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The  Cold  War  
1941-­‐1995  

 

 
Origins  of  the  Cold  War:  Page  2
...
 
Conflict  over  Germany  and  Consolidation  of  Rival  Blocs:  
Page  8
...
 
The  Cold  War  and  the  era  of  détente:  page  16
...
 
 ‘The  Big  Three’  Leaders:  page  27
...
 
 

  
The  origins  of  the  Cold  War  
The  Cold  War  was  a  period  of  political  hostility  between  Capitalist  and  Communist  countries,  in  
particular  between  the  USA  and  the  USSR,  which  from  its  onset  lasted  over  40  years
...
 The  
cold  war  was  more  than  an  Arms  Race,  but  was  also  a  ‘fundamental  clash  of  ideologies  and  
interests’
...
 
 

Clash  of  Ideologies:  

•   The  basis  of  Communism  was  constructed  by  Friedrich  Engels  and  Karl  Marx,  and  in  the  20th  
century  became  the  governing  ideology  of  the  USSR,  much  of  central  Europe  and  Eastern  
Europe,  the  People’s  Republic  of  China,  Cuba  and  other  states
...
 
owned  by  private  people  or  firms
...
 
communism,  a  spread  between  rich  and  poor
...
 
What  did  the  USSR  want?  
•   In  the  early  1950s  the  main  aim  was  to  destroy  the  western  powers  and  create  global  
communism
...
 To  
protect  from  future  German  Attack,  Stalin  wanted  to  keep  land  annexed  from  Poland  in  1939,  
and  give  Poland  German  territories
...
 
Ø   An  intermediate  zone,  which  was  neither  communist  or  capitalist:  Yugoslavia,  Austria,  
Hungary,  Czechoslovakia  and  Finland
...
 
In  1943  Stalin  dissolved  Comintern,  to  convince  his  allies  he  wasn’t  supporting  global  revolution
...
g
...
 

 

2  

•   In  1943-­‐4,  US  officials  drew  up  plans  for  a  chain  of  bases,  which  would  give  USA  control  of  the  
Pacific  and  Atlantic  Oceans
...
 This  suggestedly  alarmed  Stalin  and  created  a  ‘spiral  of  distrust’-­‐
Leffler,  which  led  to  the  Cold  War
...
 
•   Atlantic  Charter  of  1941  supported  free  trade,  no  more  territorial  annexation  by  Britain  and  the  
right  of  people  to  choose  their  government
...
 
•   They  were  concerned  with  Soviet  influence  spreading  into  Central  Europe  and  the  East  
Mediterranean
...
 
 
The  Foreign  Ministers’  Meeting  at  Moscow,  October  1943:  
In  October  1943,  the  foreign  ministers  of  the  USA,  USSR  and  Britain  met  in  Moscow,  to  reconcile  the  
conflicting  aims  of  their  states
...
 
•   Issued  the  ‘Declaration  on  General  Security’
...
 
 
Tehran  Conference,  28th  November  to  the  1st  December  1943:  
Ø   Attended  by  Churchill,  Roosevelt  and  Stalin,  who  met  
for  the  first  time  to  discuss  post-­‐war  Europe,  future  
organisation  of  the  UN,  and  fate  of  Germany
...
 (no  opposition  from  Britain  or  USA)  
Ø   British,  Commonwealth  and  US  troops  would  land  in  
France,  rather  than  in  the  Balkans  in  1944
...
   
Churchill-­‐Stalin  Meeting,  October  1944:  To  protect  British  interests  in  the  Eastern  Mediterranean,  
Churchill  proposed  a  division  of  south-­‐eastern  Europe  into  distinct  spheres  of  influence
...
 It  gave  the  USSR  90%  in  Romania  and  75%  in  Bulgaria,  and  
Britain  90%  in  Greece,  while  Yugoslavia  and  Hungary  were  to  be  divided  equally  into  British  and  
Soviet  Zones
...
 Although  they  were  
allowed  their  own  governments,  power  rested  with  the  ACC
...
 As  USSR  had  no  troops  in  Italy  it  
wasn’t  represented
...
 
 
Poland:  

 

3  

Poland  was  undoubtedly  the  most  complex  problem  facing  the  Allies
...
 Therefore  the  British  Government  wanted  to  see  a  democratic  
Poland  once  Germany  was  driven  out  by  the  red  army
...
 
This  meant  forcing  a  communist  dictatorship,  and  many  poles  were  anti-­‐Soviet  and  anti-­‐communist
...
 
It  attempted  to  lay  the  foundations  for  the  coming  peace
...
 Each  power  were  given  
their  own  zone,  including  a  section  of  Berlin,  which  was  placed  under  
four  power  control
...
 
Regarding  Poland,  the  allies  had  to  come  to  compromises:  
Ø   Poland’s  eastern  borders  would  run  along  the  Curzon  Line
...
 
Ø   Reorganisation  of  the  provisional  government  by  including  
democratic  politicians,  and  plans  for  elections
...
 The  amount  of  land  for  Poland  from  Germany  was  not  fixed,  
and  the  words  democracy  and  elections  meant  different  things
...
 
 
Declaration  on  Liberated  Europe:  
Roosevelt  persuaded  Stalin  and  Churchill  to  agree  to  the  declaration  on  liberated  Europe,  which  
committed  the  three  government  to  carry  out  emergency  measures  to  assist  the  liberated  states  and  
to  encourage  democratic  governments
...
 He  wanted  the  USSR  to  
declare  war  against  Japan,  which  would  save  the  USA  hundreds  of  thousands  casualties  of  
invasion  of  Japan  was  inevitable
...
   
Ø   He  became  President  when  the  USA  was  considering  limiting  Lend-­‐lease  shipments  to  the  USSR-­‐  
this  started  in  1941,  and  gave  over  $50  billion  of  war  supplies  to  Allied  Nations,  which  was  to  be  
repaid  at  the  end  of  the  war
...
 
 
The  Potsdam  Conference:  July-­‐August  1945:  
Ø   Truman  and  officials  hoped  that  the  A-­‐bomb  would  enable  
the  USA  to  force  Stalin  to  make  concessions  in  Europe
...
 
Ø   On  the  17th  July,  Stalin,  Churchill  and  Truman  met  at  
Potsdam,  and  on  the  26th  Churchill  was  replaced  by  Clement  
Attlee
...
   
Ø   The  ACC  was  established  (UK,  USA,  USSR  and  France)
...
 This  stopped  the  ACC  from  gaining  real  power  in  Germany
...
 These  would  be  taken  from  their  own  zones
...
 
AGREE  
DISAGREE  
German  demilitarisation  
Reparations  
Denazification  
Polands  Western  Borders  
Punishment  of  War  Criminals  
Powers  of  the  Allied  Control  Council  (ACC)  
Council  of  Ministers  
 
 

The  Atomic  Bomb  

It  was  tested  at  Alamogordo  in  New  Mexico  on  the  16th  July,  and  on  the  6th  August,  the  atomic  bomb  
was  dropped  on  Hiroshima,  killing  nearly  half  the  population,  and  flattening  the  city
...
 The  US  wanted  to  retain  its  nuclear  
monopoly  as  long  as  possible  or  it  could  hand  it  over  to  the  UN
...
   
 Truman  agreed  to  the  international  control  of  atomic  energy  by  the  UN,  providing  other  nations  
agreed  to  abide  by  the  rules
...
 These  were:  
•   Exchange  of  basic  scientific  information
...
 
•   The  elimination  from  national  armaments  of  atomic  weapons
...
 
At  the  Moscow  conference  1945,  the  Soviets  agreed  to  establish  the  UN  Atomic  Energy  Commission
...
 The  Red  Army  would  control  the  Soviet  Zone,  whilst  the  
KPD  would  try  win  support  of  German  Workers  in  Soviet  and  Western  Zones
...
 In  the  autumn  of  1945,  the  Soviets  were  ready  to  agree  to  set  up  a  central  German  
transport  authority  and  trade  union,  but  these  were  defeated  by  the  French,  who  opposed  restoring  
a  united  Germany
...
 The  
SPD  voters  rejected  the  new  coalition  by  82%
...
 The  USSR  
feared  a  united  Germany  would  play  an  important  part  in  US-­‐dominated  capitalism  trading,  so  they  
responded  by  increasing  Soviet-­‐Zone  production,  and  transforming  firms  into  soviet-­‐controlled  
companies
...
 
In  January  1947  the  UK  and  US  zones  merged  economically  to  form  Bizonia,  the  USSR  believed  this  
was  the  first  step  to  creating  a  west  German  state
...
 This  

 

5  

was  opposed  by  Ernest  Bevin
...
 The  
USSR  would  in  return  some  reparations  to  help  balance  budgets,  and  would  receive  no  coal  or  steel  
until  the  whole  of  Germany  could  pay  for  its  own  food  and  raw  material  imports
...
 
 
Reparations:  The  British  zone  had  the  majority  of  German  refugees  from  Czechoslovakia  and  Poland
...
 Until  their  zones  were  self-­‐supporting,  they  delayed  delivering  USSR  quotas,  and  they  
hoped  for  the  Soviets  to  deliver  food  to  Western  Zones
...
 
Reactions:  
Ø   The  USSR  thought  that  the  US  were  trying  to  create  a  capitalist  system,  which  was  part  of  their  
global  system
...
 
Ø   The  USA  wanted  to  unify  the  three  zones,  and  1947  these  zones  merged  to  form  Bizonia
...
 
 
The  Moscow  Conference  March-­‐April  1947  
The  USSR  made  a  determined  effort  to  destroy  Bizonia  by  demanding  a  new  central  German  
administration  under  four-­‐power  control,  and  to  end  of  Bizonia
...
 

 
The  Truman  Doctrine  and  the  Marshall  Plan:  

Truman  Doctrine:  In  June  1945  the  US  assumed  that  Britain  would  continue  its  role  in  the  Eastern  
Mediterranean,  but  by  January  1947  Britain  faced  an  economic  crisis
...
 This  was  expensive,  and  by  January  1947,  
Britain  had  spent  the  loan  from  the  USA  in  1945
...
 On  the  21st  of  February  
they  informed  the  US  that  their  financial  and  military  aid  to  Greece  and  Turkey  would  have  to  stop  
on  the  31st  March
...
 Truman  feared  that  the  Communists  might  launch  a  similar  uprising  in  Italy  once  
the  Allied  troops  had  left
...
 On  the  12th  March,  
Truman  expressed  the  seriousness  of  the  international  situation,  and  how  Europe  was  becoming  
divided  into  two
...
 
Marshall  Plan:  This  was  a  challenge  to  the  USSR,  and  forced  it  to  consolidate  its  hold  on  eastern  
Europe
...
 This  would  create  a  large  and  prosperous  market,  
which  would  act  as  a  barrier  to  the  further  spread  of  communism,  and  could  hopefully  pull  the  
Eastern  European  countries  out  of  the  Soviet  bloc,  and  build  a  political  structure  into  West  Germany
...
 Marshall  and  Truman  asked  for  $17  billion  to  fund  the  recovery  of  Europe,  and  
congress  agreed  in  1948  when  Czechoslovakia  turned  communist
...
 Soviets  wanted  aid,  but  with  no  conditions,  
but  the  French  and  British  agreed  that  European  states  should  have  a  joint  programme
...
 US  
officials  set  up  an  Advisory  Steering  Committee,  which  attempted  to  bring  Europeans  into  line  with  
essential  US  requirements:  
•   Germany’s  economic  revival  was  essential  

 

6  

•   Free  Trade  
•   There  was  to  be  co-­‐operation  on  the  development  of  hydroelectric  sources,  and  setting  up  
targets  of  productions  for  coal,  agriculture,  refined  oil  and  steel
...
 
Truman  Doctrine,  March  1947  
Reasons  for  announcement  
Britain  unable  to  defend  eastern  Mediterranean
...
 
The  Doctrine  
Truman  offered  US  support  to  countries  resisting  Communist  subversion  
Stressed  need  to  improve  economic  conditions  in  Europe  
The  Marshall  Plan  
Offers  of  aid  package  
Funds  distributed  by  Supranational  Organisations  
Accepted  by  Western  European  States,  but  rejected  by  USSR  who  set  up  Cominform
...
 In  a  famous  
speech  at  Fulton  in  1946,  Churchill  observed  ‘from  
Stettin  in  the  Baltic,  to  Trieste,  in  the  Adriatic,  an  iron  
Curtain  has  descended  across  the  continent
...
 He  
couldn’t  allow  free  elections,  as  communists  would  be  
defeated
...
 The  
Policy  of  containment  by  the  USA  didn’t  involve  
Poland,  as  it  was  accepted  to  be  in  the  Soviet  Sphere  of  
Influence
...
 Tactics  of  terror  and  false  electoral  results  placed  the  
Communist  Peasants  party  in  power
...
 
Romania:  Their  King  called  on  the  USA  and  UK  not  to  recognise  the  new  government  from  the  
Soviets
...
 In  1946  Groza  strengthen  position  by  merging  the  Communist  
Party  with  the  Romanian  Socialist  Party
...
 Opposition  
newspapers  were  closed  down,  and  leading  members  of  opposition  were  killed
...
 In  February  1947,  the  ACC  was  dissolved,  
Marshall  aid  was  refused,  and  they  joined  Cominform,  and  in  December  1947,  King  Michael  was  
forced  to  abdicate
...
 
Bulgaria:  In  Bulgaria  Stalin  hoped  to  avoid  unnecessary  friction,  and  in  December  1945  he  forced  the  
communists  to  include  two  members  of  the  opposition  but  when  these  demanded  change,  he  
advised  them  to  be  ‘smothered’
...
 In  the  
October  1946  elections  the  opposition  won  by  over  1/3  of  result
...
 Stalin  allowed  the  
communists  to  liquidate  the  opposite,  and  the  Bulgarian  Communist  party  took  creation  of  

 

7  

Cominform  to  radicalise,  nationalised  industry,  collectivisation  of  agriculture  and  create  a  one  party  
state
...
 Tito’s  ambitions  were  to  assist  Greek  Communists  
attempting  to  seize  power  in  Greece,  whilst  claiming  border  territories  from  Italy  e
...
 Trieste
...
 The  Paris  Peace  Negotiations  
(1947)  concluded  that  Trieste  was  to  be  divided  into  two  separates  parts:  one  under  Anglo-­‐American  
control  and  one  Yugoslav
...
 In  may  1946,  the  Communists  won  38%  of  votes  without  any  violence  or  efforts  
from  the  party
...
 Jan  Masaryk,  foreign  minister,  told  a  British  
ambassador  ‘I  went  to  Moscow  as  the  foreign  minister  of  an  independent  sovereign  state,  I  returned  
as  a  lackey  of  the  Soviet  Government’
...
 
Hungary:  In  November  1945,  there  were  free  elections  with  no  communist  influence
...
 
Although  the  influence  of  Communist  Party  was  still  apparent  in  the  ACC
...
 On  the  8th  Dec,  1947,  a  friendship  and  co-­‐operation  treaty  was  signed  with  Yugoslavia  
and  a  mutual  aid  treaty  with  the  USSR
...
 In  the  may  1949  elections  only  the  independent  
front  was  allowed  to  stand
...
 Behind  the  scenes  the  socialist  party  attempted  to  draw  closer  to  the  USA
...
 The  Moscow  
conference  (mar  1947)  was  the  turning  point  for  France
...
 In  Autumn  Stalin  called  for  violent  protests  against  the  Marshall  Plan,  
socialists  distanced  themselves  from  the  USSR  and  accept  pro-­‐US  policy
...
 
Stalin  conceded  Italy,  and  had  little  choice  but  to  support  West  as  it  had  been  liberated  and  
occupied  by  them
...
 In  May  1947,  the  communists  were  dismissed,  which  cleared  the  way  
for  the  Marshall  plan
...
 The  US  supported  the  idea  of  Western  European  integration
...
 
Ø   The  Soviets  tried  to  rally  public  opinion  across  Germany  against  the  West
...
 The  intention  was  to  send  a  
delegation  to  the  London  conference  to  support  Soviet  demands
...
 The  London  Conference  broke  up  on  15th  
December
...
 A  hope  for  4-­‐power  control  
disappeared,  the  alternatives  of  a  Western  Alliance,  closer  economic  co-­‐operation  in  Western  

 

8  

Europe  and  the  creation  of  West  States  appeared  to  be  the  only  practical  options  for  the  
Western  allies
...
 The  French  dreaded  the  revival  of  a  Germany  with  
potential  to  invade
...
 The  UK  and  USA  promised  to  
control  the  new  German  government
...
 The  occupation  statue  would  give  
Britain,  France  and  the  USA  power  over  trade,  foreign  relations,  economic  issues  and  
disarmament
...
   

 
The  Berlin  Blockade  1948:  

The  soviets  began  the  blockade,  to  force  the  Western  allies  to  abandon  a  
West  German  state  by  pressuring  Berlin
...
 
They  also  claimed  it  was  a  reaction  to  the  new  currency,  as  they  feared  
that  the  Soviet  zone  would  be  flooded  with  the  worthless  Reichmark,  
which  the  Deutschmark  was  replacing  in  West  Germany  and  Berlin
...
 Three  air  corridors  would  be  used  to  deliver  
materials,  which  would  be  delivered  by  B29  bombers
...
 5000  would  be  needed  for  the  winter
...
 Stalin  was  uncompromising,  but  the  
West  were  willing  to  allow  the  circulation  of  the  Ostmark  all  over  Berlin,  if  the  blockade  was  
abandoned
...
 
The  winter  of  1948/9  was  extremely  mild,  and  Stalin’s  gamble  was  failing
...
 By  April  this  had  reached  8000  tonnes  a  day,  and  1000  aircraft  could  use  the  
corridors  at  one  time
...
 Stalin  had  little  option  but  to  ‘cut  his  
losses’  and  stop  the  blockade
...
 

Two  German  States:  

The  future  of  Germany  was  decided  by  the  end  0f  1948
...
 
The  Federal  Republic  of  Germany:  
This  was  approved  in  the  Spring  of  1949,  by  the  three  western  powers,  and  elections  for  parliament  
took  place  in  August
...
 The  military  
government  in  the  western  zone  was  replaced  with  a  high  commission,  which  still  gave  Britain,  
France  and  the  USA  the  final  say  on  West  German  foreign  policy,  security  questions,  exports  and  
other  matters
...
 However,  after  the  
West  German  elections,  where  the  KPD  won  only  5
...
 On  the  
12th  November,  the  government  of  the  new  state  was  formed,  and  the  Soviet  military  occupation  
ended,  although  a  Soviet  Control  Commission  was  set  up,  like  the  Allied  High  Commission  in  the  
West
...
 The  
Communist  seizure  of  power  in  Prague  on  22nd  February  1948,  persuaded  the  French  to  join  an  
alliance  system  directed  against  the  USSR  rather  than  Germany
...
 Bevin  intended  the  Brussels  pact  to  be  underpinned  by  an  Atlantic  
alliance  in  which  the  USA  would  be  a  key  member
...
   
The  North  Atlantic  Treaty  Organisation  (NATO):  The  Prague  coup  and  Berlin  
Blockade  persuaded  the  USA  that  there  was  a  need  to  formally  commit  to  the  
defence  of  Western  Europe
...
 Truman  stressed  the  
treaty  wouldn’t  oblige  the  USA  to  go  to  war  without  consent  of  Congress
...
’,  
article  3  stated  ‘continuous  and  effective  self-­‐help  and  mutual  aid’
...
   
Growing  Soviet  Threat  to  the  West:  In  September  1949,  the  USSR  successfully  exploded  its  first  
atomic  bomb,  a  month  later  China  fell  to  communism,  and  Stalin  began  to  rapidly  expand  the  Red  
Army
...
   
Korean  War:  On  the  25th  June  1950,  South  Korea  was  invaded  by  Communist  North  Korean  troops,  
and  appeared  to  many  in  Western  Europe  and  the  USA  to  be  a  prelude  to  a  new  global  conflict  in  
which  Soviets  would  overrun  western  Europe
...
 Ulbricht  
not  only  supported  North  Korea,  but  appeared  to  recommend  similar  action  as  a  way  of  unifying  
Germany
...
 The  purpose  was  to  create  a  
European  army,  to  ensure  the  FRG  was  kept  under  control,  its  troops  would  not  join  in  divisions  
(10,000  troops)  but  in  battalions  (about  800  troops)
...
 He  tried  to  negotiate  for  independence  with  the  Western  Allies,  for  
‘Equality  of  treatment’
...
 
Disagreements  about  Korea  and  China:  China  helped  North  Korea  in  Nov,  1950,  the  West  were  
alarmed  by  possibilities  of  a  US  retaliation  with  atomic  bombs,  which  would  lead  to  an  all  out  war,  
and  withdrawal  of  US  troops  in  Europe
...
 
Truman  refused,  as  he  could  not  appease  Communism  in  China  or  Europe,  he  assured  no  atomic  
bomb  would  be  used
...
 
Truman  (a  democrat),  was  forced  to  make  rearmament  a  priority,  to  end  the  Korean  war
...
 
Franco-­‐German  Agreement  on  the  EDC:  In  Oct,  1951  negotiations  on  EDC  started  in  Paris,  the  
French  wanted  to  prevent  Germany  from  becoming  a  military  power
...
 In  Bonn,  there  were  talks  to  
replace  the  occupation  statue  with  the  General  Treaty,  signed  26th  May  1952,  and  the  EDC  treaty  in  
Paris
...
   
Financing  Western  European  rearmament:  US  began  to  develop  the  hydrogen  bomb,  after  the  
outbreak  of  the  Korean  War,  and  tripled  military  spending
...
 The  
expense  of  rearmament  threatened  to  destabilise  NATO
...
4  billion  in  1949  to  $8  billion  in  1951,  this  caused  a  serious  balance  of  payments  problem
...
 In  the  UK,  a  political  split  developed  in  April  1951  in  the  labour  
cabinet,  over  costs  of  rearmament
...
 
‘Guns  and  Butter’:  the  Organisation  for  European  Economic  Co-­‐operation  (OEEC),  was  convinced  
that  West  Europe  faced  an  economic  issue  only  solved  by  a  second  Marshall  Plan,  which  was  
unrealistic
...
 For  20  years,  West  Europe  enjoyed  a  period  
of  steady  growth,  ‘unparalled  prosperity’,  which  encouraged  economic  and  political  integration
...
 In  March  1950,  was  the  Stockholm  appeal  which  banned  the  A-­‐bomb  and  convict  as  
war  criminals  to  those  who  used  it  first
...
 It  was  described  as  ‘a  bogus  forum  of  peace  with  the  real  aim  of  sabotaging  national  
defence’
...
 The  US  and  UK  wanted  to  see  the  
FRG  firmly  integrated  into  the  West,  and  not  replaced  by  a  unified  Germany,  which  would  be  
vulnerable  to  Soviet  pressure
...
   

Political  and  Economic  Consolidation  of  the  Rival  Blocs:  

The  West:  Michael  Hogan  argued  what  the  US  wanted,  to  rebuild  West  Europe  in  the  image  of  the  
US
...
 France  and  
smaller  European  states  saw  Western  political  and  economic  integration  as  providing  the  key  to  
harnessing  the  great  industrial  resources  of  the  FRG  to  the  defence  of  West  Europe  against  
communism  and  the  USSR
...
   
European  Coal  and  Steel  Community  July  1952:  The  Schuman  plan  would  enable  Western  allies  to  
exploit  Germany’s  coal  and  steel  resources,  for  own  rearmament,  without  the  risk  of  a  strong  and  
independent  West  Germany
...
 Britain  wasn’t  willing  to  join  the  
plan;  it  didn’t  want  to  lose  control  of  industries
...
 
The  East:  Cominform,  established  in  Sept,  1947,  was  the  Communist  information  bureau
...
 Its  main  tasks  were  to  complete  
sovietisation  of  the  Soviet  satellite  states,  to  co-­‐ordinate  activities  of  communist  parties  in  the  soviet  
bloc  and  throughout  the  world,  and  to  combat  Titoism
...
 Main  tasks  were  to  integrate  economies  of  East  Europe,  with  the  
USSR’s
...
 The  USSR  increased  power  over  
satellite  states,  by  introducing  a  network  of  bilateral  treaties  of  friendship,  co-­‐operation  and  mutual  
assistance
...
 Friction  between  Soviets  and  
Yugoslavs  increased,  Tito  alarmed  Stalin  with  the  talk  of  forming  a  Balkan  federation,  without  
consulting  Stalin
...
 In  June  1948,  Yugoslavia  was  expelled  from  Cominform
...
   

 
The  Thaw  1953-­‐55:  

New  Leaders:  Eisenhower  became  president  in  1953,  and  was  much  tougher,  and  spoke  of  free  
people  in  Eastern  Europe
...
 On  the  1st  November  
1952,  the  US  tested  the  first  Hydrogen  bomb,  and  the  USSR  tested  in  1953
...
 On  the  5th  March  1953  Stalin  died,  and  a  collective  leadership  started  
between  Khrushchev,  Malenkiv,  Molotov,  Beria  and  Bulganin,  they  shared  power  for  3  years
...
 
West  and  Détente:  The  soviet  leaders  wanted  détente
...
 Churchill  suggested  a  4  power  
conference,  for  German  reunification  and  demilitarisation
...
 They  feared  a  neutral  Germany  would  be  vulnerable  to  
pressure  from  the  USSR,  they  came  to  an  agreement  to  discuss  a  possible  agenda  at  a  ‘preliminary  
conference’
...
 The  KGB  reassessed  values  of  the  GDR,  as  it  was  expensive  and  unstable
...
 The  GDR  reorganised  its  economy  following  the  USSR
...
 Individuals  targets  were  raised,  and  food  prices  increased,  and  farmers  were  threatened  by  
collectivisation
...
 Large  
numbers  of  east  Germans  fled  to  West  Berlin,  and  then  the  FRG,  many  were  skilled  workers
...
 These  were  spontaneous
...
 125  were  
killed
...
 They  had  two  prolonged  strategies,  call  foreign  ministers  conference,  and  
provocative  broadcasts,  to  prolong  unrest  and  strengthen  support  for  Adenauer
...
 
French  rejection  of  the  EDC,  August  1954:  In  march  1953,  the  EDC  and  general  treaty  was  accepted  
by  West  Germany,  but  was  rejected  by  the  French
...
 Britain  would  have  4  divisions  in  West  Germany
...
 This  increased  division
...
 
Warsaw  Pact  and  Treaty:  4th  May  1955  was  the  Warsaw  Pact
...
 It  was  a  response  to  the  FRG  in  NATO
...
 This  
was  first  major  summit  since  Potsdam,  it  was  to  discuss  reunification  of  Germany,  security  and  
nuclear  weapons  and  to  increase  contacts  between  the  East  and  West
...
 They  disagreed  on  German  disarmament,  and  there  was  no  
progress  on  arms  control
...
 

 
The  Khrushchev  era  and  the  ‘2nd’  cold  war:  
 

12  

The  Year  of  Crisis  1956:  

At  the  beginning  on  1956,  there  were  three  problems:  foreign  policy  in  the  developing  world,  
Destalinisation  and  Yugoslavia
...
 Khrushchev  believed  that  the  USSR  could  exploit  
anti-­‐colonialism  to  weaken  the  west
...
 
Destalinisation:  this  had  a  big  impact  on  the  relations  between  the  USSR  and  satellite  states
...
 This  raised  expectations  
in  satellite  states,  as  they  thought  they  would  get  more  independence  from  Moscow
...
 In  
1956  they  made  a  joint  agreement  that  ‘the  path  of  socialism  development  differs  but  strengthens  
socialism’
...
 In  June,  a  revolt  broke  out  in  Poznan  against  soviet  influence
...
 100,000  
were  involved,  and  57-­‐100  were  killed,  and  500-­‐600  were  injured
...
 The  Polish  communist  
party  turned  to  Gomulka,  the  former  party  leader
...
 Gomulka  became  the  head  of  the  communist  
party,  and  Poland  was  said  to  have  won  control  over  it  economy  but  was  still  loyal  to  the  Warsaw  
Pact
...
 In  October  wages  and  conditions  increased
...
 In  October  
students  and  workers  protested  for  a  new  government  under  Imre  Nagy,  who  suggested  reforms  
similar  to  Tito,  they  attacked  the  AVH  and  destroyed  a  Stalin  statue
...
 The  USA’s  radio  free  Europe  encouraged  Hungarians  to  revolt,  who  
believed  NATO  would  provide  protection
...
 On  the  24th  October  Nagy  became  prime  minister,  and  on  the  28th  he  
asked  the  Red  Army  to  leave
...
 On  the  3rd  November  Nagy  announced  he  would  be  leaving  the  Warsaw  pact,  and  on  the  
4th  November  the  Red  army  was  sent  to  Budapest,  and  this  fight  lasted  two  weeks,  and  4000  were  
killed
...
 
The  Suez  Crisis:  The  USSR  were  successful  in  improving  relations  with  Colonel  Nasser  (Egypt’s  
leader),  so  the  US  decided  to  cancel  their  loans  for  building  the  Aswan  Dam  in  July
...
 Nationalisation  gave  Israel,  France  and  Israel  an  
excuse  to  overthrow  Nasser,  as  they  wanted  to  remove  him
...
 On  the  16th  Oct,  they  
created  a  plan  for  invading  Egypt,  Israeli  troops  would  invade  through  
the  Sinai,  and  advance  towards  the  canal
...
 When  Israel  attacked  on  29th  Oct,  the  UK  and  French  troops  demanded  

 

13  

the  withdrawal  of  Israeli  and  Egyptian  troops  from  the  canal,  when  Nasser  refused,  Britain  bombed  
Egypt’s  airfields  on  31st  Oct
...
 Nasser  was  saved  by  the  US,  who  viewed  this  war  as  an  attempted  by  
the  UK  and  France  to  support  their  disintegrating  empires
...
 On  
6th  Nov,  the  US  stopped  the  fighting,  to  prevent  Soviet  attempts  to  increase  their  influence,  and  to  
avoid  criticism  over  lack  of  support  in  Hungary
...
 The  ceasefire  the  
next  day  made  it  looked  as  if  the  Soviet  ultimatum  rather  than  the  US  had  saved  Egypt
...
,  1957
...
 A  communist  
leader  under  pressure  could  appeal  to  the  Soviet  bloc  for  aid
...
 This  led  to  a  fresh  break  with  Tito,  who  joined  with  India  and  Egypt  to  
form  the  non-­‐aligned  movement  of  neutral  states
...
 The  
US  secretary  of  state  warned  he  was  the  most  dangerous  leader  of  the  USSR,  and  he  was  prepared  
to  take  dangerous  risks
...
 His  policy  of  nuclear  diplomacy  gained  more  credibility  
when  the  USSR  launched  the  first  ICBM  in  August  1957
...
 Overall  military  balanced  favoured  the  West,  but  Khrushchev  exaggerated  the  
extent  of  his  success,  but  it  wants  until  1960,  that  they  had  four  ICBMs  equipped  with  nuclear  
warheads
...
 
NATO:  Damage  done  to  NATO  was  quickly  repaired,  as  was  the  Anglo-­‐American  relations,  yet  in  
western  Europe,  distrust  of  US  policies  lingered
...
 These  
fears  were  strengthened  by  the  US  and  UK  reducing  their  conventional  forces  in  Europe,  equipping  
those  remaining  with  nuclear  weapons
...
,  1957  Polish  foreign  minister  put  plans  for  a  Nuclear  
free  zone  in  central  Europe,  which  Adenauer  believed  was  a  Soviet  trap  leading  to  German  
reunification,  which  would  be  overrun  by  the  USSR
...
 Doubts  about  US  loyalty  to  West  Europe  
influenced  Adenauer’s  thinking  about  the  EEC,  and  his  attitude  to  De  Gaulle  of  France
...
 If  the  US  pulled  out  of  
Europe  or  sacrificed  West  Berlin,  Gaulle’s  vision  of  Europe  was  the  only  alternative
...
 The  aim  was  to  
create  a  common  market  within  12  years  whilst  forming  a  more  integrated  political  structure
...
 The  led  to  the  UK  to  forming  the  
European  Free  Trade  Association  in  1960,  with  Denmark,  Norway,  Sweden,  Switzerland,  Austria  and  
Portugal
...
   

 
The  Berlin  Crisis  1958-­‐61:  

In  autumn  1956  the  GDR  acted,  in  contrast  to  Poland  and  Hungary  as  a  loyal  ally  of  the  USSR
...
 It  was  confronted  with  West  Germany  which  was  thriving,  and  attracted  

 

14  

the  young  and  ambitious
...
 Between  1945  and  1961  1/6  of  the  whole  east  German  
population  fled  westwards
...
 
‘Berlin  is  the  testicles  of  the  West…every  time  I  want  to  make  the  west  scream  I  squeeze  on  Berlin
...
 On  the  27th  November  Khrushchev  followed  this  with  a  6-­‐month  ultimatum,  
demanding  demilitarisation  of  West  Berlin,  and  changing  the  status  into  a  free  city
...
 It  would  enable  it  to  control  access  to  West  Berlin,  and  interfere  at  will  with  traffic  using  
land  corridors
...
 In  Feb  1959  they  agreed  a  foreign  ministers  conference  should  meet  in  Geneva,  but  splits  
were  beginning  to  appear  in  the  Western  alliance
...
 
Geneva  Conference,  May  to  August  1959:  both  sides  put  forward  proposals  for  German  unity  but  no  
agreement  was  secured
...
 USSR  
suggested  that  two  Germanys  should  form  a  confederation,  which  would  slowly  evolve  into  a  united  
state
...
   
Summit  Meetings,  September  1959-­‐May  1960:  Between  1959-­‐1961  more  summits  at  any  time  since  
WW2
...
 Over  next  two  years  Khrushchev  alternated  periods  of  détente,  when  he  
temporarily  allowed  the  ultimatum  to  lapse  again,  with  spells  of  acute  crisis  during  which  further  
threats  were  devised,  to  force  West  into  making  concessions  over  status  of  Berlin  and  future  of  
Germany
...
 Adenauer  was  
desperate  to  stop  plans  reducing  the  FRG  to  a  neutral  second-­‐rate  state,  but  May  1960,  (Paris  
Summit),  he  had  no  idea  what  Eisenhower  and  MacMillan  might  propose
...
   

Berlin  Wall:    

Kennedy  and  Berlin:  Kennedy  dramatically  increased  US  forces  in  Europe,  and  urged  negotiation  on  
the  German  question,  and  stressed  on  TV  on  25th  July  1961,  that  USA  was  interested  in  defending  
free  access  to  West  Berlin  from  the  FRG
...
   
In  April  1960,  independent  farms  in  the  GDR  were  forced  into  collective  farms
...
 This  led  to  people  fleeing  to  the  West
...
 
There  was  widespread  unrest  in  factories
...
 This  was  confirmed  
at  a  meeting  of  Warsaw  Pact  states  in  Moscow  on  3-­‐5th  August  

 

15  

1961
...
 
Significance  of  Berlin  Wall:  With  the  construction  of  the  Berlin  Wall,  Khrushchev  achieved  a  limited  
by  important  success  for  Soviet  policies
...
 The  western  powers  
recognised  East  Germany
...
 The  people  in  the  East  had  
no  option  but  to  stay  in  the  GDR,  this  enabled  Ulbricht  to  develop  the  New  Economic  System  which  
would  revolutionise  the  GDR’s  economy
...
 There  was  continued  
tension  along  the  wall,  and  US  troops  were  practising  tearing  down  simulated  walls,  while  on  27th  
October  Soviet  and  US  tanks  stood  facing  each  other  at  Checkpoint  Charlie
...
   

 
The  Cuban  Missile  Crisis  1962:  
Causes:  In  1959  The  island  of  Cuba  was  taken  over  by  communist  rebels  led  by  Fidel  Castro
...
 In  1960  
Castro’s  new  communist  government  had  taken  over  American  property  in  Cuba
...
 This  loss  wasn’t  a  huge  problem,  but  Cuba’s  economy  
depended  on  America  buying  sugar  from  them
...
 Castro  asked  the  USSR  to  buy  Cuban  sugar
...
 The  CIA  offered  an  invasion  to  get  rid  of  communists  in  Cuba,  
but  the  US  and  the  Soviets  both  had  nuclear  weapons
...
 They  invaded  the  bay  of  pigs  in  April  1961,  but  was  easily  
defeated  by  Castro  and  supporters  in  two  days
...
 These  missiles  meant  the  USSR  could  attack  
America  without  spending  large  amounts  of  money  developing  ICBMs
...
 On  the  14th  October  1962,  an  American  spy  plane  
flew  over  Cuba,  and  took  pictures  of  missile  sites  in  Cuba
...
 In  April  1961,  (4  months  after  Kennedy  coming  into  power),  a  force  of  1400  
Cuban  exiles  landed  at  the  Bay  of  Pigs,  it  was  hoped  this  would  start  popular  uprisings
...
 It  was  a  ‘monumental  disaster  for  the  US,  comparable  to  the  humiliation  
the  British  and  French  suffered  at  Suez  five  years  ago
...
 Kennedy  decided  to  set  up  a  naval  
blockade  around  Cuba  to  prevent  further  missiles  reaching  it
...
 Kennedy  sent  
a  letter  to  Khrushchev  stating  that  if  the  missiles  weren’t  removed  then  
they  would  declare  war
...
 
Kennedy  received  another  letter  the  next  day,  saying  the  USSR  would  
remove  missiles  if  the  US  removed  missiles  from  Turkey
...
 Khrushchev  turnt  around  his  ships,  and  ordered  the  
dismantle  of  missiles  on  Cuba
...
 Cuba  developed  revolutionary  strategy  in  Developing  world,  independent  on  the  USSR
...
 USSR  and  USA  agreed  to  
hotline  and  plan  to  control  proliferation  of  nuclear  weapons
...
 Both  superpowers  and  western  states  
sough  détente  in  Europe
...
 The  USSR  were  facing  a  growing  threat  from  the  PRC,  and  hoped  for  post-­‐war  
division  of  Europe,  and  to  be  equal  in  nuclear  weapons
...
 The  French  wanted  to  undermine  USA  and  
USSR  within  Europe  for  more  independence
...
 Détente  didn’t  mean  the  cold  war  was  over,  as  the  USSR  still  constructed  a  
large  navy  to  increase  global  power
...
 
Mao  saw  Khrushchev  to  be  an  appeaser  of  NATO,  and  USA,  and  a  betrayer  of  Stalin  and  Lenin
...
 After  1958,  differences  between  PRC  and  USSR  multiplied:  
v   Soviet  economic  advisors  warned  Mao  the  ‘Great  Leap  Forward’  was  impractical  and  harmful  to  
Chinese  economy
...
 
v   In  August  1958,  the  PRC  bean  an  intense  bombardment  of  the  Quemoy  Islands  to  rally  the  
Chinese  behind  the  Great  Leap  forward,  Khrushchev  expressed  this  may  lead  to  war  with  the  US
...
 
With  Khrushchev  falling  from  power  in  Oct,  1964,  a  mission  was  sent  to  the  USSR  to  improve  
relations,  but  was  unsuccessful
...
 Each  side  had  hundreds  of  thousands  of  
troops  along  the  borders
...
 The  island  was  on  the  PRC  side,  but  was  occupied  by  Soviets
...
 On  13th  
August,  a  PRC  brigade  of  over  1000  was  annihilated  by  soviet  troops
...
 
Vietnam  1954-­‐1963:  USA  were  determined  to  avoid  elections  for  a  united  Vietnamese  parliament,  
but  were  held  in  1956
...
 To  stop  spread  of  
communism  in  South-­‐East  Asia,  USA  established  the  Southeast  Asian  Treaty  Organisation,  as  a  
regional  defence  system  in  Sep,  1954
...
 This  was  ineffective,  as  members  were  not  legally  obliged  to  
assist  militarily  to  prevent  spread  of  Communism
...
 He  alienated  key  groups,  e
...
 Buddhists,  by  
favouring  Roman  Catholics
...
 In  Sept,  1960,  the  Viet  Cong,  founded  the  National  front  for  the  Liberation  of  Vietnam,  
which  aimed  to  rally  those  opposed  to  Diem  by  promising  reform  and  creation  of  a  united  Vietnam
...
 The  Viet  Cong  had  seized  control  of  
many  villages
...
 On  May  1963  Diem’s  troops  fired  into  a  crowed  
celebrating  Buddha’s  birthday,  as  they  had  no  governmental  flags
...
 Kennedy  backed  

 

17  

a  coup  in  South  Vietnam  in  Nov  1963  to  remove  Diem,  he  was  killed
...
 
War  Escalates:  Khanh  failed  to  defeat  Viet  Cong,  and  by  1964  war  in  South  Vietnam  was  escalating
...
 Vietnamese  boats  attacked  an  US  destroyer
...
 on  7th  August  US  congress  gave  authority  to  defend  US  forces  in  South-­‐East  Asia
...
 US  tactics  were  ineffective  against  Viet  Cong,  
who  were  supplied  with  weapons  from  the  Ho  Chi  Minh  Trail,  which  supported  170,000  guerrillas
...
 
Sino-­‐Soviet  Split  and  North  Vietnam:  North  Vietnam  were  given  aid  by  PRC,  but  was  agreed  that  
unless  US  troops  invaded  north,  PRC  would  get  directly  involved  in  fighting
...
 Vietnam
...
   
Negotiations  to  end  war:  US  lost  home  support  for  war,  and  public  opinion  turnt  against  the  
conflict
...
 They  penetrated  the  US  embassy,  
and  the  USA  and  world  used  this  as  evidence  for  the  US  and  south  Vietnam  defeat
...
   
Nixon  1968-­‐72:  His  main  aim  after  election,  was  to  end  US  involvement  in  Vietnam
...
 He  calculated  that  the  USSR  was  
anxious  to  sign  a  treaty  on  Strategic  Arms  Limitations,  that  it  would  pressure  North  Vietnam  to  the  
conference  table,  but  Brezhnev  rejected  and  supplied  North  Vietnam
...
 Only  US  air  power  prevent  South  Vietnam  defeat
...
 Nixon  assured  
the  public,  that  troops  would  only  advance  21  miles  into  Cambodia,  and  would  withdraw  by  end  of  
June
...
 The  North  launched  an  
attack  on  the  South  in  June  1972,  which  was  halted  by  US  air  attacks
...
 
Paris  Peace  Accords:  North  Vietnam  realised  that  US  air  power  could  prevent  a  takeover  of  the  
South
...
 On  27th  Jan  the  
Paris  Peace  Accords  were  signed:  US  were  to  remove  forces  within  60  days;  US  prisoners-­‐of-­‐war  
released;  ceasefire  was  declared  throughout  Vietnam;  territorial  integrity  of  whole  of  Vietnam  
would  be  recognised  by  USA  and  elections  would  be  held  in  North  and  South  Vietnam
...
 They  seized  
Saigon,  and  the  US  embassy  had  to  be  evacuated
...
 Nixon,  Kissinger  and  Carter  reduced  USA’s  intervention  in  the  developing  world,  
and  instead  used  regional  powers  to  contain  communism
...
 

Brezhnev  +  
Kosygin  
Originally  close  to  Khrushchev,  but  helped  to  
Premier
...
 Abroad  he  offered  détente  
Brezhnev,  1964-­‐1980
...
 He  
assisted  friendly  regimes  in  Africa  and  Asia
...
 
Replaced  JFK,  president  until  1969,  then  
President  1969-­‐1974
...
 
Between  1963  and  1973  many  agreements  were  negotiated,  which  aimed  to  stop  the  spread  of  
nuclear  weapons:  

 

18  

v   1963:  Test  Ban  treaty,  signed  by  UK,  USSR  and  USA  to  ban  the  testing  in  the  atmosphere,  
underwater,  and  outer  space,  it  was  rejected  by  China  and  France,  who  wanted  to  develop  their  
own
...
 Pledged  not  to  transfer  nuclear  weapons  
to  other  countries  or  assist  others  to  manufacture  them,  in  1969  West  Germany  joined
...
 
v   May  1972,  Nixon  and  Brezhnev  signed  SALT  1  agreement  at  Moscow  summit
...
 Nixon  accepted  
that  USSR  should  have  more  weapons,  as  USA  had  superiority  in  multiple  independently  
targetable  re-­‐entry  vehicles
...
 They  were  both  left  defenceless  against  attack,  so  if  
war  would  break  out,  it  would  guarantee  peace
...
 
v   July  1974,  USA  and  USSR  agreed  negotiations  for  a  SALT  II  treaty,  impose  permanent  limitations  
on  nuclear  weapons
...
 Number  of  missile  launchers  and  MIRV  rocket  warheads  for  both  sides  further  limited
...
 
Year  
USA  
USSR  
Launchers  
Warheads  
Launchers  
Warheads  
1962  
1653  
3267  
235  
481  
1970  
2100  
4960  
1835  
2216  
1980  
2022  
10608  
2545  
7480  
 
Developments  in  Western  Europe  1964-­‐8:  Test  ban  treaty  and  Nuclear  non-­‐proliferation  treaty  were  
most  significant  achievements  in  the  early  period  of  détente
...
 USA  was  failing  to  win,  and  was  losing  position  as  moral  leader  of  the  
west
...
 This  was  made  easier  with  the  fall  of  
Khrushchev  in  1964,  and  the  replacement  with  Brezhnev  and  Kosygin
...
 
French  leave  NATO:  Disagreements  over  Vietnam  war  and  increasing  assertiveness  of  the  West  
could  have  destroyed  NATO,  and  led  to  a  US  withdrawal
...
 In  1963  he  vetoed  Britain’s  application  to  join  the  EEC,  as  they  were  pro-­‐
American,  and  3  years  later  withdrew  French  forces  from  NATO
...
   
Beginning  of  Ostpolitik:  West  Germans  were  setting  up  trade  missions  in  Yugoslavia  and  Romania
...
   
Hamel  Report:  In  Dec,  1967  a  NATO  committee  drew  up  a  report  that  committed  NATO  not  only  to  
defend  Western  Europe,  but  reach  détente  with  Warsaw  Pact  states
...
   
Divisions  within  the  Warsaw  Pact:  Soviet  retreat  from  Cuba,  growing  atmosphere  of  détente,  and  
Sino-­‐Soviet  split  weakened  soviet  control  over  Eastern  Europe,  and  provided  Satellite  states  to  
pursue  own  policies
...
 To  stop  these  the  Warsaw  Pact  issued  in  1966  the  Bucharest  Declaration,  which  redefined  
what  the  Soviet  bloc  wanted  through  détente:  
§   Recognition  of  post-­‐war  frontiers  in  Eastern  Europe
...
 

 

19  

§   A  veto  on  nuclear  weapons  in  West  Germany
...
 
Prague  Spring  ‘A  serious  setback’:  in  1968  Alexander  Dubcek  became  first  secretary  of  the  Czech  
Communist  party
...
 In  April  ’68,  he  unveiled  a  programme  for  democratic  change  and  
modernisation  of  economy
...
 In  June,  he  abolished  censorship,  
leading  to  a  flood  of  anti-­‐Soviet  propaganda  being  published  in  Czechoslovakia
...
 Although  Dubcek  
agreed  to  restore  censorship,  Brezhnev  lacked  confidence  in  him,  so  on  the  night  of  20th-­‐21st  of  
August,  20  divisions  of  the  Warsaw  Pact  invaded  Czechoslovakia  and  terminated  the  Prague  Spring
...
 To  counter  this,  collective  intervention  would  be  justified,  
this  was  the  Brezhnev  doctrine
...
 Willy  Brandt  was  West  German  Chancellor,  Oct  1969
...
 He  had  
support  from  US  and  NATO,  as  he  promised  not  to  leave  NATO  or  the  European  Community  
(previously  EEC)
...
 
He  then  signed  a  4-­‐power  treaty  on  Berlin  between  Britain,  France,  USA  and  USSR
...
 Brezhnev  and  Brandy  agreed  on  
no  territorial  claims  on  any  other  state
...
 This  created  the  recognition  of  the  Soviet  empire  in  Europe
...
 The  ratification  of  the  treaty  was  made  
dependent  on  Four-­‐Power  control  over  Berlin
...
 It  was  parallel  with  the  Moscow  
talks,  and  agreed  on  no  territorial  demands  on  each  other
...
 
Four  Power  negotiations  over  Berlin:  USA,  French  and  UK  involvement  demonstrated  that  Ostpolitik  
wouldn’t  weaken  the  FRG’s  western  links
...
 Soviets  were  anxious  and  dint  want  to  make  
many  concessions,  but  were  reluctant  to  annoy  Nixon,  as  he  was  improving  links  with  the  PRC
...
 In  return  UK,  USA  and  France  
agreed  that  Western  Sectors  of  Berlin  were  not  legally  part  of  the  FRG
...
 Bark  and  D
...
 Gress
...
 Agreement  on  transit  traffic,  
west  Berliner’s  to  visit  East  Berlin  and  post  communication  started  in  1971
...
 The  FRG  stressed  it  still  considered  
those  in  the  GDR  to  have  ‘common  citizenship’,  which  hoped  for  peaceful  reunification
...
 The  
GDR  was  still  vulnerable,  and  its  existence  depended  on  Soviet  help
...
 The  USSR  wanted  the  west  to  
recognised  permanent  territorial  and  political  division  of  Europe  as  at  Yalta;  economic,  scientific  and  
technological  co-­‐operation  and  to  exploit  Western  ‘know  how’  about  technology  to  modernise  its  
economy
...
   They  marked  a  high  
point  in  détente,  and  were  signed  by  33  European  states
...
g
...
   
v   Co-­‐operation  in  economics,  science,  technology  and  the  environment
...
 Expanding  trade,  tourism  and  cultural  contacts  
between  the  two  blocs  as  well  as  promoting  reunion  for  families  split  by  the  iron  curtain
...
 Whereas  for  the  
US,  the  stress  on  human  rights,  and  increased  East-­‐West  contacts  equalled  a  potential  for  
undermining  unpopular  soviet  dominated  regimes
...
 Which  started  in  1973,  an  agreement  was  reached  at  
Vladivostok  Summit  1974,  but  was  delayed  by  the  ‘New  Cold  War’  but  agreement  was  signed  in  
1979,  but  was  delayed  due  to  soviet  invasion  of  Afghanistan
...
 In  1976,  the  USSR  placed  SS-­‐20  medium-­‐range  missiles  in  Central  Europe
...
 In  Nov,  1981  
Reagan  suggested  both  sides  destroyed  their  existing  medium  range  weapons,  but  the  Soviets  
rejected
...
 This  regime  
embarked  on  a  radical  reformation  programme,  but  had  widespread  opposition  from  conservative  
Islamic  forces
...
 Between  24th  and  27th  
Dec,  50,000  Soviet  troops  were  flown  in  Kabul,  and  within  months  there  were  100,000  soviet  troops
...
 The  USSR  hoped  to  crush  Muslim  fundamentalist  rebels,  and  stabilise  the  government,  so  
they  could  withdraw  troops
...
 The  US  thought  that  the  Soviets  
intended  to  expand  towards  the  Indian  Ocean  and  Persian  Gulf  where  there  was  a  lot  of  oil  and  gas
...
 The  US  also  supplied  weapons  to  the  Mujahedin  through  Pakistan-­‐  
Operation  Cyclone  (1979-­‐1989)
...
 
$20-­‐$30  million  a  year  in  1980,  and  by  1987  was  $630  million
...
 In  May  1980  they  approved  exports  from  the  PRC  of  advanced  
military  equipment  to  Afghanistan
...
 
Solidarity  Crisis  in  Poland  1980-­‐2:  Poland  was  important  to  the  USSR  as  it  was  strategically  the  main  
route  to  the  West,  provided  1/3  of  the  Warsaw  Pact  troops,  and  had  the  largest  population  of  
satellite  states,  in  1980  36  million
...
 The  government  reacted  
by  giving  political  and  economic  concessions  over  price  increases,  and  
recognised  the  solidarity  movement  as  an  independent  trade  union,  
initially  only  in  Gdansk
...
 Brezhnev  
urged  the  Polish  Prime  minister  to  ‘crush  the  anti-­‐socialist  forces’  and  Honecker,  East  German  leader  
wanted  to  send  in  troops  ‘any  delay  in  acting  against  them,  would  mean  death…death  of  Socialist  
Poland’
...
 

 

21  

Kania  convinced  Brezhnev  he  could  restore  power  himself,  and  the  US  warned  against  force
...
 The  9th  congress  of  the  Polish  communist  party  
delegates  attacked  party  leaders  and  dismantled  the  organisation
...
 In  Dec,  
1981  Martial  Law  was  declared  and  in  1982  Solidarity  was  outlawed
...
 German  Chancellor,  
Schmidt,  and  Kohl  tried  to  protect  it  from  the  consequences  of  the  deteriorating  East-­‐West  relations
...
 
‘Star  Wars’:  In  Nov,  1982,  Brezhnev  died  and  was  replaced  with  Andropov
...
   
Shooting  down  of  South  Korean  Airliner:  on  1st  Sept,  1983,  tension  between  US  and  USSR  further  
increased  when  a  Soviet  fighter  aircraft  shot  down  a  South  Korean  passenger  aircraft,  which  flew  
into  Soviet  airspaces,  killing  all  269  on  board,  including  61  US  citizens
...
   

 
Gorbachev:  Glasnost  and  détente  1985-­‐9:  

Andropov  died  in  Feb  1984,  replaced  with  Cherenke  but  he  died  in  March  1985,  he  was  then  
replaced  with  Gorbachev
...
g
...
 He  came  up  with  a  plan  to  
modernise  the  economy,  renew  détente  with  the  west
...
   Before  Gorbachev  the  USSR  was  economically  poor,  as  up  until  1961,  the  USSR  and  
Comecon  states  had  been  performing  quite  well,  based  on  cars,  tractors  and  heavy  industries
...
 In  1960s,  the  Czechs  put  
forward  to  decentralise  the  economy  on  a  localised  level,  but  was  discouraged  as  it  might  make  
political  concessions
...
 
Détente  and  Ostpolitik,  opened  up  for  loans  from  the  West,  which  could  be  used  for  investment  and  
kept  prices  down
...
 Also  oil  prices  increased,  and  hit  the  west  but  they  were  able  to  
modernise
...
 Gorbachev’s  economic  plan  was  to  increase  investment  in  technology,  
restructure  the  economy  so  it  was  less  centralised  (Perestroika),  and  give  workers  greater  freedom  
and  incentives  to  encourage  them  to  work  harder
...
 In  spring  1986,  onwards  censorship  eased  and  foreign  
broadcasts  were  gradually  allowed
...
 Investigative  journalism  
highlighted  major  corruption  in  the  communist  party
...
 In  May  
1989,  the  newly  constituted  congress  of  people’s  deputies  was  elected,  in  what  were  the  first  
elections  organised  by  the  communists
...
 In  Feb  1990,  Article  6  was  destroyed;  officials  would  need  50%  of  electorate  to  
stay  in  power,  it  meant  long  term  officials  were  rejected,  and  Gorbachev  was  elected  as  the  first  
executive  president  of  the  USSR
...
 In  April  1985,  Gorbachev  
stopped  increasing  SS-­‐20s  in  Europe,  he  failed  to  persuade  Reagan  to  give  up  SDI’s  for  arms  control
...
 In  1988  at  the  

 

22  

UN,  he  publically  said  Marxism-­‐Leninism  was  not  ‘the  key  to  the  ultimate  truth’
...
 
Global  Détente:  Afghanistan-­‐  Gorbachev  realised  soviet  policy  failed  in  Afghanistan,  and  in  Nov,  
1986  decided  that  Soviet  troops  would  be  withdrawn
...
 They  believed  he  would  be  able  to  form  a  government  of  national  unity,  that  
could  negotiate  peace
...
 This  did  not  bring  peace,  the  Mujahedin,  who  were  not  
represented  at  Geneva,  fought  on,  while  the  USSR  continued  financially  assisting  Najibullah’s  forces
...
 
Global  Détente:  Cambodia-­‐  in  1979,  Vietnam  supported  by  USSR,  invaded  Cambodia,  and  overthrew  
the  Khmer  Rouge  regime,  establishing  the  Pro-­‐Vietnam  People’s  republic  of  Kampuchea
...
 
Vietnamese  military  units  stayed  in  Cambodia  to  support  new  regime
...
 Gorbachev  was  ready  to  collaborate  with  the  USA  and  
PRC  to  find  a  solution  to  Cambodia’s  problems
...
 
End  of  PRC-­‐Soviet  dispute:  USSR  withdrawal  from  Afghanistan  and  co-­‐operation  over  Cambodia  had  
cleared  way  for  improving  relations  between  the  PRC  and  USSR
...
 Deng,  who  was  in  the  
process  of  modernising  the  PRC  and  embracing  Western  Capitalism,  sympathises  with  Gorbachev’s  
desire  to  reform  Soviet  economy,  but  wasn’t  ready  for  political  concessions,  and  was  quick  to  
declare  Martial  Law
...
   

 
Collapse  of  Communism  in  Eastern  Europe  1989-­‐95:  

After  withdrawing  troops  for  Afghanistan  and  Africa,  Gorbachev  refocused  on  Soviet  policy  in  
Europe,  and  hoped  to  safeguard  Soviet  security  through  a  policy  of  political  co-­‐operation  and  
negotiation
...
 By  
1989,  he  was  encouraging  Communist  Eastern  European  states  to  reform  economically  and  to  
liberalise  politically
...
 In  the  GDR,  Czechoslovakia,  
Romania  and  Albania,  governments  unwilling  to  experiment  with  political  or  economic  reform,  were  
compelled  to  reform  by  dramatic  events  in  the  GDR
...
   
Poland:  1988  Solidarity  movement  was  legalised  due  to  series  of  strikes  due  to  price  increases  
(200%)
...
 They  
could  now  compete  for  35%  (65%  reserved  for  communists)  in  the  lower  house  of  parliament,  and  
free  elections  in  the  upper  house
...
 On  4th  June  
elections,  Solidarity  won  92/100  seats  in  the  upper  Sejm,  and  160/161  of  the  seats  they  would  
compete  for
...
 The  solidarity  
movement  would  form  government  and  communists  would  hold  a  minority
...
 In  Nov,  1989,  solidarity  
removed  communist  control  of  army  and  police,  and  in  Nov,  1990  Lech  Walesa  (co-­‐founder  of  

 

23  

Solidarity)  was  elected  president
...
 May  1988,  Hungarian  Socialist  Workers  Party  
(MSZMP)  replaced  Prime  Minister  Kadar  with  Grosz,  a  committed  reformer
...
 Grosz  visited  USSR  in  
March  1989,  and  Gorbachev  welcomed  developments,  but  emphasised  that  Socialism  shouldn’t  be  
threatened
...
 This  was  accepted,  and  the  leaders  were  convinced  that  the  MSZMP  would  be  dominant
...
 In  1994,  formed  an  alliance  with  free  democrats,  and  in  1996,  was  
claimed  to  be  ‘the  most  left-­‐wing  social  democratic  party’
...
 He  promoted  family  into  
positions  of  authority  they  were  not  qualified  for,  and  Cronyism  was  a  main  feature  in  his  
government
...
 He  launched  
Bulgarianisation  which  led  to  expulsion  of  200,000  ethnic  Turks  from  Bulgaria
...
 Bulgarian  Communist  Party  transformed  to  Bulgarian  
Socialist  Party  (BSP)
...
   
Collapse  of  GDR:  
GDR  was  a  product  of  the  cold  war,  Gorbachev  needed  to  win  loyalty  of  the  population,  as  it  could  
no  longer  appeal  to  soviet  power  to  maintain  Law  and  Order
...
 West  
German  loans  1983-­‐4  saved  it  from  bankruptcy
...
 Honecker,  also  granted  exit  visas  to  East  Germans  who  travelled  to  Poland  and  
Prague,  and  were  besieging  the  West  German  embassies  there  in  an  attempt  to  flee  the  GDR
...
 In  Leipzig,  peaceful  demonstrations  took  place  in  late  
Sept-­‐Oct  1989,  which  were  reluctantly  tolerated  as  it  was  known  that  Gorbachev  wouldn’t  support  a  
hard-­‐line  policy
...
 
Berlin  Wall  Opens:  on  4th  Nov,  500,000  congregated  in  East  Berlin  to  demand  further  reform  and  the  
right  to  travel  abroad
...
 
On  9th  Nov,  all  GDR  citizens  with  passports  could  have  an  exit  visa  valid  
for  any  border  crossing,  including  into  West  Berlin
...
 
Velvet  revolution:  Czechoslovakia:  1989,  Czechoslovakia  still  controlled  by  those  who  suppressed  
the  Prague  Spring
...
 As  a  consequence  to  changes  in  Poland  and  
Hungary  in  summer  of  1989,  opposition  was  strengthened,  and  prime  minister  announced  economic  
reforms,  but  not  political  reforms
...
 A  demonstration  to  honour  the  death  of  a  student  killed  in  German  occupation  in  WW2,  
became  a  mass  protest  which  triggered  the  Velvet  Revolution
...
 On  7th  Dec,  a  new  government  was  
formed  with  Communists  as  a  minority
...
 In  1992,  Czechoslovakia  broke  into  two  independent  states,  
Slovakia  and  Czech  Republic
...
 Gorbachev  was  informed  of  plans  to  overthrow  him  in  Nov,  1989,  and  
agreed  that  the  Romanian  Communist  Party  was  the  dominant  force
...
 On  21st  Dec,  the  
communist  leader  fled
...
 On  22nd  Dec,  the  National  
Salvation  Front  (NSF)  was  formed,  and  established  a  Council  for  National  Unity  and  held  elections  for  
a  new  government  in  May  1990
...
 
Yugoslavia:  After  expulsion  from  Cominform  1948,  it  followed  a  different  pattern  from  other  
communist  states=  more  contact  from  the  West,  and  in  1960s  and  ‘70s,  Tito  allowed  greater  cultural  
and  intellectual  freedom  than  other  communist  states
...
 Heavily  dependent  on  foreign  investment,  and  by  1989  
inflation  had  reached  300%
...
 Communist  Party’s  leading  role  was  removed  by  the  Federal  Prime  
Minister  from  the  constitution  in  Jan  1990,  and  multi-­‐party  federal  elections  were  announced
...
 Each  election  brought  nationalists  to  
power,  and  soon  each  state  demanded  independence,  leading  to  the  dismemberment  of  the  country  
into  independent  rival  states
...
 All  but  Macedonia  and  Montenegro  
fought  wars  to  achieve  independence
...
 In  Feb,  1989  they  announced  a  limited  reform  programme  
based  on  perestroika
...
 
March  1991,  the  former  Communist  Party,  now  the  Socialist  Party  of  Albania  won  majority
...
 In  April  1997,  the  Albanian  Socialist  party  won  a  large  majority
...
 The  ‘Alliance  for  
Germany’  coalition,  won  majority,  on  12th  April,  the  new  government  claimed  they  wished  to  join  
the  FRG
...
 Its  reunification  marked  the  end  of  the  cold  war
...
 At  first  Gorbachev  was  opposed  to  the  liquidation  of  the  GDR,  and  in  Dec,  1989,  
promised  he  would  ‘see  to  it  that  no  harm  comes  from  the  GDR’
...
 President  Bush,  also  gave  the  green  
light,  and  outlined  a  formula  for  negotiations,  the  ‘two  plus  four  talks’  which  would  bring  together  
the  two  Germany’s  and  the  four  occupying  powers
...
 It  was  a  peace  treaty  ending  the  partition  of  Germany
...
   

Disintegration  of  the  USSR:  

By  1989,  it  was  clear  perestroika  hadn’t  managed  to  resolve  the  economic  problems
...
   
the  USSR  was  a  federation  of  15  republics
...
   
The  Baltic  States:  They  had  been  part  of  the  Russian  Empire  until  the  collapse  of  Russia  in  WW1,  and  
were  ‘reabsorbed’  by  the  USSR  in  1940
...
 In  1988,  the  Popular  fronts,  coalitions  of  reformers,  formed  
in  all  three  republics
...
 In  March,  Lithuania  and  Estonia  declared  
independence,  and  Latvia  followed  in  May
...
 He  was  determined  to  keep  
the  USSR  together
...
 On  11th  Jan,  Bush  expressed  his  concern
...
   
Russia:  
Elections  had  taken  place  for  the  Congress  of  People’s  Deputies  in  March  and  April  1990,  and  gave  
majority  to  reformers  and  opponents  of  the  communist  regime
...
 Gorbachev’s  rival,  Yeltsin,  emerged  as  the  leading  politician  
in  the  Russia  and  was  elected  chairman  of  congress
...
 
‘Summer  of  Sovereignty’:  
Elections  took  place  in  the  other  republics  in  March  and  April  1990
...
   
End  of  the  USSR:  
Declarations  of  independence  prompted  Gorbachev  to  create  of  a  draft  of  the  new  Union  Treaty  in  
Nov,  1990
...
 Soviet  citizens  were  asked  if  they  supported  the  renewed  
federation  of  equal  sovereign  republics
...
 
Gorbachev  under  threat:  His  position  was  increasingly  vulnerable
...
 He  faced  opposition  from  the  Communists  in  the  army,  party  
and  KGB,  who  were  critical  of  his  policies,  and  reformers  led  by  Yeltsin,  who  in  June  1991,  became  
first  directly  elected  president  of  Russia
...
 They  launched  an  abortive  coup  in  Moscow  while  Gorbachev  was  away
...
 Yeltsin  took  a  key  role  in  rallying  the  crowds  
in  Moscow  against  the  coup,  and  emerged  as  the  saviour  of  the  new  Russia
...
 The  Communist  Party  was  made  illegal  in  Russia  in  August
...
 Gorbachev  attempted  to  draft  a  new  treaty,  but  this  was  rejected
...
 On  25th  Dec,  1991  Gorbachev  
resigned,  and  on  31st  Dec,  the  USSR  ceased  to  exist
...
 

 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 

26  

  
‘The  Big  Three’  Leaders:  

1933-­‐
45  
1945-­‐
53  
1953-­‐
61  
1961-­‐
63  
1963-­‐
69  
1969-­‐
74  
1974-­‐
77  
1977-­‐
81  
1981-­‐
89  
1989-­‐
93  
1993-­‐
01  
 

 

USA  
Franklin  
Roosevelt  
Harry  
Truman  
Dwight  
Eisenhower  
J
...
 
Kennedy  
Lyndon  
Johnson  
Richard  
Nixon  

1922-­‐
53  
1953-­‐
64  
1964-­‐
82  
1982-­‐
84  
1984-­‐
85  
1985-­‐
91  

USSR  
Joseph  
Stalin  
Nikita  
Khrushchev  
Leonold  
Brezhnev  
Yuri  
Andropov  
Konstantin  
Chernenko  
Mikhali  
Gorbachev  

Gerald  
1991-­‐ Boris  Yeltin  
Ford  
99  
Jimmy  
 
Carter  
Ronald  
Reagan  
George  
Bush  
Bill  Clinton  

1940-­‐
45  
1945-­‐
51  
1951-­‐
55  
1955-­‐
57  
1957-­‐
63  
1963-­‐
64  
1964-­‐
70  
1970-­‐
74  
1974-­‐
76  
1976-­‐
79  
1979-­‐
90  
1990-­‐
97  

UK  
Winston  
Churchill  
Clement  
Attlee  
Winston  
Churchill  
Anthony  
Eden  
Harold  
McMillan  
Alec  
Douglas-­‐
House  
Harold  
Wilson  
Edward  
Heath  
Harold  
Wilson  
James  
Callaghan  
Margaret  
Thatcher  
John  
Major  
27  

    

 

28  

  
 
 
 

 

29  



---