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4dm3 at s
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p
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02 ×1023

M = molarity
V = Volume of solution in cm3
Summary

÷ molar mass
Mass of particle
(in gram)

× Avogadro Constant
Mole of
particles

× molar mass

Number of
particles
Avogadro Constant

× molar volume

÷ molar volume

Volume of
Gas

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NET

Periodic Table
Reaction of Group 1 Elements
1
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4Li + O2 ⎯→ 2Li2O
4Na + O2 ⎯→ 2Na2O
4K + O2 ⎯→ 2K2O
The metal oxide of group 1 elements can dissolve in water to form alkali (hydroxide) solution

Li2O + H2O ⎯→ 2LiOH
Na2O + H2O ⎯→ 2NaOH
K2O + H2O ⎯→ 2KOH
2
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Reaction with water
The entire group 1 metal can react with water to produce alkali (hydroxide) solution and hydrogen gas
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React with water

Cl2 + H2O ⎯→ HCl + HOCl
Br2 + H2O ⎯→ HBr + HOBr
I2 + H2O ⎯→ HI + HOI

2
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React with Iron

3Cl2 + 2Fe ⎯→ 2FeCl3
3Br2 + 2Fe ⎯→ 2FeBr3
3I2 + 2Fe ⎯→ 2FeI3

Preparation of Chlorine Gas

2KMnO4 + 16HCl ⎯→ 2KCl + 2MnCl2 + 5Cl2 + 8H2O

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Observation:
Bubbles of pungent yellowish green gas are
produced
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Al3+ + 3e ⎯→ Al
Observation:
Grey deposit is formed
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Pb + 2e ⎯→ Pb
2+

Observation:
Grey deposit is formed
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Cu + 2e ⎯→ Cu
2+

Observation:
Brown deposit is formed
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Ag+ + e ⎯→ Ag
Observation:
Silver deposit is formed
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The solution turns
blue when a few drops of starch solution is added in
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A ‘pop’ sound is produced
4OH- ⎯→ O2 + 2H2O + 4e
when a lighted splinter is placed near the mouth of Observation:
the test tube
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Gas produces light up a
wooden splinter
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NET

Acid and Base
Ionisation of Acid
Hydrochloric Acid

Sulphuric Acid

HCl ⎯→ H + Cl
HCl + H2O ⎯→ H3O+ + Cl+

H2SO4 ⎯→ H+ + SO42H2SO4 + 2H2O ⎯→ 2H3O+ + SO42-

-

Nitric Acid

HNO3 ⎯→ H+ + NO3HNO3 + H2O ⎯→ H3O+ + NO3-

Ethanoic Acid

CH3COOH ⎯→ H+ + CH3COOCH3COOH + H2O ⎯→ H3O+ + CH3COO-

Chemical Properties of Acid
Acid + Reactive Metal ⎯→ Salt + H2
Example:

2HCl + Zn ⎯→ ZnCl2 + H2
6HNO3 + 2Fe ⎯→ 2Fe(NO3)3 + 3H2
H2SO4 + Pb⎯→ PbSO4 + H2
6CH3COOH + 2Al ⎯→ 2Al(CH3COO)3 + 3H2
Acid + Metal Oxide⎯→ Salt + H2O
Example:

2HCl + ZnO ⎯→ ZnCl2 + H2O
2HNO3 + MgO ⎯→ Mg(NO3)2 + H2O
H2SO4 + CuO ⎯→ CuSO4 + H2O
2CH3COOH + Na2O ⎯→ 2CH3COO-Na++ H2O
Acid + Metal Hydroxide⎯→ Salt + H2O
Example:

2HCl + Ca(OH)2 ⎯→ CaCl2 + 2H2O
HNO3 + NaOH⎯→ NaNO3 + H2O
H2SO4 + 2NH4OH ⎯→ (NH4)2SO4 + 2H2O
or
- +
CH3COOH + KOH ⎯→ CH3COO K + H2O

H2SO4 + 2NH3 ⎯→ (NH4)2SO4

Acid + Metal Carbonate ⎯→ Salt + CO2 + H2O
Example:

2HCl + ZnCO3 ⎯→ ZnCl2 + CO2 + H2O
2HNO3 + CaCO3 ⎯→ Ca(NO3)2 + CO2 + H2O
H2SO4 + Na2CO3 ⎯→ Na2SO4 + CO2 + H2O
2CH3COOH + MgCO3 ⎯→ Mg(CH3COO)2 + CO2 + H2O

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Mostly insoluble in water except: NH4OH, KOH and NaOH

Salt of chloride

Salt of carbonate

Oxide and Hydroxide
Oxide
Hydroxide

Preparation of Salt
Preparation of Soluble Salt
Salt of Potassium, Sodium and Ammonium
Acid + Alkali ⎯→ Salt + Water
Example: Preparation of Sodium Chloride (NaCl)
HCl + NaOH ⎯→ NaCl + H2O

Salt of non-Potassium, Sodium and Ammonium
Acid + Reactive metal ⎯→ Salt + Hydrogen Gas
Acid + Metal Oxide ⎯→ Salt + Water
Acid + Metal Carbonate ⎯→ Salt + Water + Carbon Dioxide
Example: Preparation of Zinc Sulphate (ZnSO4)
H2SO4 + Zn ⎯→ ZnSO4 + H2
H2SO4 + ZnO ⎯→ ZnSO4 + H2O
H2SO4 + ZnCO3 ⎯→ ZnSO4 + H2O + CO2

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This involves mixing a solution that contains its
positive ions with another solution that contains its negative ions
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Brown when it is hot and
yellow when it is cold
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Copper(II) Carbonate
Copper(II) sulphate, Copper(II) nitrate, Copper(II)
chloride
Copper(II) oxide
Salt of Iron (II)
Iron(II) sulphate; Iron(II) nitrate; Iron(ID chloride
Salt of Iron (III)
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Heating effect on Salt
Heating
Effect

CO32-

NO3 -

SO42-

Cl-

Most Probably
Release CO2

Most Probably
Release NO2

Most Probably
Release SO3

Most Probably
No effect

Heating Effect on Carbonate Salt
Carbonate Salt
Equation of The Reaction
Potassium carbonate
Sodium carbonate
Calcium carbonate
Magnesium carbonate
Aluminium carbonate
Zinc carbonate
Iron (III) carbonate
Lead(II) carbonate
Copper(II) carbonate

Not decomposible

CaCO3 ⎯→ CaO + CO2
MgCO3 ⎯→ MgO + CO2
Al2(CO3)3 ⎯→ Al2O3 + 3CO2
ZnCO3 ⎯→ ZnO + CO2
Fe2(CO3)3⎯→ Fe2O3 + 3CO2
PbCO3 ⎯→ PbO + CO2
CuCO3 ⎯→ CuO + CO2

Mercury(II) carbonate
Silver(I) carbonate

2HgCO3 ⎯→ 2Hg + 2CO2 + O2
2Ag2CO3 ⎯→ 4Ag + 2CO2 + O2

Ammonium carbonate

(NH4)2CO3 ⎯→ NH3 + CO2 + H2O

Heating Effect on Nitrate Salt
Nitrate Salt
Equation of The Reaction
Potassium nitrate
2KNO3 ⎯→ 2KNO2 + O2
Sodium nitrate
2NaNO3 ⎯→ 2NaNO2 + O2
Calcium nitrate
Magnesium nitrate
Aluminium nitrate
Zink nitrate
Iron (III) nitrate
Lead(II) nitrate
Copper(II) nitrate
Mercury(II) nitrate
Silver(I) nitrate
Ammonium nitrate

2Ca(NO3)2 ⎯→ 2CaO + 4NO2 + O2
Mg(NO3)2 ⎯→ 2MgO + 4NO2 + O2
4Al(NO3)3 ⎯→ 2Al2O3 + 12NO2 + 3O2
Zn(NO3)2 ⎯→ 2ZnO + 4NO2 + O2
4Fe(NO3)3⎯→ 2Fe2O3 + 12NO2 + 3O2
Pb(NO3)2 ⎯→ 2PbO + 4NO2 + O2
Cu(NO3)2 ⎯→ 2CuO + 4NO2 + O2
Hg(NO3)2 ⎯→ Hg + 2NO2 + O2
2AgNO3 ⎯→ 2Ag + 2NO2 + O2
NH4NO3 ⎯→ N2O + 2H2O

[NOTES: Nitrogen dioxide, NO2 is acidic gas and is brown in colour
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Heating effect on sulphate salt
Most sulphate salts do not decompose by heat
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Zinc sulphate, Copper (II) sulphate, Iron (III)
sulphate

The heating effect on chloride salts
All chloride salts are not decomposable by heat
except ammonium chloride
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Explode with a ‘pop’ sound when brought close to a lighted splinter
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Bleach moist litmus paper
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Turn moist red litmus paper to blue
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Pungent smell
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Turn moist blue litmus paper to red
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Brown in colour
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Sulphur Dioxide

Nitrogen Dioxide

Qualitative analysis
Identification of Anions (Negative ions)
Diluted HCl or BaCl (aq) or Ba(NO3)2 AgNO3 follow by Brown Ring Test
( + FeSO4 (aq ) +
diluted HNO3 or (aq) follow by diluted diluted HNO3
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It is soluble in
Carbon Dioxide is
2formed
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diluted HCl/HNO3
diluted HNO3
2-

SO4

-

White precipitate is
formed
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It is NOT
soluble in diluted
HNO3

NO3-

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-

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NaOH(ak)

White
precipitate is
produced
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Mg2+

White
precipitate is
produced
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Dissolve in
excess NaOH
solution
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Dissolve in
excess NaOH
solution
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Dissolve in
excess NaOH
solution
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White
precipitate is
produced
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White
precipitate is
produced
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White
precipitate is
produced
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White
precipitate is
produced
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White
precipitate is
produced
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White
precipitate is
produced
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Dissolve in hot
water

Dirty green
precipitate is
produced
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Green
precipitate is
produced
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Red brown
precipitate is
produced
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A red brown
solution formed
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Blue precipitate
is produced
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Blue precipitate
is produced
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Distibguish Iron(II) and Iron(III)
Reagent
Solution of potassium hecxacianoferate(II)
Solution of potassium hecxacianoferate(III)
Solution of potassium Thiocyanate(II)

Observation
Light blue precipitate
Dark Blue precipitate
Dark blue precipitate
Greenish brown solution
Pinkish solution
Blood red solution

Ion presents
Fe2+
Fe3+
Fe2+
Fe3+
Fe2+
Fe3+

Manufactured Substances in Industry
Contact Process (Making Sulphuric Acid)
Stage 1: Formation of SO2
Combustion of Sulphur

S (s) + O2 (g) ⎯⎯→ SO2 (g)
or
Heating of metal sulphide such as lead(II) sulphide

2PbS(s) + 3O2(g) ⎯⎯→ 2PbO(s) + 2SO2(g)
or
Combustion of hiydrogen sulphide

2H2S(g) + 3O2(g) ⎯⎯→ 2SO2(g) + 2H2O(ce)
Stage 2: Formation of SO3

2SO2 (g) + O2 (g) ⎯⎯→ 2SO3 (g)
Catalyst: vanadium(V) oxide
Temperature: 450°C
Pressure: 2-3 atmospheres

Stage 3 Formation of oleum H2S2O7

SO3(g) + H2SO4(aq) ⎯⎯→ H2S2O7(l)
Stage 4:Formation of Sulphuric acid

H2S207 (1) + H2O (1) ⎯⎯→ 2H2SO4(aq)

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Reaction between steam and heated coke

H2O + C ⎯→ CO + H2
2
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2H 2 O + CH 4 ⎯→ CO2 + 4H2
Nitrogen

From distillation of liquid air
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Ammonia is made by the Haber process from nitrogen and hydrogen:
N2(g) + 3H2(g) ⎯→ 2NH3(g); ΔH = -92 kJ mo1-1
Catalyst: Iron
Promoter: Aluminium oxide
Temperature: 450 °C
Pressure: 200-1000 atm

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