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CHAPTER 1
Wednesday, July 6, 2016

12:27 PM

MAJOR THEMES OF ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY
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○ These approaches are complementaryA and never entirely separable
○ Together, they form the bedrock of the health sciences
• Physiology leans meaning to anatomy --> Anatomy makes physiology possible
• There are several ways to examine the structure of the human body
○ Simplest: Inspection: simply looking at the body's appearance, as in
performing a physical examination or making a clinical diagnosis from
surface appearance
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○ Dissection: Carefully cutting and separating tissues to reveal their
relationships
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○ Exploratory Surgery: Opening the body and taking a look inside to see
what is wrong
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§ Radiology: Branch of medicine concerned with imagery
○ Gross anatomy: Structures that can be seen with the naked eye
○ Histopathology: the microscopic examination of tissues for signs of
disease
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§ Radiology: Branch of medicine concerned with imagery
Gross anatomy: Structures that can be seen with the naked eye
Histopathology: the microscopic examination of tissues for signs of
disease
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§ Ultrastructure: refers to fine detail, down to the molecular level,
revealed by the electron microscope
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§ Basis for the development of new drugs and medical procedures
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2 The Origins of Biomedical Science
• The Greek and Roman Legacy
○ Hippocrates: The father of modern medicine
§ Established the Hippocratic oath
§ Urged physicians to stop attributing disease to demons/gods
○ Aristotle: One of the first philosophers to write about A&P
§ Believed and both supernatural and natural causes
○ Claudius Galen: Wrote the most influential medical textbook of the
ancient era
• The birth of modern medicine
○ Modern Western medicine began around the 16th century in the
innovative minds of such people as the anatomist Andreas Vesalius
(Greys Anatomy) and the physiologist William Harvey
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3 The Scientific Method
• Scientific Method: Refers less to observational procedures than to certain
habits of disciplined creativity, careful observation, logical thinking, honest
analysis of ones observations and conclusions
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• The Hypothetic-Deductive Method

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analysis of ones observations and conclusions
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The Hypothetic-Deductive Method
○ Begins with a hypothesis: an educated speculation or possible answer to
the question
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consistent with what is already
known and 2
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○ From a hypothesis, a deduction is made
§ Typically in the form of an If-Then statement
○ Hypothesis testing operates in cycles of conjecture and disproof
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○ Statistical testing: Applied to the data
§ Chi-square test, the t test, analysis of variance
Peer Review
○ A critical evaluation by other experts in that field
Facts, Laws, and Theories
○ A scientific fact: information that can be independently verified by any
trained person
○ A law of nature a generalization about the predictable ways in which
matter and energy behave
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§ Confirmed observations
§ Law is a description, it governs nothing
○ Theory: An explanatory statement or set of statements derived from
facts laws and confirmed hypotheses
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4 Human Origins and Adaptations
• Charles Darwin
○ Developed an explanation of how species originate and change through
time by Natural Selection
• Evolution, Selection and adaptation
○ Evolution: Changes in the genetic composition of a population of
organisms
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§ Some individuals within a species have hereditary advantages over
their competitors that enable them to produce more offspring
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○ Adaptions: features of anatomy, physiology and behavior that have
evolved in response to these selection pressures and enable the
organisms to cope with the challenges of the environment
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• Evolutionary medicine: Analyzes how human disease and dysfunctions can be
traced to differences between the artificial environment in which we now live,
and the prehistoric environment to which homo sapiens was biologically
adapted
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5 Human Structure
• The Hierarchy of Complexity
○ Atoms --> Molecules --> Organelles ---> Cells --> Tissues --> Organs -->
Organ Systems --> Organisms
○ Organism: A single, complete Individual
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§ The Human body has 11 Organ systems
□ Integumentary, skeletal, muscular, nervous, endocrine,
circulatory, lymphatic, respiratory, urinary digestive and
reproductive
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§ A single organ can belong to two organ systems
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§ Histology is the study of tissues
○ Organelles: microscopic structures in a cell that carry out its individual
functions
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Composed of 2 atoms
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• Reductionism
○ The theory that a large, complex system such as the human body can be
understood by studying its simpler components
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○ Espoused by Aristotle
• Holism
○ The complementary theory that there are "emergent properties: of the
whole organism that cannot be predicted form the properties of its
separate parts- essentially human beings are more than the sum of their
parts
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• Anatomical Variation:
○ No 2 humans are exactly alike
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6 Human Function
• Characteristics of life
○ From a biological viewpoint, life is not a single property
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§ Organization: living things exhibit a far higher level of organization
than the nonliving world around them
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§ Cellular composition: Living matter is always compartmentalized
into one or more cells
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□ Metabolism is the sum of this internal change
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□ Metabolism produces chemical wastes, requiring excretion:
the separation of wastes from the tissues and their
elimination from the body
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elimination from the body
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§ Development: any change in form or function over the lifetime of
the organisms
□ In most organisms it involves 2 major processes
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Growth an increase in size
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§ Evolution: All living species exhibit genetic change from generation
to generation and therefore evolve
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• Homeostasis and Negative Feedback
○ Homeostasis: The bodies ability to detect change, activate mechanisms
that oppose it, and to thereby maintain relatively stable internal
conditions
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○ Negative feedback: A process in which the body senses a change and
activates mechanisms that negate or reverse it
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○ Because feedback mechanism alter the original changes that triggered
them they are often called feedback loops
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○ Because feedback mechanism alter the original changes that triggered
them they are often called feedback loops
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§ The effector: the cell or organ that carries out the final corrective
action
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§ When blood vessels of the skin dilate, warm blood flows closer to
the body surface and loses heat to the surrounding
○ Vasoconstriction: a narrowing of the blood vessels in the skin, which
serves to retain warm blood deep in your body and reduce heat loss
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○ Normal way of producing a rapid change
○ Frequently, positive feedback is a harmful or even life-threatening
process
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process
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• Gradients and flow
○ Matter and energy tend to flow down gradients
○ A physiological gradient: a difference in chemical concentration,
electrical charge, physical pressure, temperature, or other variable
between one point and another
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7 The Language of Medicine

• The History of Anatomical Terminology
○ About 90% of todays medical terms are formed from just 1
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1
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200 greek and
latin roots

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