Notesale: Turn your study into money

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1
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2
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Intro
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Is defined as anything that has mass and occupies space
2
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Is a pure substance that has distinctive physical and chemical
properties and cannot be broken down to other substance by
ordinary chemical methods
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There are 92 naturally occurring elements
3
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001% of the human
body
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4
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Is defined as the smallest unit of an element atoms are so small
that more than a trillion of the could easily fit on the head of a
pin
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Atoms can be broken down into protons neutrons and electrons
a
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Have a positive charge
b
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Have no charge or lack any charge
c
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Have a negative charge
d
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The nucleus of atoms is where the protons and neutrons are held and
it’s the dense part of an atom
a
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Except hydrogen the nuclei contain neutrons
7
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These electrons from electron shells
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The size and structure of atoms can be described with numbers
1
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The sum of an atoms protons and neutrons is its atomic mass number
a
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Some elements exist in variant forms called isotopes
1
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a
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Isotopes have the same number of electrons
2
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Have unstable nuclei that change or decay into simpler forms
releasing high-energy radiation in the process
b
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2 the bonds that link atoms
i
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Chemically inert atoms tend not to interact with other atoms by losing
gaining or sharing electrons
2
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The interaction that causes two atoms to associate with each other is
known as a chemical bond
a
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In which atoms share electrons from molecules
b
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In which atoms with opposite electrical charge are held
together by their mutual attraction atoms held together
by ionic bonds are salts
4
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5
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Chemical compounds are a substance in which atoms from two or more
different elements are bonded together
ii
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a molecule contains at least two atoms held together by covalent
bonds
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When an element has all its electron shells fully stocked then it is stable
3
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Atoms can be in a double bond is where 2 electrons are shared between
two atoms as in o2 or oxygen gas
5
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There are several different types of models such as the ball and stick
model
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Ionic bonds from between atoms of opposite charge
c
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3 The special properties of water
i
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Life started in the oceans about 3
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The average cell is about 70% water
3
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Water is a polar molecule
1
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so, in this case the hydrogen becomes partially
positively charged and the oxygen becomes partially negatively charged
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iv
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vi
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2
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A hydrogen bond is the weak electrical attraction between a hydrogen
atom that has a slight positive charge and a neighboring atom that has a
slight negative charge
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These develop quickly between water molecules
Water is a solvent for charged or polar substances
1
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2
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Solution
a
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Water is the universal solvent
5
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when added to water nonpolar molecules fail to
go into solution and tend to cluster among their own kind instead
7
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8
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Water can exist in all three states
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at room
temperature water is a liquid because the molecules are still jostling
around forming and breaking hydrogen bonds
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At 0 degrees, Celsius
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In a solid form the hydrogen bonds form
more perinatal but as soon as the molecules get moving again they
break up and become a liquid again
3
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Water moderate’s temperature swings
1
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Water is a heat reservoir
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The evaporation of water has a cooling effect
1
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2
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because the slower moving molecules are cooler
Hydrogen bonding accounts for the cohesion of water molecules
1
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2
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d
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4 chemical reactions
i
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Chemical reaction is the process of making or breaking chemical
reactions
a
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A reactant is a substance that undergoes a chemical reaction by
its self and or with another reactant
c
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2
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2
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scale
i
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Acids release hydrogen ions
2
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The ph
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The higher the number the more hydroxyl ions are put
out
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4
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f
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6 the chemical building blocks of life
i
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Carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, phosphorus, sulfur atoms are
found in some of these molecules
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Carbon provides the framework for life
1
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It can form large
molecules that contain thousands of atoms
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Organic molecules are biomolecules that include at least one carbon
hydrogen bond
3
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Small molecules that serve as repeating units in a macromolecule
5
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6
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Polymers account for most of an organism’s dry weight
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Fictional groups have distinct chemical properties
1
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Functional groups are clusters of covalently bonded atoms that have the
same distinctive chemical properties no matter what molecule they are
found in
...
2
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Intro
1
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The name carbohydrates come from the atoms that are in carbs
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3
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The most monosaccharide is glucose fond in almost all living things
5
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Dehydration is the process of removing a water molecule as a covalent
bond is formed
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A hydrolytic reaction is where water is added to break a substance
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Polysaccharides are large polymers built by linking many
monosaccharides
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Fibers that help support the plant cell body
10
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It’s a polysaccharide that serves
as an energy storage molecule inside plant cells
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Glycogen is the main storage polysaccharide in animal cells most it is in
the liver and skeletal muscle cells
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2
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Intro
1
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Proteins functions are
a
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Bird eggs and plant seeds contain storage proteins
whose function is to supply the building blocks that
offspring need for growth
b
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Our own bodies contain thousands of different types of
proteins some of these from anatomical structures and
are classified as structural proteins such as those found
in bones cartilage hair and nails
c
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Some proteins ferry nutrients and other materials
within the body the proteins hemoglobin abundant in
our red blood cells binds oxygen and helps move it
through the body
d
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Substances that speed up chemical reactions are called
catalysts almost all chemical reactions in living
organisms are catalyzed by proteins as enzymes
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Proteins are built from amino acids

i
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Amino acids are the monomers from which proteins are built
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20 different types of amino acid monomers can be arranged in a huge
number of ways to construct an enormous variety of proteins
3
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An amino and a carboxyl group
4
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Amino acids covalently link in a liner chain to make a polypeptide
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The amino acid group is linked covalently to the carboxyl group
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This forms a peptide bond therefore forming the Polly peptide
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The 20 amino acids are just like letters in the alphabet there are so few
but there are millions of different combinations to come up with the
words and the sentences we see today in our books
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A protein must be correctly folded to be functional
1
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Is the sequence of polypeptides it must be organized more
before becoming functional? It’s just the sequence of the amino
acids
2
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Its created by the local folding of the amino acids chain into
specific three dimensional patterns the alpha betta helix or the
betta sheets
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The tertiary structure
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Is a very specific three dimensional shape this shape is attained
not merely through local patterns of folding as in the secondary
structures but through interactions between distant segments
of the polypeptide chain
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Is
functional
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The quaternary structure
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Is a combination of 2 or more tertiary structures in this case it
must have achieved this level of organization before becoming
functional
b
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5
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9 Lipids
i
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Lipids are hydrophobic biomolecules built from hydrocarbon rings
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Most lipids are built from one or more fatty acids
3
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Saturated fatty acids
a
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Unsaturated fatty acids
a
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This causes a kink at the atomic level and therefore they cannot
stack nicely and remain a liquid at room temperature
ii
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Glyceride contains one to three fatty acid covalently bonded to a threecarbon molecule
2
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3
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iii
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Phospholipids are glyceride molecules consisting of two fatty acids
joined by a glycerol that bares a phosphate grouped
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The plasma membrane is the outer most boundary of a cell and it also is
an internal membrane of the cell
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the double layer sheet is known as the phospholipid bilayer
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4
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And the tail is a fatty acid that is make up of two long fatty acid chains
6
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Sterols play vital roles in a variety of life processes
1
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Hormones are signaling molecules that are active in vary small amounts
j
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10 nucleotides and nucleic acids
i
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A nucleotide is a small organic molecule with three chemical
components
a
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A phosphate grouped a functional consisting of a phosphate
atom and for oxygen atoms
2
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Deoxyribose nucleic acids and ribonucleic acids
b
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Hence why our DNA is stored on DNA and not RNA
3
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It’s the universal energy carrier
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Chapter Two the Chemistry of Life Chapter Summery

a
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1 matter elements and atomic structure
i
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An atom is the smallest unit of an element that has the chemical properties of
that element atoms contain positively charged protons uncharged neutrons and
negatively charged electrons the number and arrangement of electrons in the
atom of an element determines the chemical properties of the element
iii
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Isotopes of an elements have different numbers of neutrons but sea number of
protons radioisotopes are isotopes that give off radiation
b
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2 the bonds that link atoms
i
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Covalent bonds are formed by the sharing of electrons between atoms share
electrons with other atoms to fill their outermost electron shells to capacity the
bonding properties of an atom are determined by the number of electrons in its
outermost shell a molecule contains at least two atoms that are held together
by covalent bonds
iii
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Chemical compounds contain atoms from at least two different elements all
salts are compounds but a molecule is a compound only if it contains atoms
from at least two different elements
c
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3 the special properties of water
i
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Water is a polar molecule hydrogen bonding between water molecules accounts
for the special properties of water including its high heat capacity and high heat
vaporization properties that enable water to moderate temperature swings
...
Water has the highest surface tension of any liquid except mercury surface
tension is a force that tends to minimize the surface are of water at an air water
boundary and it influences many biological phenomena
d
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4 chemical reactions
i
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Some chemical reactions release energy others cannot proceed without an
input of energy

e
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5 the PH scale
i
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acids donate hydrogen ions in a solution bases accept hydrogen ions
ii
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Buffers help maintain a constant PH in an aqueous solution
f
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6 the chemical building blocks of life
i
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The four main biomolecules are carbohydrates proteins lipids and nucleic acids
g
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7 carbohydrates
i
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Carbohydrates provide energy and physical support for living organisms
h
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8 portions
i
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The three-dimensional shape of a protein is critical for its biological function
i
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9 lipids
i
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Triglycerides are important for energy storage
iii
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Sterols include cholesterol and sex hormones
j
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10 nucleotides and nucleic acids
i
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Nucleotides are the building blocks of the nucleic acids DNA and RNA DNA
polymers made up of four types of nucleotides from the blueprint for life and
govern the anatomical features and chemical reactions of a living organisms
iii
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3
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Biomolecules are those molecules that are unique to living cells
b
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Each unique type of matter is an element; so, there are at least 92 different elements
that occur naturally in the known universe
d
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e
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Negatively charged electrons move around the nucleus in electron shells

g
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The atomic mass number is the total number of protons and neutrons in an atom
i
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Molecules are two or more atoms that share electrons to form a chemical bond known
as a covalent bond
k
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An atom becomes a negatively-charged ion when it gains one or more electrons
m
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Salts are held together by ionic bonds
o
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A chemical formula summarizes the number and type of atoms in a molecule or ionic
compound (salt)
q
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A hydrogen bond is the weak attraction between a hydrogen atom with a slight positive
charge and a neighboring atom with a slight negative charge
s
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Molecules that do not associate with water (are water-hating) are hydrophobic
u
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When water molecules are heated, they become energetic enough to break their
hydrogen bonds and escape as water vapor in a process called evaporation
w
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Surface tension is a force that tends to minimize the surface area of water at its
boundary with air
y
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z
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Some macromolecules are polymers, which contain repeating units of small organic
molecules known as monomers
bb
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Glucose is a type of simple sugar called a monosaccharide
dd
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Cellulose strengthens plant cell walls
ff
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Glycogen is a highly-branched polysaccharide that stores energy in animal cells for rapid
release of monosaccharides when energy is needed

hh
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Polypeptides are formed when the amino group of one amino acid is linked to the
carboxyl group of another through a peptide bond
jj
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The alpha helix and beta sheet are two types of local folding
ll
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Denaturation is the destruction of a protein’s three-dimensional shape,
resulting in a loss of protein activity
nn
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Fatty acids in which all the carbon atoms in the hydrophobic chain are linked with a
single covalent bond are called saturated fatty acids
pp
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Three fatty acid molecules bonded to a glycerol molecule make up a triglyceride,
commonly known as a ‘fat’
rr
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When exposed to water, phospholipids form a phospholipid bilayer, with the
hydrophilic heads facing outward and the hydrophobic tails tucked into the interior of
the bilayer
tt
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Cholesterol is a vital component of cell membranes in animals and is the starting
molecule for many other sterols and steroid hormones
vv
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Five different nucleotides make up a class of polymers called nucleic acids
xx
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Trans fats can be found in any foods containing partially hydrogenated oils (even if the
Nutrition Fact label shows ‘O trans fats per serving’)
4
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Understanding the chemistry of life helps us understand life its self
b
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A molecule contains two or more atoms linked through covalent bonds in a covalent
bond two atoms share a pair of electrons
d
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Water molecules associate with each other through weak attractions known as
hydrogen bonds the unique properties of water have a profound influence on the
chemistry of life
...
A chemical reaction occurs when bonds between atoms are formed or broken to sustain
life thousands of different chemical reactions must occur inside even the simplest life

g
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Four main classes of molecules are common to all living organism carbs proteins lipids
and nucleic acids



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