Notesale: Turn your study into money

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The Research process
Research
 It is as something that people undertake in order to find out things in systematic way ,
thereby increasing their knowledge
 Examples of research:
o Astronomy  the study of celestial objects and processes and all phenomena that
originate outside the atmosphere of Earth
...


o Basic/ Theoretical Research


The researchers study the subject through the writing of others
...


The nature of business research
 Business research is part of social sciences
 The variety and diversity of business and management studies makes it hard to find
agreement about its nature
 It can be seen as an ‘applied’ field because it is concerned with solving management
problems
 Examples:
o To find out the impact of motivation on productivity
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Proposal Structure and content
1
...
It usually mirrors the content of the proposal
2
...
Investigating the state of the art of research topic
b
...
Researcher will
be expected to show a clear link between the previous work that has been done in
Researcher’s field of research interests and the content of the proposal
c
...
To know more about the concept you want to study (definition both theoretical
and operational)
...
Identify the unanswered questions and gaps in information
...
Find out about the research design (sample, questionnaire,
measurements,
...

iv
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Mr
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Learn about difficulties and problems other researchers face and how they
solved them
...
Interpret and compare the results
...
Background
a
...
This might be
expressed in a form of a problem that needs solving or something that you find
exciting and has aroused your curiosity
...
You should give information about the filed / industry under investigation and to
justify why your research is important in this specific filed/ industry
4
...
Research Methods
a
...
Timetable
a
...

7
...


-

Secondary data
o Information gathered from sources already existing
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Interview
 Interview is described as an in-depth conversation between two or more persons, in a
formal way, so as to figure out candidate’s acceptability for the job
...
It is one to one communication between the
interviewer and interviewee; wherein both the parties get a chance to learn about each
other
...

o An unstructured interview or non-directive interview is an interview in which
questions are not prearranged
...

o Structured Interview is one in which a particular set of predetermined questions are
prepared by the interviewer in advance
...


Unstructured Interview
refers to an interview in
which the questions to be
asked to the respondents
are not set in advance
...


To probe personal details of
the candidate, so as to
judge if he is the right
person for the job
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The difference between structured and unstructured interview can be drawn clearly on the
following grounds:


Structured Interview refers to an interview, in which questions to be asked to the candidates
are fixed in advance
...




As the structured interview is a pre-planned and same set of questions are put to all the
candidates, so the data collected is quantitative in nature
...




In descriptive research, the structured interview is used to collect information, because it is
relatively economical and the inferences can be drawn easily
...




In a structured interview, the questions put before the candidate are close-ended, that
demands a certain piece of information from the applicants, or in fact, he/she has to make a
choice among various options provided
...
e
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

Structured interviews are used by positivists whereas unstructured interview is used by
interpretivists
...
Unlike unstructured interview, which is used to probe personal details of the candidate,
so as to judge if he is the right person for the job
...


Criteria for Evaluating Survey Methods
 Flexibility of Data Collection: The flexibility of data collection is determined primarily by the
extent to which the respondent can interact with the interviewer and the survey
questionnaire
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 Diversity of Questions: The diversity of questions that can be asked in a survey depends
upon the degree of interaction the respondent has with the interviewer and the
questionnaire, as well as the ability to actually see the questions
...

 Sample Control: Sample control is the ability of the survey mode to reach the units
specified in the sample effectively and efficiently
...

 Control of Field Force: The ability to control the interviewers and supervisors involved in
data collection
...

 Response Rate: Survey response rate is broadly defined as the percentage of the total
attempted interviews that are completed
...

 Social Desirability/Sensitive Information: Social desirability is the tendency of the
respondents to give answers that are socially acceptable, whether or not they are true
...

 Speed: The total time taken for administering the survey to the entire sample
...

Observation
 Observation involves going into ‘the field’, - the factory, the supermarket, the waiting room,
the office, or the trading room - watching what workers, consumers, or day traders do, and
describing, analyzing, and interpreting what one has seen
...
g
...


Mr
...
g
...

o In disguised observation, the respondents are unaware that they are being
observed
...
Observers may be disguised as
shoppers or sales clerks
...
For example, one could observe the behavior of respondents eating
fast food in Burger King
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 There is no reporting bias, and potential bias caused by the interviewer and the
interviewing process is eliminated or reduced
...

 If the observed phenomenon occurs frequently or is of short duration, observational
methods may be cheaper and faster than survey methods
...

 Selective perception (bias in the researcher's perception) can bias the data
...


Mr
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 It is best to view observation as a complement to survey methods, rather than as being in
competition with them
Questionnaires
 A set of printed or written questions with a choice of answers, devised for the purposes of a
survey or statistical study
...
Although they are often
designed for statistical analysis of the responses, this is not always the case
...
Determine the content of the questionnaire
o 2
...
Determine the wording of the questions
o 4
...
Write cover letter
 Questionnaire content
o Subjective construct


It focus on multiple elements and different questions

o Objective construct


It focus on single element and single question

Mr
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Writing Critical literature Review
Definition
 The aim of a literature review is to show your reader (your tutor) that you have read, and
have a good grasp of, the main published work concerning a particular topic or question in
your field
...
It may be a separate
assignment, or one of the introductory sections of a report, dissertation or thesis
...

 It is very important to note that your review should not be simply a description of what
others have published in the form of a set of summaries, but should take the form of a
critical discussion, showing insight and an awareness of differing arguments, theories and
approaches
...

According to Caulley (1992) of La Trobe University, the literature review should:
•

compare and contrast different authors' views on an issue

•

group authors who draw similar conclusions

•

criticise aspects of methodology

•

note areas in which authors are in disagreement

•

highlight exemplary studies

•

highlight gaps in research

•

show how your study relates to previous studies

•

show how your study relates to the literature in general

•

conclude by summarising what the literature says

The purposes of the review are:
•

to define and limit the problem you are working on

•

to place your study in an historical perspective

•

to avoid unnecessary duplication

•

to evaluate promising research methods

Mr
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Structure of the literature review
 The overall structure of your review will depend largely on your own thesis or research
area
...
What you must not do is just describe what
one writer says, and then go on to give a general overview of another writer, and then
another, and so on
...
Within each of
these sections, you would then discuss what the different literature argues, remembering to
link this to your own purpose
...
In many cases you will be given a booklist
or directed towards areas of useful published work
...
With
dissertations, and particularly theses, it will be more down to you to decide
...
What exactly are your
objectives and what do you need to find out? In your review, are you looking at issues of
theory, methodology, policy, quantitive research, or what? Before you start reading it may
be useful to compile a list of the main areas and questions involved, and then read with the
purpose of finding out about or answering these
...


Research Design and Data Collection
Difference between Quantitative Vs Qualitative Research
 Qualitative research gathers information that is not in numerical form
...

 Qualitative data is typically descriptive data and as such is harder to analyze than
quantitative data
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Qualitative Methods

Quantitative Methods

Methods include focus groups, in-depth

Surveys, structured interviews & observations,

interviews, and reviews of documents for types

and reviews of records or documents for

of themes

numeric information

Primarily inductive process used to formulate

Primarily deductive process used to test pre-

theory or hypotheses

specified concepts, constructs, and hypotheses
that make up a theory

More subjective: describes a problem or

More objective: provides observed effects

condition from the point of view of those

(interpreted by researchers) of a program on a

experiencing it

problem or condition

Text-based

Number-based

More in-depth information on a few cases

Less in-depth but more breadth of information
across a large number of cases

Unstructured or semi-structured response

Fixed response options

options
No statistical tests

Statistical tests are used for analysis

Can be valid and reliable: largely depends on

Can be valid and reliable: largely depends on

skill and rigor of the researcher

the measurement device or instrument used

Time expenditure lighter on the planning end

Time expenditure heavier on the planning

and heavier during the analysis phase

phase and lighter on the analysis phase

Less generalizable

More generalizable

Mr
...
An experiment
uses predictions, known as hypotheses rather than research questions
...
It is used mainly for exploratory and descriptive research
...

Qualitative research strategies
 Archival research: The purpose of Archival research is to make use of administrative
records and documents as the principal source of data
...
It is the earliest qualitative research strategy
...

 Action research: the purpose of action research strategy is to promote organisational
learning to produce practical outcomes
...
It could be
structured or unstructured
Mixed-Methods Research
 It is possible to combine quantitative and qualitative strategies within a research project
 Combining quantitative and qualitative research provided a more rounded and complete
picture
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Time Horizon
 Cross-sectional studies
o In medical research and social science, a cross-sectional study (also known as a
cross-sectional analysis, transversal study, prevalence study) is a type of
observational study that analyses data collected from a population, or a
representative subset, at a specific point in time—that is, cross-sectional data
...
Often, information from
different samples is obtained at different times over long intervals
...

 Longitudinal studies
o A longitudinal study is an observational research method in which data is gathered
for the same subjects repeatedly over a period of time
...
In a longitudinal cohort study, the
same individuals are observed over the study period
...

 There are four basic types of scales:
o Nominal Scale:


A nominal scale is one that allows the researcher to assign subjects to certain
categories or groups
...




Notice that there are no third category into which respondents would
normally fall
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

The information that can be generated from nominal scaling is to calculate
the percentage (or frequency) of males and females in our sample of
respondents
...




The preference would be ranked ( from best to worse; or from first to last) and
numbered as 1, 2, 3, and so on
...


o Ratio Scale


Ratio scale: overcomes the disadvantage of the arbitrary origin point of the
interval scale, in that it has an absolute (in contrast to an arbitrary) zero point,
which is a meaningful measurement point
...




The differences between scales are summarized in the next Figure
...

 The information on the variables can be obtained in greater detail when we employ an
interval or a ratio scale than the other two scales
...


Mr
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 It is necessary to examine the methods of scaling (assigning numbers or symbols) to elicit
the attitudinal responses of subjects toward objects, events, or persons
...

o Ranking scales, make comparisons between or among objects, events, or persons
and elicit the preferred choices and ranking among them
...

 Category scale: It uses multiple items to elicit a single response
...
This is an Interval scale and the differences in responses
between any two points on the scale remain the same
...
For instance, the scale would employ such terms as:

Good –

Bad
 Itemized rating scale: A 5-point or 7-point scale is provided for each item and the
respondent states the appropriate number on the side of each item
...
Note that the above is balanced rating with a neutral point
...

 Fixed or constant sum rating scale: The respondents are asked to distribute a given
number of points across various items
...
The characteristic of interest to the study is placed at

Mr
...
However, such ranking may not give definitive clues to some of the answers
sought
...
Why?
 Because 65% of respondents did not choose that product
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 We will describe the Forced Choice as an example
...
This is easier for the respondents, particularly if the
number of choice to be ranked is limited in number
...

o We need to assess the goodness of the measures developed
...

o How can we ensure that the measures developed are reasonably good?


First an item analysis of the responses to the questions tapping the variable is
done
...


Mr
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Each item is
examined for its ability to discriminate between those subjects whose total scores are high,
and those with low scores
...

 The items with a high t-value are then included in the instrument
...

Reliability
 Reliability of measure indicates extent to which it is without bias and hence ensures
consistent measurement across time (stability) and across the various items in the
instrument (internal consistency)
...

o Test–Retest Reliability: The reliability coefficient obtained with a repetition of the
same measure on a second occasion
...

Test-Retest Reliability
 When a questionnaire containing some items that are supposed to measure a concept is
administered to a set of respondents now, and again to the same respondents, say
several weeks to 6 months later, then the correlation between the scores obtained is
called the test-retest coefficient
...


Mr
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 Both forms have similar items and the same response format, the only changes being the
wording and the order or sequence of the questions
...

 If two such comparable forms are highly correlated (say 8 and above), we may be fairly
certain that the measures are reasonably reliable, with minimal error variance caused by
wording, ordering, or other factors
...

o Inter-item Consistency Reliability: This is a test of the consistency of respondents’
answers to all the items in a measure
...

o Split-Half Reliability: Split-half reliability reflects the correlations between two
halves of an instrument
...
Validity is concerned with whether we measure the
right concept
...

Content Validity
 Content validity ensures that the measure includes an adequate and representative set
of items that tap the concept
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 The more the scale items represent the domain of the concept being measured, the greater
the content validity
...

Criterion-Related Validity
 Criterion-Related Validity is established when the measure differentiates individuals on a
criterion it is expected to predict
...

 Concurrent validity is established when the scale discriminates individuals who are
known to be different; that is, they should score differently on the instrument as in the
following example
...
This is assessed through convergent and
discriminant validity
...

 Discriminant validity is established when, based on theory, two variables are predicted to
be uncorrelated, and the scores obtained by measuring them are indeed empirically found
to be so
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Mr
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 Why Sampling?
o Less costs
o Less errors due to less fatigue
o Less time
o Destruction of elements avoided
 3 factors that influence sample representativeness
o Sampling procedure
o Sample size
o Participation (response)
 The Sampling Process
o 1
...
(To whom do you want to generalize your results?)


The population includes all objects of interest whereas the sample is only a
portion of the population
...
Parameters are usually denoted using Greek letters
(mu, sigma) while statistics are usually denoted using Roman letters (x, s)
...
They are
usually large, and it is often impossible to get data for every object we're
studying
...


o 2
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

A subject is a single member of the sample, just as an element is a single
member of the population

o 3
...
In order to have a random selection method, you

Mr
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


Systematic sampling



Cluster Sampling




Simple Random Sampling

Stratified sampling

A core characteristic of non-probability sampling techniques is that samples
are selected based on the subjective judgement of the researcher, rather than
random selection (i
...
, probabilistic methods), which is the cornerstone of
probability sampling techniques
...
Determine the appropriate sample size
o 5
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Each element in the population has an equal chance of occuring
...
It requires that a complete list of
every element in the population be obtained
...
You can generate random numbers using the TI82 calculator
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In systematic sampling, the list
of elements is "counted off"
...
This is similar to lining
everyone up and numbering off "1,2,3,4; 1,2,3,4; etc"
...

 Convenience sampling is very easy to do, but it's probably the worst technique to use
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 Cluster sampling is accomplished by dividing the population into groups -- usually
geographically
...
The clusters are randomly
selected, and each element in the selected clusters are used
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 Stratified sampling also divides the population into groups called strata
...
For instance, the population might be
separated into males and females
...

Types of non-probability sampling
 Quota sample
o The defining characteristic of a quota sample is that the researcher deliberately sets
the proportions of levels or strata within the sample
...
The proportions may or may
not differ dramatically from the actual proportion in the population
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 Purposive sample
o A purposive sample is a non-representative subset of some larger population, and is
constructed to serve a very specific need or purpose
...
It may not be
possible to specify the population -- they would not all be known, and access will be
difficult
...

o A subset of a purposive sample is a snowball sample -- so named because one
picks up the sample along the way, analogous to a snowball accumulating snow
...
Snowball samples are particularly
useful in hard-to-track populations, such as truants, drug users, etc
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It is an accidental
sample
...
Volunteers would constitute a convenience sample
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Developing Research Hypothesis


Hypotheses Definition
 Hypotheses are predictions about the relationship among two or more variables or
groups based on a theory or previous research
 Hypotheses are assumptions or theories that a researcher makes and tests
...
It is a testable idea or testable
question on some phenomenon of interest
...
This
assumption may or may not be true
...


-

More types:
o Simple hypothesis - this predicts the relationship between a single independent
variable (IV) and a single dependent variable (DV)
o Complex hypothesis - this predicts the relationship between two or more
independent variables and two or more dependent variables
...




They may imply that the researcher is intellectually committed to a particular
outcome
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

They specify the expected direction of the relationship between variables i
...

the researcher predicts not only the existence of a relationship but also its
nature
...




They may imply impartiality
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o Associative hypotheses


Propose relationships between variables - when one variable changes, the
other changes
...


o Causal hypotheses


Propose a cause and effect interaction between two or more variables
...




The dependent variable is measured to examine the effect created by the
independent variable
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

They need to predict a relationship that can be 'supported' or 'not supported'
based on data collection and analysis
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Types of variables
Dependent variable
 The presumed effect in an experimental study
...
Strictly speaking, “dependent
variable” should not be used when writing about nonexperimental designs
...
All other variables that may impact the
dependent variable are controlled
...
Strictly speaking, “independent variable” should not be used when
writing about nonexperimental designs
Mediating variable
 Synonym for intervening variable
...
Parent’s status ➛
child’s education ➛ child’s status
Moderating variable
 A variable that influences, or moderates, the relation between two other variables and thus
produces an interaction effect

Mr
...
A research problem does not state
how to do something, offer a vague or broad proposition, or present a value question
...
Introduce the reader to the importance of the topic being studied
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2
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3
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Mr

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