous and fear-arousing ads can be effective because they arouse the listener‘s

Make use of the listener‘s emotions
...


Use the listener‘s behavior to modify One approach is the foot-in-the-door technique
...


for a larger request after the smaller request has been accepted
...
People who are high in selfmonitoring—the tendency to regulate behavior to meet the demands of social situations—tend to
change their behaviors to match the social situation and thus do not always act on their attitudes
(Gangestad & Snyder, 2000)
...
‖ Attitudes are more likely to predict behavior for low selfmonitors, who are more likely to act on their own attitudes even when the social situation
suggests that they should behave otherwise
...
‖
The match between the social situations in which the attitudes are expressed and the behaviors
are engaged in also matters, such that there is a greater attitude-behavior correlation when the
social situations match
...
Magritte tells her parents that she hates the idea of smoking cigarettes
...
saylor
...
org

808

The problem here is that Magritte‘s attitude is being expressed in one social situation (when she
is with her parents) whereas the behavior (trying a cigarette) is going to occur in a very different
social situation (when she is out with her friends)
...
Magritte‘s friends might be able to convince her to try smoking,
despite her initial negative attitude, by enticing her with peer pressure
...
[57]
Although it might not have surprised you to hear that our attitudes predict our behaviors, you
might be more surprised to learn that our behaviors also have an influence on our attitudes
...
But my attitudes toward Frosted Flakes may also become more
positive if I decide—for whatever reason—to buy some
...

Behaviors influence attitudes in part through the process of self-perception
...
[58] In one demonstration of the power
of self-perception, Wells and Petty (1980) [59] assigned their research participants to shake their
heads either up and down or side to side as they read newspaper editorials
...
Wells and Petty argued that this occurred because the
participants used their own head-shaking behaviors to determine their attitudes about the
editorials
...
The foot-in-the-door
technique is a method of persuasion in which the person is first persuaded to accept a rather
minor request and then asked for a larger one after that
...
saylor
...
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volunteer to complete a 40-question survey on their food habits (which required 15 to 20 minutes
of their time) if they had already, a few minutes earlier, agreed to help the same requestor with a
simple computer-related question (about how to convert a file type) than if they had not first
been given the smaller opportunity to help
...

Behavior also influences our attitudes through a more emotional process known as cognitive
dissonance
...
[61] If we feel that we have wasted our time or acted against our own moral principles, we
experience negative emotions (dissonance) and may change our attitudes about the behavior to
reduce the negative feelings
...
In their experiment, female college students volunteered to join a group that would be
meeting regularly to discuss various aspects of the psychology of sex
...
Then all the women got a chance to listen to the
group‘s conversation, which turned out to be very boring
...
They argued that the
more effort an individual expends to become a member of the group (e
...
, a severe initiation), the
more they will become committed to the group, to justify the effort they have put in during the
initiation
...
saylor
...
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810

pretty fun‖)
...
The women who went through the more
severe initiation, however, succeeded in convincing themselves that the same discussion was a
worthwhile experience
...

After we buy a product, we convince ourselves that we made the right choice because the
product is excellent
...
If we hurt someone else‘s feelings, we may even decide that he or she is a bad person
who deserves our negative behavior
...
No wonder that most of us believe that “If I had
it all to do over again, I would not change anything important
...




Social cognition involves forming impressions of ourselves and other people
...




Our initial judgments of others are based in large part on what we see
...




We are attracted to people who appear to be healthy
...




We frequently use people’s appearances to form our judgments about them, and to determine our responses to them
...
Social psychologists believe that people should
get past their prejudices and judge people as individuals
...
Intimacy is determined by similarity, self-disclosure, interdependence,
commitment, rewards, and passion
...
saylor
...
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

Causal attribution is the process of trying to determine the causes of people’s behavior with the goal of learning about
their personalities
...




Attitudes refer to our relatively enduring evaluations of people and things
...




Although attitudes predict behaviors, behaviors also predict attitudes
...


EXERCISES AND CRITIC AL THINKING
1
...


What stereotypes and prejudices do you hold? Are you able to get past them and judge people as individuals? Do you
think that your stereotypes influence your behavior without your being aware of them?

3
...
Did this occur as a result of self-perception or cognitive
dissonance?

[1] Schneider, D
...
(2004)
...
New York, NY: Guilford Press; Zebrowitz, L
...
, & Montepare, J
...
The ecological approach to person perception: Evolutionary roots and contemporary offshoots
...
Schaller, J
...

Simpson, & D
...
Kenrick (Eds
...
81–113)
...


[2] Walster, E
...
, Abrahams, D
...
(1966)
...
Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 4(5), 508–516
...
H
...
M
...
A
...
S
...
Facial diversity and infant preferences for attractive
faces
...


[4] Zebrowitz, L
...
, Fellous, J
...
, Mignault, A
...
(2003)
...
Personality and Social Psychology Review, 7(3),
194–215
...
A
...
Physical appearance as a basis of stereotyping
...
N
...
Stangor, & M
...
), Stereotypes and stereotyping (pp
...
New York, NY: Guilford Press; Zebrowitz, L
...
, Luevano, V
...
, Bronstad, P
...
, & Aharon, I
...
Neural activation to babyfaced men matches activation to babies
...


Attributed to Charles Stangor
Saylor URL: http://www
...
org/books/

Saylor
...
, Zebrowitz, L
...
, Clark, A
...
M
...
, & McKay, R
...
Do facial averageness and symmetry
signal health? Evolution and Human Behavior, 22(1), 31–46
...
H
...
A
...
Attractive faces are only average
...

[8] Crandall, C
...
, Merman, A
...
(2009)
...
In T
...
Nelson (Ed
...
469–487)
...


[9] Sugiyama, L
...
(2005)
...
In D
...
Buss (Ed
...
292–343)
...


[10] Langlois, J
...
, Kalakanis, L
...
J
...
, Hallam, M
...
(2000)
...
Psychological Bulletin, 126(3), 390–423
...
, Stone-Romero, E
...
, & Coats, G
...
The effects of physical attractiveness on job-related outcomes: A
meta-analysis of experimental studies
...
A
...
M
...
The
impact of litigants’ baby-facedness and attractiveness on adjudications in small claims courts
...


[12] Schneider, D
...
(2004)
...
New York, NY: Guilford Press
...
H
...
, Rubenstein, A
...
, Larson, A
...
, & Smoot, M
...
Maxims or myths of beauty? A
meta-analytic and theoretical review
...


[14] Hall, J
...
, & Schmid Mast, M
...
Are women always more interpersonally sensitive than men? Impact of goals and
content domain
...


[15] Fiske, S
...
(1989)
...
In J
...

Uleman & J
...
Bargh (Eds
...
253–286)
...
(1995)
...
In Y
...
Lee, L
...
Jussim, & C
...
McCauley (Eds
...
275–292)
...


[16] Neuberg, S
...
, Kenrick, D
...
, & Schaller, M
...
Evolutionary social psychology
...
T
...
T
...
Lindzey
(Eds
...
, Vol
...
761–796)
...


[17] Hogg, M
...
(2003)
...
In M
...
Leary & J
...
Tangney (Eds
...
462–479)
...


[18] Swim, J
...
, & Stangor, C
...
Prejudice: The target’s perspective
...


Attributed to Charles Stangor
Saylor URL: http://www
...
org/books/

Saylor
...
M
...
J
...
Y
...
Standing up for a change: Reducing bias through interpersonal
confrontation
...
A
...
G
...
Internal and
external motivation to respond without prejudice
...


[20] Sidanius, J
...
(1999)
...
New York, NY:
Cambridge University Press; Stangor, C
...
(2006)
...
Advances in
Experimental Social Psychology, 38, 243–283
...
(1996)
...
In C
...
Macrae, C
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Hewstone (Eds
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323–368)
...


[22] Ambady, N
...
(1993)
...
Journal of Personality & Social Psychology, 64(3), 431–441
...
, & Todorov, A
...
First impressions: Making up your mind after a 100-ms exposure to a face
...


[24] Ambady, N
...
A
...
(2006)
...
Journal of Consumer Psychology, 16(1), 4–13
...
, Hallahan, M
...
(1999)
...
Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 77(3), 538–547
...
, Mandisodza, A
...
, Goren, A
...
C
...
Inferences of competence from faces predict election
outcomes
...


[27] Hendrick, C
...
S
...
(2000)
...
Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage
...
L
...
E
...
Attitude alignment in close relationships
...


[29] Reis, H
...
, & Aron, A
...
Love: What is it, why does it matter, and how does it operate? Perspectives on Psychological
Science, 3(1), 80–86
...
D
...
C
...
(2008)
...
Psychological Science, 19(5), 439–440
...
L
...
R
...
Exposure effects in the classroom: The development of affinity among
students
...


Attributed to Charles Stangor
Saylor URL: http://www
...
org/books/

Saylor
...
, & Lewis, M
...
Infant social perception: Responses to pictures of parents and
strangers
...


[33] Mita, T
...
, Dermer, M
...
(1977)
...
Journal of
Personality & Social Psychology, 35(8), 597–601
...
L
...
, Travers, S
...
A
...
The evaluative connotation of processing fluency: Inherently
positive or moderated by motivational context? Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 41(6), 636–644
...
, & Allen, J
...
B
...
The role of affect in the mere exposure effect: Evidence from psychophysiological
and individual differences approaches
...


[36] Zebrowitz, L
...
, Bronstad, P
...
, & Lee, H
...
(2007)
...
Social Cognition, 25(2), 306–338
...
, Aron, E
...
, & Smollan, D
...
Inclusion of other in the self scale and the structure of interpersonal
closeness
...


[38] Aron, A
...
N
...
, & Nelson, G
...
Close relationships as including other in the self
...
, Paris, M
...
N
...
Falling in love: Prospective studies of self-concept
change
...


[39] Reis, H
...
, & Aron, A
...
Love: What is it, why does it matter, and how does it operate? Perspectives on Psychological
Science, 3(1), 80–86
...
, & Reis, H
...
(1998)
...
In D
...
Gilbert, S
...
Fiske, & G
...
), The
handbook of social psychology (4th ed
...
1–2, pp
...
New York, NY: McGraw-Hill
...
E
...
, Davis, J
...
, & Hannon, P
...
(2001)
...
In J
...
Wenzel (Eds
...
87–113)
...


[42] Clark, M
...
, & Mills, J
...
Interpersonal attraction in exchange and communal relationships
...
T
...
E
...
), Close relationships: Key readings (pp
...
Philadelphia, PA: Taylor & Francis
...
A
...
A
...
Interpersonal attraction
...
L
...
H
...
), Perspectives on close
relationships (pp
...
Boston, MA: Allyn & Bacon
...
saylor
...
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[44] Murray, S
...
, Holmes, J
...
, & Griffin, D
...
(1996)
...
Journal of Personality & Social Psychology, 70(1), 79–98
...
S
...
P
...
(2010)
...
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...
Fiske, D
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Gilbert, & G
...
), Handbook of
social psychology (5th ed
...
2, pp
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Hoboken, NJ: John Wiley & Sons
...
E
...
E
...
H
...
E
...
, & Weiner, B
...
(1987)
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Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates
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E
...
E
...
J
...
Role playing variations and their informational value for person
perception
...


[48] Fiske, S
...
(2003)
...
Hoboken, NJ: John Wiley & Sons
...
D
...
Videotape and the attribution process: Reversing actors’ and observers’ points of view
...


[50] Trope, Y
...
(1997)
...
Journal of Personality and
Social Psychology, 73(4), 662–674
...
(1980)
...
New York, NY: Plenum; Tennen, H
...

(1990)
...
Psychological Bulletin, 108(2), 209–232
...
, Johnson, B
...
, & Zanna, M
...
(Eds
...
The handbook of attitudes
...


[53] Olson, J
...
, Vernon, P
...
, Harris, J
...
, & Jang, K
...
(2001)
...
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Personality & Social Psychology, 80(6), 845–860
...
, Thomas, S
...
(2001)
...
Psychological Bulletin, 127(6), 853–869
...
B
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Influence: Science and practice (4th ed
...

[56] Gangestad, S
...
, & Snyder, M
...
Self-monitoring: Appraisal and reappraisal
...

[57] Ajzen, I
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The theory of planned behavior
...

[58] Bem, D
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...
), Advances in Experimental Social Psychology (Vol
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The influence of behavior on attitudes
...
Albarracín, B
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Johnson,
& M
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223–271)
...


Attributed to Charles Stangor
Saylor URL: http://www
...
org/books/

Saylor
...
L
...
E
...
The effects of overt head movements on persuasion: Compatibility and incompatibility of
responses
...


[60] Guéguen, N
...
(2002)
...
CyberPsychology & Behavior, 5(4), 377–383
...
(1957)
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Evanston, IL: Row, Peterson; Harmon-Jones, E
...

(1999)
...
Washington, DC: American Psychological
Association
...
, & Mills, J
...
The effect of severity of initiation on liking for a group
...


14
...


Summarize the genetic and environmental factors that contribute to human altruism
...


Provide an overview of the causes of human aggression
...


Explain the situations under which people conform to others and their motivations for doing so
...
We are often helpful, even when that helping comes at some cost to ourselves, and
we often change our opinions and beliefs to fit in with the opinions of those whom we care
about
...


Helping Others: Altruism Helps Create Harmonious Relationships
Altruism refers to any behavior that is designed to increase another person’s welfare, and
particularly those actions that do not seem to provide a direct reward to the person who
performs them (Dovidio, Piliavin, Schroeder, & Penner, 2006)
...
According to a survey given by an established coalition
that studies and encourages volunteering (http://www
...
org), in 2001 over 83
Attributed to Charles Stangor
Saylor URL: http://www
...
org/books/

Saylor
...
6 hours per week
...


Why Are We Altruistic?
Because altruism is costly, you might wonder why we engage in it at all
...
3 "Some of the Variables Known to
Increase Helping" summarizes some of the variables that are known to increase helping
...
3 Some of the Variables Known to Increase Helping
Positive moods

We help more when we are in a good mood (Guéguen & De Gail, 2003)
...


Guilt

If we are experiencing guilt, we may help relieve those negative feelings
...

We are more likely to help if we can feel good about ourselves by doing so (Snyder, Omoto, & Lindsay,

Benefits

2004)
...


Self-presentation

We may help in order to show others that we are good people (Hardy & Van Vugt, 2006)
...
, & De Gail, M
...
(2003)
...
Communication Reports, 16(2), 133–140; van Baaren, R
...
, Holland, R
...
, Kawakami, K
...
(2004)
...
Psychological Science, 15(1), 71–74; Batson, C
...
, O‘Quin, K
...
, Varnderplas, M
...
M
...
Influence of self-reported distress and empathy
on egoistic versus altruistic motivation to help
...
, Omoto, A
...
, & Lindsay, J
...
(Eds
...
Sacrificing time and effort for the good of others: The

Attributed to Charles Stangor
Saylor URL: http://www
...
org/books/

Saylor
...
New York, NY: Guilford Press; Hardy, C
...
, & Van Vugt, M
...
Nice guys

finish first: The competitive altruism hypothesis
...


The tendency to help others in need is in part a functional evolutionary adaptation
...
, 2007; McAndrew, 2002; Stewart-Williams,
2007)
...
g
...
g
...
People are more likely to donate kidneys to relatives than to strangers (Borgida,
Conner, & Manteufel, 1992), [4] and even children indicate that they are more likely to help their
siblings than they are to help a friend (Tisak & Tisak, 1996)
...
[6] Reciprocal altruismis the principle that, if we help other people now, those others will
return the favor should we need their help in the future
...
Over the
course of evolution, those who engage in reciprocal altruism should be able to reproduce more
often than those who do not, thus enabling this kind of altruism to continue
...
Although people frequently
worry about the negative impact of the violence that is seen on TV, there is also a great deal of
helping behavior shown on television
...
(2006) [7] found that 73% of TV shows had
some altruism, and that about three altruistic behaviors were shown every hour
...
But just as viewing altruism
Attributed to Charles Stangor
Saylor URL: http://www
...
org/books/

Saylor
...
For
instance, Anderson and Bushman (2001) [8] found that playing violent video games led to a
decrease in helping
...
Parents praise their children who share their toys with others, and may
reprimand children who are selfish
...
[9] Another potential reward is the status we
gain as a result of helping
...
[10]
The outcome of the reinforcement and modeling of altruism is the development of social norms
about helping—standards of behavior that we see as appropriate and desirable regarding helping
...
If
someone helps us, then we should help them in the future, and we should help people now with
the expectation that they will help us later if we need it
...
‖
Because helping based on the reciprocity norm is based on the return of earlier help and the
expectation of a future return from others, it might not seem like true altruism
...
The social responsibility norm tells us that we should try to help others who
need assistance, even without any expectation of future paybacks
...


How the Presence of Others Can Reduce Helping
Attributed to Charles Stangor
Saylor URL: http://www
...
org/books/

Saylor
...
When the police interviewed Kitty‘s neighbors about the crime, they
discovered that 38 of the neighbors indicated that they had seen or heard the fight occurring but
not one of them had bothered to intervene, and only one person had called the police
...

Two social psychologists, Bibb Latané and John Darley, were interested in the factors that
influenced people to help (or to not help) in such situations (Latané & Darley, 1968)
...
9) that took into consideration the important role of the social
situation in determining helping
...
Social psychologists have discovered that it was the 38 people
themselves that contributed to the tragedy, because people are less likely to notice, interpret, and
respond to the needs of others when they are with others than they are when they are alone
...
saylor
...
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Figure 14
...


The first step in the model is noticing the event
...
Some of the participants completed the questionnaire alone,
whereas others completed the questionnaire in small groups in which two other participants were
also working on questionnaires
...
The experimenters timed how long it took before the first person in the room
looked up and noticed the smoke
...
On the other hand, on
average, the first person in the group conditions did not notice the smoke until over 20 seconds
had elapsed
...
In fact, in only
3 of the 8 groups did anyone report the smoke, even after it had filled the room
...

Attributed to Charles Stangor
Saylor URL: http://www
...
org/books/

Saylor
...
Were the cries of Kitty
Genovese really calls for help, or were they simply an argument with a boyfriend? The problem
is compounded when others are present, because when we are unsure how to interpret events we
normally look to others to help us understand them, and at the same time they are looking to us
for information
...
Believing that the others know something that they don‘t,
each observer concludes that help is not required
...
We still need to decide that it is our
responsibility to do something
...
Diffusion of responsibility occurs when we assume that others will take action and
therefore we do not take action ourselves
...

Perhaps you have noticed diffusion of responsibility if you participated in an Internet users group
where people asked questions of the other users
...

The final step in the helping model is knowing how to help
...
People who do have training in how to act in
emergencies are more likely to help, whereas the rest of us just don‘t know what to do, and
therefore we may simply walk by
...

Attributed to Charles Stangor
Saylor URL: http://www
...
org/books/

Saylor
...
Aggression may occur in the
heat of the moment, for instance, when a jealous lover strikes out in rage or the sports fans at a
university light fires and destroy cars after an important basketball game
...

Not all aggression is physical
...
Paquette and
Underwood (1999) [14] found that both boys and girls rated nonphysical aggression such as namecalling as making them feel more “sad and bad‖ than did physical aggression
...

If aggression helps in the survival of our genes, then the process of natural selection may well
have caused humans, as it would any other animal, to be aggressive (Buss & Duntley, 2006)
...
Aggression is controlled in large part by the
amygdala
...
The amygdala is particularly
activated in our responses to stimuli that we see as threatening and fear-arousing
...

But just because we can aggress does not mean that we will aggress
...
Neither people nor animals are always
aggressive; they rely on aggression only when they feel that they absolutely need to (Berkowitz,
Attributed to Charles Stangor
Saylor URL: http://www
...
org/books/

Saylor
...
[16] The prefrontal cortex serves as a control center on aggression; when it is more highly
activated, we are more able to control our aggressive impulses
...
[17]
Hormones are also important in regulating aggression
...
Research conducted on a variety of animals has found a positive correlation between
levels of testosterone and aggression
...
[18]
Consuming alcohol increases the likelihood that people will respond aggressively to
provocations, and even people who are not normally aggressive may react with aggression when
they are intoxicated (Graham, Osgood, Wells, & Stockwell, 2006)
...
[20]

Negative Experiences Increase Aggression
If I were to ask you about the times that you have been aggressive, I bet that you would tell me
that many of them occurred when you were angry, in a bad mood, tired, in pain, sick, or
frustrated
...
One important determinant of aggression is frustration
...
In
some cases the aggression is displaced aggression, which is aggression that is directed at an
object or person other than the person who caused the frustration
...
saylor
...
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825

Other negative emotions also increase aggression
...
The students in the latter conditions expressed
significantly more hostility
...
[22] Pain also increases aggression (Berkowitz,
1993)
...
Catharsis—the idea that observing
or engaging in less harmful aggressive actions will reduce the tendency to aggress later in a
more harmful way—has been considered by many as a way of decreasing violence, and it was an
important part of the theories of Sigmund Freud
...
Rather than decreasing aggression, engaging in aggressive behaviors of any type increases
the likelihood of later aggression
...
Then half of the participants were
allowed to engage in a cathartic behavior: They were given boxing gloves and then got a chance
to hit a punching bag for 2 minutes
...
Contrary to the catharsis hypothesis, the students who had punched the punching
bag set a higher noise level and delivered longer bursts of noise than the participants who did not
get a chance to hit the punching bag
...


Viewing Violent Media Increases Aggression
Attributed to Charles Stangor
Saylor URL: http://www
...
org/books/

Saylor
...
At the same time, children are also exposed to violence in
movies and video games, as well as in popular music and music videos that include violent lyrics
and imagery
...
The evidence supporting this relationship comes from many
studies conducted over many years using both correlational designs as well as laboratory studies
in which people have been randomly assigned to view either violent or nonviolent material
(Anderson et al
...
[25] Viewing violent behavior also increases aggression in part through
observational learning
...
One
example is in the studies of Albert Bandura, as shown in below
...

Another outcome of viewing large amounts of violent material isdesensitization, which is the
tendency over time to show weaker emotional responses to emotional stimuli
...
However, over time, as
we see more and more violence, we become habituated to it, such that the subsequent exposures
produce fewer and fewer negative emotional responses
...
[26]
Of course, not everyone who views violent material becomes aggressive; individual differences
also matter
...
[27] People with inflated or unstable self-esteem are more prone to anger and are
highly aggressive when their high self-image is threatened (Baumeister, Smart, & Boden,
1996)
...
saylor
...
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827

attention, who think a lot of themselves, and who cannot take criticism (Salmivalli & Nieminen,
2002)
...

There is a culturally universal tendency for men to be more physically violent than women
(Archer & Coyne, 2005; Crick & Nelson, 2002)
...
[31] These sex differences do not imply that women are never aggressive
...
[32]

Research Focus: The Culture of Honor
In addition to differences across cultures, there are also regional differences in the incidence of violence in
different parts of the United States
...
One explanation for these differences is
variation in cultural norms about the appropriate reactions to threats against one‘s social status
...
In short, some men react more violently than others when they believe that
others are threatening them
...
The culture of honor leads people to view even relatively minor conflicts or disputes as
challenges to one‘s social status and reputation and can therefore trigger aggressive responses
...

In one series of experiments, Cohen, Nisbett, Bosdle, and Schwarz (1996) [33] investigated how white male
students who had grown up either in the northern or in the southern regions of the United States responded to
insults
...
The experimenters enlisted the help of a

Attributed to Charles Stangor
Saylor URL: http://www
...
org/books/

Saylor
...
Compared
with Northerners, students from the South who had been bumped were more likely to think that their
masculine reputations had been threatened, exhibited greater physiological signs of being upset, had higher
testosterone levels, engaged in more aggressive and dominant behavior (gave firmer handshakes), and were less
willing to yield to a subsequent confederate (Figure 14
...


Figure 14
...
S
...

Source: Adapted from Cohen, D
...
E
...
, & Schwarz, N
...
Insult, aggression, and the
southern culture of honor: An ―experimental ethnography
...


Attributed to Charles Stangor
Saylor URL: http://www
...
org/books/

Saylor
...
To half the
employers, the applicant reported that he had impulsively killed a man who had been having an affair with his
fiancée and then taunted him about it in a crowded bar
...
Employers from the South and the West, places in
which the culture of honor is strong, were more likely than employers in the North and East to respond in an
understanding and cooperative way to the letter from the convicted killer, but there were no cultural differences
for the letter from the auto thief
...
While people in the northern parts of the United States were usually
farmers who grew crops, people from southern climates were more likely to raise livestock
...
To be successful in an environment where theft was common, a man had
to build a reputation for strength and toughness, and this was accomplished by a willingness to use swift, and
sometimes violent, punishment against thieves
...
We conform not only because we
believe that other people have accurate information and we want to have knowledge
(informational conformity) but also because we want to be liked by others (normative
conformity)
...
But some situations create more conformity than others, and some of
the factors that contribute to conformity are shown in Table 14
...

Attributed to Charles Stangor
Saylor URL: http://www
...
org/books/

Saylor
...
4 Variables That Increase Conformity
Variable

Description

Example

As the number of people who are engaging

People are more likely to stop and look up in the air when many,

Number in

in a behavior increases, the tendency to

rather than few, people are also looking up (Milgram, Bickman, &

majority

conform to those people also increases
...


Conformity reduces sharply when any one

In Solomon Asch‘s line-matching research, when any one person

person deviates from the norm
...


Unanimity

Milgram (1974) found that conformity in his obedience studies was
greatly reduced when the person giving the command to shock was
Status and

People who have higher status, such as

described as an “ordinary man‖ rather than a scientist at Yale

authority

those in authority, create more conformity
...


Sources: Milgram, S
...
, & Berkowitz, L
...
Note on the drawing power of crowds of different
size
...
(1974)
...
New York, NY: Harper and Row
...
Robert Cialdini and his colleagues (Cialdini, Reno, & Kallgren, 1990) [35] found that
college students were more likely to throw litter on the ground themselves when they had just
seen another person throw some paper on the ground, and Cheng and Chartrand (2003) [36] found
that people unconsciously mimicked the behaviors of others, such as by rubbing their face or
shaking their foot, and that that mimicry was greater when the other person was of high versus
low social status
...
In his studies,
college students were placed in a dark room with a single point of light and were asked to
indicate, each time the light was turned on, how much it appeared to move
...
) Each group
member gave his or her response on each trial aloud and each time in a different random order
...
11 "Sherif‘s (1936) Studies on Conformity", Sherif found a
Attributed to Charles Stangor
Saylor URL: http://www
...
org/books/

Saylor
...
When the
participants were interviewed after the study, they indicated that they had not realized that they
were conforming
...
11 Sherif’s (1936) Studies on Conformity

The participants in the studies by Muzafer Sherif initially had different beliefs about the degree to which a point of
light appeared to be moving
...
) However, as they shared their
beliefs with other group members over several days, a common group norm developed
...

Source: Adapted from Sherif, M
...
The psychology of social norms
...


Not all conformity is passive
...
The research participants were male college students who
were told that they were to be participating in a test of visual abilities
...
The men were
told that there would be 18 trials during the experiment, and on each trial they would see two
cards
...

Attributed to Charles Stangor
Saylor URL: http://www
...
org/books/

Saylor
...
12

On each trial, each person in the group answered out loud, beginning with one end of the group
and moving toward the other end
...
Because the real participant was seated next to last in the
row, he always made his judgment following most of the other group members
...
For instance, even
though the correct answer was Line 1, they would all say it was Line 2
...
saylor
...
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833

participant‘s turn to answer, he could either give the clearly correct answer or conform to the
incorrect responses of the confederates
...
This is
indeed evidence for the power of conformity because the participants were making clearly
incorrect responses in public
...


Video Clip
Asch‘s Line Matching Studies
Watch this video to see a demonstration of Asch‘s line studies
...
[39] Milgram designed a study in
which he could observe the extent to which a person who presented himself as an authority
would be able to produce obedience, even to the extent of leading people to cause harm to others
...

Milgram used newspaper ads to recruit men (and in one study, women) from a wide variety of
backgrounds to participate in his research
...
The
experimenter explained that the goal of the research was to study the effects of punishment on
learning
...
They were
Attributed to Charles Stangor
Saylor URL: http://www
...
org/books/

Saylor
...
In fact both papers read
“teacher,‖ which allowed the confederate to pretend that he had been assigned to be the learner
and thus to assure that the actual participant was always the teacher
...
The
experimenter explained that the teacher‘s job would be to sit in the control room and read a list
of word pairs to the learner
...
For instance, if the word pair was “blue sofa,‖ the teacher
would say the word “blue‖ on the testing trials, and the learner would have to indicate which of
four possible words (“house,‖ “sofa,‖ “cat,‖ or “carpet‖) was the correct answer by pressing one
of four buttons in front of him
...
The research participant first read the list of words to the
learner and then began testing him on his learning
...
13 "Materials
Used in Milgram‘s Experiments on Obedience") was in front of the teacher, and the learner was
not visible in the shock room
...
Moreover, the switch that was to be pressed increased by one level with each mistake, so
that each mistake required a stronger shock
...
saylor
...
org

835

Figure 14
...
(1974)
...
New York, NY: Harper
and Row
...

Attributed to Charles Stangor
Saylor URL: http://www
...
org/books/

Saylor
...
After the next few mistakes,
when the shock level reached 150 V, the learner was heard to exclaim, “Let me out of here
...
From 330 V and up, the learner was silent
...

The results of Milgram‘s research were themselves quite shocking
...
Some refused to continue after
about 150 V, despite the insistence of the experimenter to continue to increase the shock level
...
In the end, 65% of the
participants continued giving the shock to the learner all the way up to the 450 V maximum,
even though that shock was marked as “danger: severe shock‖ and no response had been heard
from the participant for several trials
...

In case you are thinking that such high levels of obedience would not be observed in today‘s
modern culture, there is fact evidence that they would
...
[40] In this replication of the Milgram
experiment, 67% of the men and 73% of the women agreed to administer increasingly painful
electric shocks when an authority figure ordered them to
...

Although it might be tempting to conclude that Burger‘s and Milgram‘s experiments demonstrate
that people are innately bad creatures who are ready to shock others to death, this is not in fact
the case
...
saylor
...
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837

behavior
...
Conformity was significantly
reduced when people were allowed to choose their own shock level rather than being ordered to
use the level required by the experimenter, when the experimenter communicated by phone
rather than from within the experimental room, and when other research participants refused to
give the shock
...


Do We Always Conform?
The research that we have discussed to this point suggests that most people conform to the
opinions and desires of others
...
For one,
there are individual differences in conformity
...
[41] People
who highly identify with or who have a high degree of commitment to a group are also more
likely to conform to group norms than those who care less about the group (Jetten, Spears, &
Manstead, 1997)
...

We have seen that conformity usually occurs such that the opinions and behaviors of individuals
become more similar to the opinions and behaviors of the majority of the people in the group
...
Minorities who are consistent and confident in their opinions may
in some cases be able to be persuasive (Moscovici, Mugny, & Van Avermaet, 1985)
...
saylor
...
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838

Persuasion that comes from minorities has another, and potentially even more important, effect
on the opinions of majority group members: It can lead majorities to engage in fuller, as well as
more divergent, innovative, and creative thinking about the topics being discussed (Martin,
Hewstone, Martin, & Gardikiotis, 2008)
...

It is a good thing that minorities can be influential; otherwise, the world would be pretty boring
indeed
...

Another case where conformity does not occur is when people feel that their freedom is being
threatened by influence attempts, yet they also have the ability to resist that persuasion
...
[46] Reactance is aroused
when our ability to choose which behaviors to engage in is eliminated or threatened with
elimination
...
Consider an
experiment conducted by Pennebaker and Sanders (1976), [47] who attempted to get people to
stop writing graffiti on the walls of campus restrooms
...
‖ Two weeks later,
the researchers returned to the restrooms to see if the signs had made a difference
...
It
seems as if people who were given strong pressures to not engage in the behavior were more
likely to react against those directives than were people who were given a weaker message
...
saylor
...
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839

Reactance represents a desire to restore freedom that is being threatened
...
And an adult who feels that she is being pressured by a car salesman
might feel the same way and leave the showroom entirely, resulting in the opposite of the
salesman‘s intended outcome
...
The tendency to help others in need is in part a
functional evolutionary adaptation and in part determined by environmental factors
...
Some helping is based on reciprocal altruism, the principle that if we help other people now, those others
will return the favor should we need their help in the future
...
The result of this learning is norms about helping, including
the reciprocity norm and the social responsibility norm
...




Aggression is physical or nonphysical behavior that is intended to harm another individual
...
The experience of negative emotions tends to increase aggression
...




The social norm that condones and even encourages responding to insults with aggression is known as the culture of
honor
...
saylor
...
org

840



Conformity, the change in beliefs or behavior that occurs as the result of the presence of the other people around us,
can occur in both active and passive ways
...




The situation is the most powerful determinant of conformity, but individual differences may also matter
...




Minority influence can change attitudes and change how majorities process information
...


Consider a time when you were helpful
...


Consider a time when you or someone you know was aggressive
...


Should parents limit the amount of violent TV shows and video games that their children are exposed to? Why or why
not?

4
...
F
...
A
...
A
...
(2006)
...
Mahwah, NJ:
Lawrence Erlbaum Associates
...
A
...
J
...
, Plotkin, H
...
, Dunbar, R
...
M
...
-M
...
(2007)
...
British Journal of Psychology, 98(2), 339–359; McAndrew, F
...
(2002)
...
Current Directions in Psychological
Science, 11(2), 79–82; Stewart-Williams, S
...
Altruism among kin vs
...
Evolution and Human Behavior, 28(3), 193–198
...
, Crandall, C
...
(1994)
...
Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 67(5),
773–789
...
, Conner, C
...
(Eds
...
Understanding living kidney donation: A behavioral decision-making
perspective
...


Attributed to Charles Stangor
Saylor URL: http://www
...
org/books/

Saylor
...
S
...
(1996)
...
Journal of Early Adolescence, 16(3), 324–339
...
R
...
B
...
An introduction to behavioural ecology (2nd ed
...
L
...
The evolution of reciprocal altruism
...


[7] Smith, S
...
, Smith, S
...
, Pieper, K
...
, Yoo, J
...
, Ferris, A
...
, Downs, E
...
(2006)
...
Journal of Communication, 56(4),
707–727
...
A
...
J
...
Effects of violent video games on aggressive behavior, aggressive cognition,
aggressive affect, physiological arousal, and prosocial behavior: A meta-analytic review of the scientific literature
...


[9] Darley, J
...
, & Batson, C
...
(1973)
...
Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 27(1), 100–108
...
L
...
(2006)
...
Personality and Social
Psychology Bulletin, 32(10), 1402–1413
...
, & Darley, J
...
(1968)
...
Journal of Personality and
Social Psychology, 10(3), 215–221
...
, & Darley, J
...
(1968)
...
Journal of Personality and
Social Psychology, 10(3), 215–221
...
M
...
Bystander intervention in computer-mediated communication
...


[14] Paquette, J
...
, & Underwood, M
...
(1999)
...
Merrill-Palmer Quarterly, 45(2), 242–266
...
M
...
D
...
(2006)
...
Madison, CT: Psychosocial Press
...
(1993)
...
New York, NY: McGraw-Hill
...
J
...
M
...
L
...
Dysfunction in the neural circuitry of emotion regulation—A possible
prelude to violence
...


Attributed to Charles Stangor
Saylor URL: http://www
...
org/books/

Saylor
...
M
...
, Hargrove, M
...
, & Heusel, C
...
Testosterone differences among college fraternities: Well-behaved
vs
...
Personality and Individual Differences, 20(2), 157–161
...
, Osgood, D
...
, Wells, S
...
(2006)
...
Journal of Studies on Alcohol, 67(3), 382–390
...
J
...
M
...
Effects of alcohol on human aggression: An integrative research
review
...
M
...
(1985)
...
The
psychology of drunken excess
...


[21] Griffit, W
...
(1971)
...
Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 17(1), 92–98
...
J
...
C
...
A
...
Is the curve relating temperature to aggression linear or curvilinear?
Assaults and temperature in Minneapolis reexamined
...


[23] Berkowitz, L
...
Pain and aggression: Some findings and implications
...

[24] Bushman, B
...
, Baumeister, R
...
, & Stack, A
...
(1999)
...


[25] Anderson, C
...
, Berkowitz, L
...
, Huesmann, L
...
, Johnson, J
...
, Linz, D
...
(2003)
...
Psychological Science in the Public Interest, 4(3), 81–110
...
D
...
J
...
A
...
Chronic violent video game exposure and desensitization to
violence: Behavioral and event-related brain potential data
...

L
...
L
...
Does television viewing relate to engagement in protective action against crime? A cultivation analysis
from a theory of reasoned action perspective
...


[27] Downey, G
...
, Ramsay, M
...
(Eds
...
Rejection sensitivity and girls’ aggression
...


[28] Baumeister, R
...
, Smart, L
...
M
...
Relation of threatened egotism to violence and aggression: The dark
side of high self-esteem
...


[29] Salmivalli, C
...
(2002)
...
Aggressive Behavior, 28(1), 30–44
...
saylor
...
org

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[30] Archer, J
...
M
...
An integrated review of indirect, relational, and social aggression
...
R
...
A
...
Relational and physical victimization within friendships:
Nobody told me there’d be friends like these
...


[31] Graham, K
...
(2001)
...
Sex Roles, 45(9–10), 595–622
...
, & Miller, N
...
Gender differences in aggression as a function of provocation: A metaanalysis
...


[33] Cohen, D
...
E
...
, & Schwarz, N
...
Insult, aggression, and the southern culture of honor: An
“experimental ethnography
...


[34] Cohen, D
...
E
...
Field experiments examining the culture of honor: The role of institutions in
perpetuating norms about violence
...


[35] Cialdini, R
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, Reno, R
...
, & Kallgren, C
...
(1990)
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Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 58, 1015–1026
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M
...
L
...
Self-monitoring without awareness: Using mimicry as a nonconscious affiliation
strategy
...


[37] Sherif, M
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The psychology of social norms
...

[38] Asch, S
...
Opinions and social pressure
...

[39] Milgram, S
...
Obedience to authority: An experimental view
...

[40] Burger, J
...
(2009)
...

[41] Bornstein, R
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(1993)
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New York, NY: Guilford Press
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, Spears, R
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S
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(1997)
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European Journal of Social Psychology, 27(5), 603–609
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, Mugny, G
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(1985)
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New York, NY: Cambridge
University Press
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, Hewstone, M
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Y
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(2008)
...
In W
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Crano & R
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), Attitudes and attitude change (pp
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New York, NY: Psychology Press
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, & Kwan, J
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(1987)
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Journal of
Applied Social Psychology, 17, 788–799
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saylor
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[46] Miron, A
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, & Brehm, J
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(2006)
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Zeitschrift fur Sozialpsychologie, 37(1), 9–18
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W
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Y
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American graffiti: Effects of authority and reactance arousal
...


14
...


Summarize the advantages and disadvantages of working together in groups to perform tasks and make decisions
...


Review the factors that can increase group productivity
...
We study together in study
groups, we work together on production lines, and we decide the fates of others in courtroom
juries
...
A rock band that is writing a new
song or a surgical team in the middle of a complex operation may coordinate their efforts so well
that it is clear that the same outcome could never have occurred if the individuals had worked
alone
...
Because these things do not always happen, group
performance is almost never as good as we would expect, given the number of individuals in the
group, and may even in some cases be inferior to that which could have been made by one or
more members of the group working alone
...
This led Triplett to hypothesize that people perform
tasks better when there are other people present than they do when they are alone
...
saylor
...
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845

increase performance on many types of tasks, including jogging, shooting pool, lifting weights,
and solving problems (Bond & Titus, 1983)
...

However, although people sometimes perform better when they are in groups than they do alone,
the situation is not that simple
...
Thus it seems that the conclusion that being with others
increases performance cannot be entirely true
...

Robert Zajonc (1965) [3] explained the observed influence of others on task performance using
the concept of physiological arousal
...
15 "Drive-Arousal Model of Social Facilitation")
...
saylor
...
org

846

Figure 14
...
Zajonc argued that
when the task to be performed was relatively easy, or if the individual had learned to perform the
task very well (a task such as pedaling a bicycle), the dominant response was likely to be the
correct response, and the increase in arousal caused by the presence of others would create social
facilitation
...
saylor
...
org

847

giving a speech in front of others), the dominant response is likely to be the incorrect one, and
thus, because the increase in arousal increases the occurrence of the (incorrect) dominant
response, performance is hindered
...
A meta-analysis by
Bond and Titus (1983), [4] which looked at the results of over 200 studies using over 20,000
research participants, found that the presence of others significantly increased the rate of
performing on simple tasks, and also decreased both rate and quality of performance on complex
tasks
...
One modification
argues that we are particularly influenced by others when we perceive that the others are
evaluating us or competing with us (Baron, 1986)
...
The presence of others did not influence joggers‘ performance when
the joggers were facing in the other direction and thus could not see them
...
g
...
When the outcome of group performance is
better than we would expect given the individuals who form the group, we call the outcome
a group process gain, and when the group outcome is worse than we would have expected given
the individuals who form the group, we call the outcome a group process loss
...
saylor
...
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848

as they do when they are working alone
...
As you can see in Figure 14
...
In fact, the loss was so large that groups of three men pulled at only 85%
of their expected capability, whereas groups of eight pulled at only 37% of their expected
capability
...


Figure 14
...


Group process losses can also occur when group members conform to each other rather than
expressing their own divergent ideas
...
saylor
...
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849

pressures, making a poor decision (Baron, 2005; Janis, 2007)
...
The problem is that
groups suffering from groupthink become unwilling to seek out or discuss discrepant or
unsettling information about the topic at hand, and the group members do not express
contradictory opinions
...
Figure 14
...


Attributed to Charles Stangor
Saylor URL: http://www
...
org/books/

Saylor
...
17 Causes and Outcomes of Groupthink

It has been suggested that groupthink was involved in a number of well-known and important,
but very poor, decisions made by government and business groups, including the decision to
invade Iraq made by President Bush and his advisors in 2002, the crashes of two Space Shuttle
missions in 1986 and 2003, and the decision of President John Kennedy and his advisors to
commit U
...
forces to help invade Cuba and overthrow Fidel Castro in 1962
...


Attributed to Charles Stangor
Saylor URL: http://www
...
org/books/

Saylor
...
The group members begin to feel that they are superior and do not need to seek
outside information
...


Psychology in Everyday Life: Do Juries Make Good Decisions?
Although many other countries rely on judges to make judgments in civil and criminal trials, the jury is the
foundation of the legal system in the United States
...

But given the potential for group process losses, are juries really the best way to approach these important
decisions?
As a small working group, juries have the potential to produce either good or poor decisions, depending on the
outcome of the characteristics of the individual members as well as the group process
...
It has also been found
that status matters; jury members with higher status occupations and education, males rather than females,
and those who talk first are more likely be chosen as the foreman, and these individuals also contribute more to
the jury discussion (Stasser, Kerr, & Bray, 1982)
...
Like any
group, juries develop their own individual norms, and these norms can have a profound impact on how they
reach their decision
...
Some spend a lot of time in initial planning, whereas others immediately
jump into the deliberation
...
saylor
...
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852

organize their discussion around these opinions
...
[10]
Perhaps most importantly, conformity pressures have a strong impact on jury decision making
...
18 "Results From Stasser, Kerr, and Bray, 1982", when there are a greater number of jury members
who hold the majority position, it becomes more and more certain that their opinion will prevail during the
discussion
...

The strong influence of the majority is probably due to both informational conformity (i
...
, that there are more
arguments supporting the favored position) and normative conformity (the people on the majority side have
greater social influence)
...
18Results From Stasser, Kerr, and Bray, 1982

This figure shows the decisions of 6-member mock juries that made ―majority rules‖ decisions
...
The juries were frequently hung (could not make a decision)
when the initial split was 3–3
...
, Kerr, N
...
, & Bray, R
...
(1982)
...
In N
...
Kerr & R
...
Bray (Eds
...
221–256)
...


Attributed to Charles Stangor
Saylor URL: http://www
...
org/books/

Saylor
...
However, despite these concerns,
the evidence suggests that juries may not do as badly as we would expect
...


Using Groups Effectively
Taken together, working in groups has both positive and negative outcomes
...
In addition, once a
group makes a decision, the group will normally find it easier to get other people to implement it,
because many people feel that decisions made by groups are fairer than are those made by
individuals
...
Furthermore, group members often don‘t realize that the process losses are occurring
around them
...
[11] The
tendency for group members to overvalue the productivity of the groups they work in is known as
theillusion of group productivity, and it seems to occur for several reasons
...
The group members
hear many ideas expressed by themselves and the other group members, and this gives the
impression that the group is doing very well, even if objectively it is not
...

These positive feelings naturally lead them to believe that the group is strong and performing
well
...
saylor
...
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854

What we need to do, then, is to recognize both the strengths and limitations of group
performance and use whatever techniques we can to increase process gains and reduce process
losses
...
5 "Techniques That Can Be Used to Improve Group Performance" presents
some of the techniques that are known to help groups achieve their goals
...
5 Techniques That Can Be Used to Improve Group Performance
Technique

Example
Rewarding employees and team members with bonuses will increase their effort toward the group goal
...


when they feel that their contributions are not important
...


into the group total and thus unknown (Szymanski & Harkins, 1987)
...


work harder than will workers who feel that they are underpaid (Geurts, Buunk, & Schaufeli, 1994)
...
The most

Keep groups small
...

Group performance is increased when the group members care about the ability of the group to do a

Create positive group

good job (e
...
, a cohesive sports or military team)
...


prohibit members from working to their full potential and thus encourage loafing
...
One approach to increasing full discussion of the issues is to

sharing
...

Groups take longer to reach consensus, and allowing plenty of time will help keep the group from
coming to premature consensus and making an unwise choice
...


allows the group to gain new knowledge by seeking information and analysis from outside experts
...
g
...
g
...


much as we can!‖; Locke & Latham, 2006)
...
saylor
...
org

855

Sources: Szymanski, K
...
G
...
Social loafing and self-evaluation with a social
standard
...
A
...
P
...

B
...
Social comparisons and absenteeism: A structural modeling approach
...
A
...
P
...
New directions in goal-setting

theory
...


KEY TAKEAWAYS


The performance of working groups is almost never as good as we would expect, given the number of individuals in the
group, and in some cases may even be inferior to the performance of one or more members of the group working
alone
...
The tendency to
perform tasks more poorly or more slowly in the presence of others is known as social inhibition
...




One group process loss that may occur in groups is that the group members may engage in social loafing
...




Taken together, working in groups has both positive and negative outcomes
...


EXERCISE AND CRITICAL THINKING
1
...
Do you think the group experienced group process
gains or group process losses? If the latter, what might you do now in a group to encourage effective group
performance?

Attributed to Charles Stangor
Saylor URL: http://www
...
org/books/

Saylor
...
(1898)
...
American Journal of Psychology, 9(4), 507–
533
...
F
...
J
...
Social facilitation: A meta-analysis of 241 studies
...

[3] Zajonc, R
...
(1965)
...
Science, 149, 269–274
...
F
...
J
...
Social facilitation: A meta-analysis of 241 studies
...

[5] Baron, R
...
Distraction/conflict theory: Progress and problems
...
Berkowitz (Ed
...
19)
...


[6] Strube, M
...
, Miles, M
...
, & Finch, W
...
(1981)
...
Personality & Social Psychology Bulletin, 7(4), 701–707
...
A
...
(1986)
...
Journal of Personality and Social
Psychology, 50, 936–941
...
S
...
So right it’s wrong: Groupthink and the ubiquitous nature of polarized group decision making
...
P
...
), Advances in experimental social psychology (Vol
...
219–253)
...

L
...
Groupthink
...
P
...
), Leadership: Understanding the dynamics of power and influence in
organizations (2nd ed
...
157–169)
...


[9] Stasser, G
...
L
...
M
...
The social psychology of jury deliberations: Structure, process and product
...

L
...
M
...
), The psychology of the courtroom (pp
...
New York, NY: Academic Press
...
H
...
F
...
, & Zimmerman, S
...
Effects of straw polls on group decision making: Sequential
voting pattern, timing, and local majorities
...


[11] Nijstad, B
...
, Stroebe, W
...
F
...
(2006)
...
European Journal of Social Psychology, 36(1), 31–48; Stroebe, W
...
, & Abakoumkin, G
...
The illusion
of group effectivity
...


14
...

A fundamental principle of social psychology is that although we may not always be aware of it,
Attributed to Charles Stangor
Saylor URL: http://www
...
org/books/

Saylor
...

Our initial judgments of others are based in large part on what we see
...
At least in some cases, people can draw
accurate conclusions about others on the basis of physical appearance
...

We frequently use people‘s appearances to form our judgments about them, and these judgments
may lead to stereotyping, prejudice, and discrimination
...
We can
change and learn to avoid using them through positive interaction with members of other groups,
practice, and education
...

Causal attribution is the process of trying to determine the causes of people‘s behavior
...
Although
people are reasonably accurate in their attributions, they may make self-serving attributions and
fall victim to the fundamental attribution error
...
Attitudes are
important because they frequently (but not always) predict behavior
...
Attitudes predict behavior better for some people than for
others, and in some situations more than others
...
saylor
...
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858

Our behaviors also influence our attitudes through the cognitive processes of self-perception and
the more emotional process of cognitive dissonance
...
We help
others to benefit ourselves and to benefit the others
...
The outcome of the reinforcement and modeling of altruism is the development of social
norms about helping, including the reciprocity norm and the social responsibility norm
...

Aggression may be physical or nonphysical
...
Testosterone is associated with increased
aggression in both males and females
...
As predicted by principles of observational
learning, research evidence makes it very clear that, on average, people who watch violent
behavior become more aggressive
...

We conform not only because we believe that other people have accurate information and we
want to have knowledge (informational conformity) but also because we want to be liked by
others (normative conformity)
...
Studies demonstrating the power of
conformity include those by Sherif and Asch, and Milgram‘s work on obedience
...

Attributed to Charles Stangor
Saylor URL: http://www
...
org/books/

Saylor
...
Zajonc explained the influence of others on task
performance using the concept of physiological arousal
...
When the outcome of group performance is
better than we would expect given the individuals who form the group, we call the outcome a
group process gain, and when the group outcome is worse that we would have expected given
the individuals who form the group, we call the outcome a group process loss
...
Process losses can
be reduced by better motivation and coordination among the group members, by keeping
contributions identifiable, and by providing difficult but attainable goals
...
saylor
...
org

860

MIT OpenCourseWare
http://ocw
...
edu

9
...
mit
...




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