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KENYATTA UNIVERSITY
INSTITUTE OF OPEN DISTANCE & e-LEARNING
IN COLLABORATION WITH THE
SCHOOL OF HUMANITIES AND SOCIAL SCIENCES;
DEPARTMENT OF POLICY AND PUBLIC ADMINISTRATION

APP 308: ADMINISTRATIVE LEADERSHIP

WRITTEN BY: EDNA JEMUTAI MOI

1

EDITED BY:

TABLE OF CONTENTS
LECTURE ONE: DEFINITION OF TERMS ON ADMINISTRATVE LEADERSHIP
...
2 LEADERSHIP
...
2
...
9
1
...
10
SUMMARY
...
12
ACTIVITIES
...
13
SELF-TEST QUESTIONS
...
14
ANSWERS TO SELF-TEST QUESTIONS
...
15
LECTURE TWO: HISTORY OF MANAGEMENT AND LEADERSHIP RESEARCH
...
1 INTRODUCTION
...
2 LECTURE OBJECTIVES
...
2 IDEOLOGY OF LEADERSHIP
...
19
NOTE
...
20
FURTHER READING
...
20
GLOSSARY
...
21
REFERENCES
...
23
3
...
23

2

3
...
23
3
...
24
3
...
26
3
...
28
SUMMARY
...
30
ACTIVITIES
...
31
SELF-TEST QUESTIONS
...
32
ANSWERS TO SELF-TEST QUESTIONS
...
33
LECTURE FOUR: GOALS AND PRIORITIES OF ADMINISTRATIVE LEADERS
...
1 INTRODUCTION
...
2 LECTURE OBJECTIVES
...
3 THE ADMINISTRATIVE GOALS
...
4 Inspiring Your Employees
...
5 TRAINING AND COACHING
...
4
...
40
SUMMARY
...
42
ACTIVITIES
...
43
SELF-TEST QUESTIONS
...
44
ANSWERS TO SELF-TEST QUESTIONS
...
45
LECTURE FIVE: TRAITS AND SKILLS IN PUBLIC SERVICE LEADERSHIP
...
1INTRODUCTION
...
2 LECTURE OBJECTIVES
...
3 ARE LEADERS BORN OR MADE
...
4 Personality Traits
...
52
NOTE
...
52
FURTHER READING
...
53
GLOSSARY
...
54
REFERENCES
...
55
6
...
55
6
...
55
6
...
56
6
...
58
SUMMARY
...
61
ACTIVITIES
...
61
SELF-TEST QUESTIONS
...

GLOSSARY
...
62
REFERENCES
...
64
7
...
64
4

7
...
64
7
...
65
7
...
1 RECENT DEVELOPMENTS
...
72
NOTE
...
73
FURTHER READING
...
73
GLOSSARY
...
74
REFERENCES
...
75
8
...
75
8
...
75
8
...
76
8
...
77
SUMMARY
...
83
ACTIVITIES
...
84
SELF-TEST QUESTIONS
...
85
ANSWERS TO SELF-TEST QUESTIONS
...
86

5

LECTURE ONE: DEFINITION OF TERMS ON ADMINISTRATVE
LEADERSHIP
1
...
Managing and leading in the public sector can be defined a somewhat
challenging task
...
When a private company has a profitmaking factor as its motivator, the public sector has to find other ways of guiding the
decision-making and motives in the development
...
In the public sector, Leaders are career public servants, for the most part,
who may initiate and carry out the roles and responsibilities of leadership at multiple agency
echelons
...


1
...
2 LEADERSHIP

Leadership has been defined in three general camps: as a set of exemplary traits,
values, and behaviors that individuals possess; the ability to influence action and motivation based on
situational contexts and follower characteristics; and ascription among followers
...

Chester Barnard defined Leadership as the ability of a superior to influence the behaviour of
subordinates and persuade them to follow a particular course of action
...
The legacies of Frederick Winslow Taylor and
Henri Fayol have created a notion that there is little difference between public and private
sector management
...
The system of checks and balances among the branches of government, which
implies that no one branch has sufficient power and authority to develop and implement
goals and strategies, however, negates the use of a single source of planning, goal setting,
and resource allocation
...


7

There are plenty of theories and statements on which are the qualities of a successful
leader, and there are no right or wrong answers
...
A leader can have traits like understanding and listening
to its subordinates, emotional capabilities, openness and assertive and determined
leadership skills
...
So a great leader has the ability to
convince the followers and create a friendly environment in the work place
...
Best traits and
skills for public leaders, is a compilation of personal characteristics that characterize
administrative leaders: a high achievement motivation, skills in technical, interpersonal,
and intellectual functioning, and exemplary personal traits
...

NB Leadership is a process by which a person influences others to accomplish an
objective and directs the organization in a way that makes it more cohesive and coherent
...

A leader is one or more people who selects, equips, trains, and influences one or more
follower(s) who have diverse gifts, abilities, and skills and focuses the follower(s) to the
organization’s mission and objectives causing the follower(s) to willingly and
enthusiastically expend spiritual, emotional, and physical energy in a concerted
coordinated effort to achieve the organizational mission and objectives
...
Other
definitions is as indicated below:
 The only definition of a leader is someone who has followers - Peter Drucker
 Leadership is the capacity to translate vision into reality
...
" (John Kotter, from
Leading Change
...
" (James
Kouzes and Barry Posner, from The Leadership Challenge
...


1
...
1 Defining a Leader and a Manager

A distinct separation of these two terms cannot be done though, because the definitions and
duties of those two head players of the company are overlapping and complementing each other
...

Sometimes the roles are portrayed so that the manager of a company focuses on the daily
routines in the workplace and the leader is the representing the company to the surrounding
environment
...


9

A leader plays an important role in the front of the company
...
A great leader
has to have intuition and the ability to convince the employees
...


1
...
In order to evaluate a
successful leader, the personality and expertise are not the only ones to take into
consideration
...

In Figure 1 the roles of the leader, follower and the situation are portrayed by Hollander (1978)
...



...
Often the manager was
promoted into the position from the workforce
...
It is said that not only supreme technical
know-how makes a successful leader
...
Though it is defined in the literature
that the managerial work is divided into four different categories:
nizing
ling

The first one involves the process of defining the organizational and department´s goals and developing
strategies in order to achieve these goals
...
The leading function demands the manager to hire the right people,
train to people to the work and motivate them to the set goals, use efficient communication styles with
the work teams and apply the interpersonal skills intensively
...


11

1
...


Leadership types are needed in a

successful company in private and public sector
...
A competent manager executes leader´s strategies from the paper
to the reality
...
Fluent verbal and numerical skills are needed likewise and the ability to hire and
look after the professional staff
...
5 NOTE

If one wishes to distinguish leadership from management or administration, one can argue
that leaders create and change cultures, while managers and administrators live within
them
...
5 ACTIVITIES

12

Describe how leadership in public sector difers with that of private sector
...
6 FURTHER READING

Tom Peters 1989: Leadership is an Art
...
7 SELF-TEST QUESTIONS

Distinguish between a leader and a manager

1
...


14

1
...
10 REFERENCES

Anna-Katariina Ojala 2013: Leadership Styles and Traits in the Public Sector
Larry D
...
58

Pardey, D
...
Introducing Leadership
...
edition
...

Prowle, M
...
Changing Public Sector: A Practical Management Guide
...
edition
...

Robbins, P
...
Coulter, M
...
Management, International Edition
...
edition
...

Sachdeva, J
...
2009
...
1
...
Global Media
...
2003
...
2nd edition
...


The Kenyan constitution 2010

15

LECTURE TWO: HISTORY OF MANAGEMENT AND LEADERSHIP
RESEARCH

2
...
Before that the description of a great leader have been
contrasted with the “great men”, worshiping exceptional skills of leading people, like
Alexander the Great, Napoleon Bonaparte and Jeanne D´arc
...
2 LECTURE OBJECTIVES

At the end of this unit you should be able to:


Know the history of management



Understand the ideology of leadership

16

2
...
First category was focusing on finding out the personality
traits and what are the characters of a successful leader
...
This study method was
popular in 1930-1940´s
...
The findings of the studies have divided the
leadership methods into three different groups: democratic management, where the emphasis
is on the subordinates´ well-being and involvement and the authoritarian management, where
the leader has the supreme decision-making power and does not hesitate to use it
...
This research has been popular in the 1940-1960´s
...
These studies were trying to answer to the question what situational factors effect to
the leading, and how the leader should act in different conditions
...
Situational leadership research was
created in the 1970-1980´s
...
Modern leader has to have the ability to transform and act rapidly,
without forgetting the ethical issues in management
...

Often today´s leader has been contrasted with having entrepreneurial and technological skills
without concentrating too much on the details and devoted to the service
...
This type of leader is able to work without the help of strong hierarchy
and also sharing high ethical values
...
The leader also understands that the process is
more important than the result, and values its employees
...
Often
subordinates, who are treated equally and with reverence, are acting less unethically in the
organization
...
This creates a healthy and motivating working environment, where
everyone is equal
...

When the leader is acting ethically, the level of misbehavior of the employees will
decrease
...
3 SUMMARY

Focusing on just one theory or way of managing people makes the leaders blind and that is
when poor management occurs
...
In this case the last category, situational research
would be the best one to choose, because the working conditions and different types of
subordinates may vary considerably between the departments
...
4 NOTE

For Public sector to develop a succession leadership and management program and for
evaluating executive performance, a cornerstone of administrative leadership is the
transformation of individuals and organizations
...


19

2
...
6 FURTHER READING

Strömmer R
...
Henkilöstöjohtaminen, 1st edition
...
7 SELF-TEST QUESTIONS

Describe the ideology of leadership

2
...
9 ANSWERS TO SELF-TEST QUESTIONS

1930-1940´s
...
The studies state that some people are more suitable to
lead than the others due to their personality traits
...
The second faction was seeking the right style to lead people, trying to answer
to a question, how the leader should lead its followers
...
The last leadership method is the laissez-faire management, where the leader lets
the organizational events to go with its own weight
...
These studies were trying to answer to the question what situational factors effect
to the leading, and how the leader should act in different conditions
...


21

REFERENCES

Sadler, P
...
Leadership
...
edition
...

Hughes, R
...
Curphy C
...
Leadership: Enhancing the Lessons of Experience
...
Richard D
...

Hunsaker, L
...
2005
...
2
...
Pearson Prentice Hall
...
1: INTRODUCTION

There are two distinct traditions in the study of administrative leadership: the mainstream account of instrumental leadership, which draws its inspiration from the literature on
organizational leadership; and the institutional leadership school inspired by the work of Philip
Selznick

3
...
3 THE MAINSTREAM INSTRUMENTAL LEADERSHIP

The history of leadership studies begins with the ‘great man’ theory of
history followed by the study of leadership traits
...
Such situational theories evolved into contingency theory and
transactional approaches, which stressed the variety of leadership styles and the need for
style to ‘fit’ the managerial context
...
The ‘New Leadership’ approach came not from
mainstream leadership studies but from political science
...
The debate about the relative
efficacy of transactional and transformational leadership dominated the literature for two
decades
...

Students of public administration contributed little to this story
...
Overall, mainstream studies ‘have failed
to create a critical mass of scholarly work on public sector leadership
...
It is said to be useful in training and applied settings, treating leadership as
‘competency based’, with his concepts forming a ‘scientific causal chain’ determining the
leadership style or mix of styles
...
It is
instrumental in seeking to improve managerial practice and modernist in that it is imbued
with the rational model of organizational thinking
...

24

Institutional Leadership

Work on leadership builds on his distinction between an organization, which
is ‘a rational instrument engineered to do a job and an institution, which is ‘a responsive,
adaptive organism’
...
The role of a leader as statesman is to ‘define the mission of the enterprise; the
institutional leader is primarily an expert in the protection and promotion of values’; and ‘the
problem is always to choose key values and to create a social structure that embodies them’
...
Leaders not only
define the mission but they also protect its distinctive character, defend institutional integrity,
and manage internal and external conflict
...


25

3
...
Heroic model of leadership with the great man radically changing the
organization and disdaining its existing traditions as a threat to ‘institutional integrity
...
The task of administrative leaders is to preserve this
institutional integrity -that is, to conserve the institution’s mission, values, and support
...

Administrative leaders practise ‘administrative conservatorship’
...
Such
skills are deployed to ‘maintain commitment among the executive cadre to core agency values and
sustain support among key external constituents and internal interest groups
...
Together, they encourage selfpromotion, rule-breaking, power politics, and risk-taking
...
Moreover, their task is also ‘to
help the agency not only to achieve its purpose today but also to create new capacity to
achieve its objectives tomorrow’
...
Once again, the ever-present elephant in the room is the exercise of
discretion and the problem of its regulation
...
Public leaders work with available resources,
understand and work with administrative culture, recognizing that change is incremental
...

Public leaders are quiet leaders who are in for the long haul, and their craft is compromise
...
The
contrast with the transformative or change agent leader is as sharp as the parallels with the
administrative conservatorship are obvious
...
The ghosts include leadership infringing on politics; unwarranted degrees
of administrative discretion; and leadership without checks and balances
...
It is not axiomatic
that ‘public leadership is leadership for the common good, for the purpose of creating
public value
...
It is more plausible to
suggest that ‘the tension between bureaucracy and democracy, between efficiency and
responsiveness, will always be there
...
It is also about the role of public administration in the polity; about public
accountability and the public interest
...


27

3
...
People who stay at this level get into territorial rights, protocol, tradition
and organizational charts
...
A person may be
in control because he has been appointed to a position
...
But real leadership is more than having authority; it is more than having the
technical training and following the proper procedures
...


A real leader knows the difference between being a boss and being a leader, as illustrated
by the following:







The boss drives his workers ; the leader coaches them
The boss depends on authority; the leader on goodwill
...
They will only do
what they have to do when they are required to do it
...
When
the leader lacks confidence, the followers lack commitment
...
7 SUMMARY

An institution has integrity when ‘it is faithful to the functions, values, and
distinctive set of unifying principles that define its special competence and character
...
They must balance the autonomy necessary to maintain integrity with
responsibility to elected politicians
...
It is said to be useful in training and applied
settings, treating leadership as ‘competency based’, with his concepts forming a ‘scientific causal
chain’ determining the leadership style or mix of styles
...
It is instrumental in seeking to improve managerial practice and modernist in that it is
imbued

3
...
It also has a classic question: how do
we hold such office-holders to account?

3
...
10 FURTHER READING

Different stages of leadership

31

3
...
12 GLOSSARY

Level of leadership - stage of leadership

3
...

2
...

4
...


Position
Permission
Production
People development
Personhood

32

3
...
(1981)
...

Washington: Brookings Institution
...
(1984) [1957]
...

Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press
...
(1995)
...
Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE
...


o

They should improve the organization (morale, monetary, etc
...


o

A process should be developed to achieve each goal
...
1 INTRODUCTION

33

4
...

 To identify different powers in leadership

4
...




Demonstrate sound leadership




Plan, organize, implement and evaluate the programs and services

maintain close working relationships and channels of communication with the
organization and the community

Use sound decision making practices while keeping in mind the number one priority
of the organization
34

The Six Steps of Goal Setting
Although finding a vision can be quite a creative challenge, the process of
getting that vision implemented can be fairly easy if you follow the six steps of:

Vision —> Goals —> Objectives —> Tasks —> Timelines —> Follow-up

Step 1 - Vision
The first step in setting goals and priorities is to personally develop what the
organization should look like at some point in the future — this is a vision
...
However, both types of visions need to support each
other and the organization's goals
...
Your vision needs to coincide with the big picture
...
The concept also implies a later time horizon
...
However, leaders such as supervisors or
line managers tend to have shorter time horizon visions, normally lasting a few
weeks to a year
...
This has spawned many different definitions of
vision
...
For example, try to picture
35

what your department would look like if it was perfect, what the most efficient
way to produce your product would look like, or perhaps if your budget was
reduced by 10 percent, how could you still achieve the same quality product
...
For example, 20 percent of the inventory items in the supply
chain of an organization accounts for 80 percent of the inventory value
...

Some leaders fall into the time wasting trap of going after the 80 percent of items
that only have a value of 20 percent of the total net worth
...

Although it is nice to have small victories every now and then by going after that
easy 80 percent, spend the majority of your time focusing on the few things that
will have the greatest impact
...

Once you have your vision, it needs to be framed in general, unmeasurable terms
and communicated to your team
...


Step 2 - Goals
The second step involves establishing goals, with the active participation of the
team
...

For example, "The organization must reduce transportation costs
...

Step 3 - Objectives
Definable objectives provide a way of measuring the movement towards vision
achievement
...
It is the
crossover mechanism between your forecast of the future and the envisioned,
desired future
...
” In addition, strive for ownership by the entire team
...
Tasks are the means for accomplishing
objectives
...
An example
might be, "The transportation coordinator will obtain detailed shipping rates
from at least 10 motor carriers
...
Since time is precious and some
tasks must be accomplished before another can begin, establishing priorities
helps your team to determine the order in which the tasks must be accomplished
and by what date
...
"
Step 6 - Follow-up
The final step is to follow-up, measure, and check to see if the team is doing
what is required
...
For the leader it demonstrates her commitment to
see the matter through to a successful conclusion
...
Micro-management places no trust in others, whereas
following-up determines if the things that need to get done are in fact getting
done
...
4 Inspiring Your Employees

37

Getting people to accomplish something is much easier if they have
the inspiration to do so
...
” And in order to
perform that, we have to have some life ourselves
...
Be passionate: In organizations where there is a leader with great
enthusiasm about a project, a trickle-down effect will occur
...
If you do not communicate excitement,
how can you expect your people to get worked up about it?
2
...
Help them contribute and tell them you
value their opinions
...

3
...
Abrams used to say in the mid-1970s, is that “the Army is not made
up of people
...
Every decision we make is a people issue
...
It may make a product or sell a service, but it is still
people! A leader's primary responsibility is to develop people and enable them to
reach their full potential
...
Create a "people environment" where
they truly can be all they can be
...
5 TRAINING AND COACHING

As a leader you must view coaching from two different viewpoints: 1)
coaching to lead others and 2) being coached to achieve self-improvement
...
Training is a structured lesson designed to provide the employee
with the knowledge and skills to perform a task
...

You might picture it as when you were in school
...
Next you went out for the
school team
...

Training and coaching go hand-in-hand
...

Both training and coaching help to create the conditions that cause someone to
learn and develop
...


Both coaching and training have a few points in common:


Evaluate to determine knowledge, skill, and confidence levels
...
It helps to break them down
into step-by-step actions (action steps)
...
To foster accountability, involve the
person or team in the decision making
...




Coaching is more than telling people how to do something, it involves giving
advice, skill-building, creating challenges, removing performance barriers,
building better processes, learning through discovery (the aha! method), etc
...




Give feedback by pointing and hinting towards solutions, rather than directly
critiquing errors
...


4
...
1 The Six Points of Leadership Power

Al Capone once said that “You can get much farther with a kind
word and a gun than you can with a kind word alone
...
Leadership power is much
more than the use of force
...

Power refers to a capacity that a person has to influence the behavior of another so
that he or she acts in accordance with the his or her' wishe s
...
That is, a power may exist, but does not have to be used to be effective
...
The mere knowledge of an
officer's power by an enlisted person has some influence over him or her
...
A person with coercive power can
make things difficult for people
...
Employees working under a coercive manager are unlikely to be
committed, and more likely to resist the manager
...
Able to give special benefits or rewards to people
...




Legitimate Power — The power a person receives as a result of his or her position
in the formal hierarchy of an organization
...




Expert Power — Influence based on special skills or knowledge
...
Expert power is the most strongly and
consistently related to effective employee performance
...
This is often thought of as charisma, charm, or
admiration
...


41



Informational Power — Raven (1965) later came up with a sixth power,
Informational: Providing information to others that result in them thinking or
taking acting in a new way
...
5 SUMMARY

A leader has to be passionate in organizations where there is a leader
with great enthusiasm about a project, a trickle-down effect will occur
...

Help them contribute and tell them you value their opinions
...

3
...
Abrams used to say in the mid-1970s, is that “the Army is not made up of people
...
6 NOTE

The points of power allow you to determine the influence you and others have available in
order to achieve full negotiation skills

42

4
...

4
...
Terry (1998) Administrative Leadership, Neo-Managerialism, and the Public

Management Movement Author(s)
Haber, Samuel(1 964)
...
Chicago,IL : University ofChicagoPr ess
...
TheP oliticsof P ublicM anagement
...


4
...
10 GLOSSARY

Pareto Principle - theorized that most effects come from relatively few causes;
that is, 80 percent of the effects come from 20 percent of the possible causes
...
11 ANSWERS TO SELF-TEST QUESTIONS

o

Coercive Power

o

Reward Power

o

Legitimate Power

o
o

Expert Power Referent Power
Informational Power
44

4
...
, Raven, B
...
(1959)
...
Studies
of Social Power
...
Ann Arbor, MI: Institute for Social
Research
...
M
...
Juran's Quality Control Handbook
...

Raven, B
...
(1965)
...
Current Studies in Social
Psychology
...
New York: Holt, Rinehart,
Winston
...
S
...
(October 1983)
...
FM 22-100
...
S
...


45

LECTURE FIVE: TRAITS AND SKILLS IN PUBLIC SERVICE
LEADERSHIP
5
...
2 LECTURE OBJECTIVES

At the end of this topic you should be able to:
 Incorporate an array of models of leadership traits, styles, technique,
 Answer the question ‘are leaders born or made?’
 Understand different traits

46

5
...
If leaders are born, that is, largely gifted, then there is reason to recruit for that
‘top’ talent and focus training more narrowly on those innately suited
...
We are largely hard-wired, and
advocated selecting leaders based on the situation
...

It was noted in the 2003 review that the age-old debate about nature-versus-nurture as it related
to leadership was sophomoric in terms of a strict dichotomy
...
Even the socio-biologists have given a sliding range of likely inherited ability
of leaders using matched twin pairs, ranging from 30 to 44 per cent
...
First, as the ethical leadership
debate has asserted, leadership is not only about traits, skills, and behaviours, but about values
too
...
For all intents and
purposes, early childhood might as well be inherited as a part of birthright
...
4 Personality Traits

Early trait research was largely theoretical, offering no explanations for the proposed
relationship between individual characteristics and leadership
...
As a result of the lack of consistent findings linking
individual traits to leadership effectiveness, empirical studies of leader traits were largely
abandoned in the 1950s
...
These
five dimensions are also called as “Big Five” Factors, and the model is referred to as Five
Factor Model also abbreviated as FFM
...

Following are five personality traits of an individual:
1
...
e
...
Such individuals are generally open to new
learnings, skill sets and experiences
...
Such individuals are conservative, reluctant to changes
and have a traditional approach in life
...
Conscientiousness
48

As the name suggests, individuals with a Conscientiousness personality trait listen
to their conscience and act accordingly
...
They never perform any task in haste but think twice before acting
...
People who score high on conscientiousness are
proactive, goal oriented and self disciplined
...
Individuals who score less are
little laid back and are not much goal oriented
...
Extraversion and Introversion
Carl Jung popularized both the terms - “Extraversion” and “Introversion”
...
Extraversion: Extraversion refers to a state where individuals show more
concern towards what is happening outside
...
They do not like
spending time alone but love being the centre of attraction of parties and
social gatherings
...
They admire
the company of others and hate staying alone
...
Introversion: Introversion, on the other hand refers to a state when an
individual is concerned only with his own life and nothing else
...
They prefer staying back at home rather than going out
and spending time with friends
...
You would never find them in meetings, clubs, parties or
social get-togethers
...

4
...
Such individuals do not crib and face changes with a smile
...

People who score high on agreeableness are ready to help others and flash their
trillion dollar smile whenever a problem arises
...

5
...
Such individuals are often in a state of
depression and do not how to enjoy life
...

49

Personality Traits of a Successful Leader/ Manager
Remember being a leader/ manager does not mean sitting in a closed cabin and passing on
instructions to your team members
...
Adopting a “Hitler approach” will not only make you
unpopular among your team members but also an unwanted member within the
organization
...
One of the most

important roles of a manager is to take his team along and motivate team members to
deliver their level best
...

Make your team members feel that you are there with them always
...
A good manager is one who smiles even at the times of stress
...
Encourage your team members to smile quite often
as it not only reduces stress among team members but also leads to a positive ambience at
the workplace
...
A
manager is successful only when he is a strong source of inspiration for his team
members
...
Whatever you wear daily to work, your team
members would automatically start following your style
...
Avoid wearing casuals and
loud colours to work
...

As a manager, one needs to be honest and fully committed towards the organization
to expect loyalty from team members in return
...
Discourage your team members to backstab each other and
spread unnecessary rumours about fellow workers
...
Do not treat your employees as slaves
...
A pat on their back will go a long
way in motivating them to perform even better the next time
...

Reach office on time
...
Ask your team members to reach office on time to
avoid unnecessary late sittings
...

Leave your ego behind the moment you enter office
...
Do not hold personal grudges against anyone in your
team
...

As a manager, you need to be flexible in your approach
...
Don’t be
surprised if your team member asks for a half day or a full day leave on his/her birthday
...
Do not stop him unless and until there is something
really urgent at work
...
Every employee in the organization ought to be treated as
one irrespective of his/her designation or level in the hierarchy
...
Lend a sympathetic ear to your team members in case of queries
...


51

5
...
They must
understand the extent to which their leadership styles are suited to the
demands they face and consider the types of people they need at their
side to complement their styles
...
7 NOTE

Traits refer to recurring regularities or trends in a person´s behavior

5
...
9 FURTHER READING

Different leadership traits

5
...
11 GLOSSARY

FFM - Five Factor Model
Traits - qualities
53

5
...
13 REFERENCES

Kotter, J
...
A force for change
...

Reardon, K
...
(1981)
...
Beverly Hills: Sage Publications
...
K
...
Persuasion in practice
...

Rowe, A
...
& Mann, R
...

U Pettigrew, A
...
Context and action in the transformation of the firm
...

54

LECTURE SIX: STYLES FOR PUBLIC SECTOR LEADERS

6
...

This section is particularly apt for public administrators because it describes tensions that are
likely to confront administrative leaders, particularly in their interactions with a wide variety
of stakeholders with different and often conflicting interests, goals, and levels of political
influence
...
2 LECTURE OBJECTIVES

At the end of this topic you should be able to:


Describe different styles of a leader



Understand how each style work



Understand leadership models

55

6
...
This is probably a
theory X manager who has no time for consideration of Maslow's higher needs or Herzberg's
motivating factors
...

Directive Leadership
This is based on the idea that all managers in a chain of command are supervisors
...
He or she will provide a blueprint of how to do a job, and will monitor
performance and achievement of standards
...


Constitutional or Participative Leader
This type of manager consults with subordinates in the decision making process
...

Missionary leadership
Leaders driven by beliefs can be regarded as missionary leaders
...
Steve Jobs
at Apple Computers was a missionary leader forcing the pace of change in the Personal
Computer market
...
Management Consultants and their employers are seen more
and more as Missionaries, selling their firm’s set of beliefs to those businesses that will
buy into them
...
Middle
managers and subordinates are just left to get on with their jobs, and given the minimum
of guidance; they succeed or fail on their own
...
This was first
described by Lewin, Lippitt, and White in 1938, along with the autocratic leadership and
the democratic leadership styles
...
If the leader withdraws too much from their followers it can sometimes result in
a lack of productivity, cohesiveness, and satisfaction
...


It allows followers a high degree of autonomy and self-rule, while at the same time
offering guidance and support when requested
...


Paternalistic
The way a Paternalistic leader works is by acting as a father figure by taking care of their
subordinates as a parent would
...
In return he receives the complete trust and loyalty
of his people
...

57

The relationship between these co-workers and leader are extremely solid
...
Not only do they treat each other like family inside the work force, but outside too
...


One of the downsides to a paternalistic leader is that the leader could start to play favorites
in decisions
...
In today’s market paternalism is more difficult to come by
according to Padavic and Earnest who wrote “business dimensional and Organizational
Counseling
...

This affects paternalistic leaders because the co-workers may not believe that their jobs
are 100% ensured
...
Because of
this, the leader may be thinking that you could be leaving and not fully believe you when
you tell them something about a job opportunity
...
4 LEADERSHIP MODELS
...
In addition, they often
use a graphic representation to show the required leadership behavior
...

Kurt Lewin's Three Styles Model
This is the oldest of the situational models
...
Given that Lewin's model is based on three
styles of leading, it might arguably also/instead appear in the Leadership Styles section
...

Authoritarian - sometimes called the Autocratic style
...
Here, the leader doesn't usually get involved in the
group's work
...
However, it is a decisive way of
leading and can suit high-risk, short-timescale decisions; the kind that surgical teams
and fire crews have to take
...
He also noticed that they
often find it hard to move to a Participative style - in other words, they get stuck in
one mode of behaviour
...
It is where the leader
expresses his or her priorities and values in setting goals and making decisions, but
also takes part in the group's work and accepts advice and suggestions from
colleagues
...
This style can produce
more creative problem solving and innovation than the Authoritarian approach so it
makes sense to adopt it in competitive, non-emergency situations
...
Lewin classes this as a
leadership style, but some may feel it is non-leadership
...
He or she lets them set
goals, decide on work methods, define individuals' roles and set their own pace of
work
...
It can work well provided the group
shares the same overall intent and direction as the leader and if he or she trusts all
members of the group
...


6
...
If they were
merely descriptive, they wouldn't help leaders wanting to become better at what they do
...
The democratic
leader is the final style in this theoretical framework, where the leader is playing a part of
listener and conversation director, rather than boss
...


60

NOTE

Three Styles model becomes a guide to more effective leadership
...
This type of leading is
appropriate, when there is time to consult the followers´ thoughts about the upcoming changes in
the organization
...
8 FURTHER READING

Leadership styles and modes
6
...
10 GLOSSARY

Style- technique
Mode- method

6
...
12 REFERENCES

Pettigrew, A
...
Context and action in the transformation of the firm
...

Kirimi B
...
(2014) Transformational Corporate Leadership: Integrity Publishers
Moullins, I
...
(2007)
...
Prentice
hall

63

LECTURE SEVEN: TECHNIQUES FOR ADMINISTRATIVE
LEADERS
7
...
These included the trait approach (1930s and 1940s), the behavioral
approach (1940s and 1950s), and the contingency or situational approach (1960s and 1970s)
...
2 LECTURE OBJECTIVES

At the end of this topic you should be able to describe different
approaches to the study of administrative leadership
...
3 Leadership Theories/ Techniques/ Approaches

Trait Approach
The scientific study of leadership began with a focus on the traits of effective leaders
...
Many leadership
studies based on this theoretical framework were conducted in the 1930s, 1940s, and 1950s
...

In general, these studies simply looked for significant associations between individual traits
and measures of leadership effectiveness
...

The initial conclusion from studies of leader traits was that there were no universal traits that
consistently separated effective leaders from other individuals
...

Several problems with early trait research might explain the perceived lack of significant
findings
...
Little was
known about the psychometric properties of the measures used to operationalize traits
...
In addition, many of the trait studies relied
on samples of teenagers or lower-level managers
...

65
Finally, early trait research did not consider the impact of situational variables that might

moderate the relationship between leader traits and measures of leader effectiveness
...
The premise of this stream of research was that the
behaviors exhibited by leaders are more important than their physical, mental, or
emotional traits
...
The grid
combines "concern for production" with "concern for people" and presents five alternative
behavioral styles of leadership
...
If a person emphasized concern for people and placed
little emphasis on production, he was terms a "country-club" manager
...
A person who tried to balance concern
for production and concern for people was termed a "middle-of-the-road" manager
...
" According
to the prescriptions of the grid, team management was the best leadership approach
...

The assumption of the leader behavior approach was that there were certain behaviors that
would be universally effective for leaders
...
Like trait research, leader behavior research did not
consider situational influences that might moderate the relationship between leader
behaviors and leader effectiveness
...
Contingency theories gained prominence in the late 1960s and 1970s
...
Each of these approaches to leadership is briefly described in the
paragraphs that follow
...
The
theory suggests that the "favorability" of the situation determines the effectiveness of taskand person-oriented leader behavior
...
The situation is most
favorable when followers respect and trust the leader, the task is highly structured,
and the leader has control over rewards and punishments
...
The
theory did not necessarily propose that leaders could adapt their leadership styles to
different situations, but that leaders with different leadership styles would be more
effective when placed in situations that matched their preferred style
...
However, empirical research has supported many of the specific propositions of
the theory, and it remains an important contribution to the understanding of leadership
effectiveness
...
3
...
Since the 1970s,
several alternative theoretical frameworks for the study of leadership have been advanced
...

Leader-member exchange theory
Leader-member exchange (LMX) theory was initially called the vertical dyad linkage
theory
...
LMX theory emphasizes the dyadic
(i
...
, one-on-one) relationships between leaders and individual subordinates, instead of the
traits or behaviors of leaders or situational characteristics
...

According to LMX theory, leaders do not treat all subordinates in the same manner, but
establish close relationships with some (the in-group) while remaining aloof from others
(the out-group)
...
They tend to be involved in important activities and decisions
...

LMX theory suggests that high-quality relationships between a leader-subordinate dyad
will lead to positive outcomes such as better performance, lower turnover, job satisfaction,
and organizational commitment
...


68

Transformational leadership theories
Beginning in the 1970s, a number of leadership theories emerged that focused on the
importance of a leader's charisma to leadership effectiveness
...

These theories have much in common
...
The theories also emphasize the importance of leaders' inspiring
subordinates' admiration, dedication, and unquestioned loyalty through articulating a clear
and compelling vision
...
Transactional leadership focuses on role and task requirements
and utilizes rewards contingent on performance
...
Bass's transformational
leadership theory identifies four aspects of effective leadership, which include charisma,
inspiration, intellectual stimulation, and consideration
...
Empirical
research has supported many of the theory's propositions
...
The theory's
focus is concerned with providing an explanation for the lack of stronger empirical
support for a relationship between leader traits or leader behaviors and subordinates'
satisfaction and performance
...

69

Substitute for leadership make leader behaviors such as task-oriented or relationshiporiented unnecessary
...
Characteristics of the task that may substitute for
leadership include routine and repetitive tasks or tasks that are satisfying
...

The substitute for leadership theory has generated a considerable amount of interest
because it offers an intuitively appealing explanation for why leader behavior impacts
subordinates in some situations but not in others
...
The theory continues to generate empirical
research
...
It
suggests that leaders must place the needs of subordinates, customers, and the community
ahead of their own interests in order to be effective
...
Servant leadership has not been subjected to extensive
empirical testing but has generated considerable interest among both leadership scholars
and practitioners
...
Although much has been learned about leadership since the 1930s, many
avenues of research still remain to be explored as we enter the twenty-first century
...

– Some traits are particularly suited to leadership
...

- Early research on leadership was based on the psychological focus of the day, which was
of people having inherited characteristics or traits
...

- Underlying assumption that if other people could also be found with these traits, then
they, too, could also become great leaders
...

But, the findings were sometimes contradictory
...

• People are more committed to actions where they have involved in the relevant
decision‐making
...

• When people make decisions together, the social commitment to one another is greater
and thus increases their commitment to the decision
...

71

A Participative Leader, rather than taking autocratic decisions, seeks to involve other
people in the process, possibly including subordinates, peers, superiors and other
stakeholders
...

You should also know:
• This approach is also known as consultation, empowerment, joint decision‐making,
democratic leadership, Management By Objective (MBO) and power‐sharing
...
This is likely to lead to cynicism and feelings of betrayal
...
4 SUMMARY

The strongest case for versatility in leadership style comes from the recognition that change
is not an event but an extended process
...
Strategy researchers have proposed that change involves at least three
stages: initiation, formulation, and implementation
...
5 NOTE

Effective leadership is always required to bring effective changes

72

7
...


7
...
8 SELF-TEST QUESTIONS

Discuss the servant leadership
7
...
10 ANSWERS TO SELF-TEST QUESTIONS

Servant Leadership reflects a philosophy that leaders should be servants first
...
Characteristics of servant leaders include
empathy, stewardship, and commitment to the personal, professional, and spiritual growth of
their subordinates
...
11 REFERENCES

Moullins, I
...
(2007)
...
Prentice
hall
Pettigrew, A
...
Context and action in the transformation of the firm
...
1 INTRODUCTION

The need of surveying a leader´s actions in several different situations needs to
be done before the character of a leader can be described
...


8
...
3 Character and Temperament of a Leader

The temperament of a leader can be measured in time, when a crisis occurs
...


Cognitive Ability and Special Skills of a Leader
Cognitive ability, in other words intelligence is a necessary ability of a successful leader
...
Cognitive able leaders are better problem solvers
and can pick up information more quickly than less smarter ones
...
The Myers-Briggs Type Indicator
(MBTI) test measures the preferences and it is used also as a physiological test in the
working life
...
The second dimension is sensing-intuition
...
A person, who is more intuitive, tries to look at big picture,
rather than focusing on details
...
Thinkingfeeling is the third MBTI-test dimension, where the person tries to look things objectively,
and on the contrary the feeler makes the decisions personally attached
...
Judging type of person like things to be
organized and is uncomfortable in surprising situation
...
Perceiving person manages well in
unexpected situations and is more open to new ideas
...
(Hughes et al, 1996, 190-191)

8
...
Experts agree that successful leaders must
be flexible and capable of adapting to new conditions, open to novel alternatives, and willing
to take greater risks
...

In general the word change means is to alter, to make something different or better or
transformation of any existing thing by adding some values or giving up for something else
...


Change leadership is just fundamentally different engine
...
It’s
more about masses of people who want to make something happen
...
It’s more about empowering lots and lots of people
...
Such leaders
recognize that most work now involves integration rather than fractionation of diverse
interests and skills
...
Strategic leaders accept that they cannot have all the
answers and they take steps to obtain information that effectively guides their choices
...

The need for organizational change starts when organizational management feels
dissatisfaction from the current situation
...
Leadership planning and vision is most important
...
There are further three phases of organizational change which
organizations usually adopt
...
Unfreezing is
about changing the attitudes and behavior of the employees and working environment
...

The leader’s role is also very important in unfreezing because it requires a well structured
way of implementation the change by managing the behavior and attitudes of people
working together
...

In the 1900s, leadership was equated with those individuals who did “great” things
...
They used their
authority to “command” others
...
In the early eighties, another change
took place
...
These leaders inspired
others with insights and shared authority
...


78

The strongest case for versatility in leadership style comes from the recognition that
change is not an event but an extended process
...
Strategy researchers have proposed that change involves
at least three stages: initiation, formulation, and implementation
...
Effective
leadership is always required to bring effective changes
...
These are normally easy to handle and adopt and are non resistible by the
employees and are normally for a limited time period, and people working in
organization are usually familiar with these kinds of changes
...
Radical changes require private acceptance and it is a role
of senior leaders to aware people to realize the need of change and therefore to create
willingness to relinquish old style of working in favor of new ones
...
Unlike incremental changes, the radical
changes always require the high level of creative leadership with risk taking attitude
...


8
...

just as soon as I can work it into my schedule
...
Lots of different critical
projects and activities going on with limited resources in the group
...
”(American manager)
Six Common Challenges across the Countries
Looking across the countries, there are six main categories that comprise more than half of
all challenges
...
In order of frequency, they are:
79

• Developing Managerial Effectiveness—The challenge of developing the relevant
skills—such as time management, prioritization, strategic thinking, decision- making, and
getting up to speed with the job—to be more effective at work
...

• Developing Employees—The challenge of developing others, including topics around
mentoring and coaching
...

• Guiding Change—The challenge of managing, mobilizing, understanding, and leading
change
...

• Managing Internal Stakeholders and Politics—The challenge of managing
relationships, politics, and image
...

So what can a leader do? Here are some recommendations:

Goal-setting is important
...


Delegate more
...
The act of
delegation can also empower the people to whom you have given work
...
Among all the
organizational priorities, there will always be important tasks that only you can do
...
As a result, you will maximize your specific
value to the organization
...


Gain some role clarity
...

With that, you may have to practice and be comfortable saying “no
...
If
people believe in themselves, it’s amazing what they can accomplish
...
Some of the staff have been in the same position without promotion for
more than 6 to 8 years
...
” (Egyptian manager)
“Creating a really collaborative team in a newly established unit
...
Provide
challenging opportunities for others, promote your employees to upper management (i
...
,
trumpet their successes), and empower others to increase their area of competence
...
Assume roles such as being
a sounding board, role model, or shoulder to lean on, while ensuring that organizational
structures and systems enhance collaboration and accountability
...
It’s not just making sure that your employees have
the right software or enough office supplies
...
Many people need to be validated by others and desire to be part of
something
...

Manage team effectiveness
...

Develop Skills to Enact Change
“The nature of the global business environment guarantees that no matter how hard we
work to create a stable and healthy organization, our organization will continue to
experience dramatic changes far beyond our control
...
Wheatley, writer and
management consultant)
“Try it, you might like it
...
It’s natural that people do not like change
...
If leaders are able to do that, they can be
an example to others to embrace change as well
...

Embrace emotional reactions to change
...
When convincing people that
change is
needed and desirable, it’s not enough to use rational arguments
...
Engage people emotionally by being
visionary, passionate, and authentic
...

Nobody can tell others what the future will be, but you definitely can tell others about the
present
and what you’re doing to reach the desired future stage
...
If you reduce as much ambiguity as possible, control over the situation increases,
enabling people to become proactive change agents
...

My biggest leadership challenge is:
“Leading the organisation through a business-wide transformation programme as
part of the executive team
...
”(Manager from the United Kingdom)

81

Develop Skills to Cope with Organizational Politics
“Just because you do not take an interest in politics doesn’t mean politics won’t
take an interest in you
...
” (Manager from India) “How to enhance the department
position in the
organization to add more value to the organization in both operational and strategic
perspective
...
Map
out your network by writing your name in the middle of a sheet of paper
...
Then ask if some of your close
connections can help you meet with your distant connections
...
Keep your boss informed
...
Ask what you’d like
to know about yourself if you were in your boss’s shoes—and purposefully manage this
perception of yourself
...

Read the situation
...
Do
this by actively listening to others, paying attention to the verbal and especially, nonverbal
behaviors of others to understand what is really being said
...
Being politically savvy is not being manipulative
...
Get feedback on how
your
message and behavior really come across to others
...
Keep confidences
...

NOTE: “Human beings are more alike than unalike, and
what is true anywhere is true everywhere
...
5 SUMMARY

To effectively respond to the current dynamic environment, leaders must recognize their own
strengths and weaknesses
...


8
...


8
...
8 FURTHER READING

Leadership change

84

8
...
10 GLOSSARY

Change- transform
MBTI- The Myers-Briggs Type Indicator -test measures the
preferences and it is used also as a physiological test in the working
life
...
11 ANSWERS TO SELF-TEST QUESTIONS

Two kinds of changes according to the nature of organization and its environment,
Incremental changes- some organizations adopts small changes while others may go deep
towards the organizational transformation usually known as corporate transformations
Radical changes- Requires the changes in broader scale and are difficult to handle
...
12 REFERENCES

Reardon, K
...
(1991)
...
Newbury Park: Sage Publications
...
J
...
(1988) The impact of style, values and culture on strategic change
...
(1987)
...
Journal of
Management Studies, 24 (6), 649670
...
(1987)
...
Journal of
Management Studies, 24 (6), 649670
...
and Minja D
...
2014
Moullins, I
...
(2007)
...
Prentice hall
Peter F
...
Management (1977) By Hazell Watson & Vaney Ltd

---