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Title: Philosophy - Introduction to Logic
Description: Notes from the full quarter of Phil 102 - Intro to Logic. Includes definitions and examples on famous forms methods, well-formed formulas, truth tables, inference rules, etc.
Description: Notes from the full quarter of Phil 102 - Intro to Logic. Includes definitions and examples on famous forms methods, well-formed formulas, truth tables, inference rules, etc.
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phil 102 – intro to logic
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6
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2
forms and validity
§ deductive logic
o study of methods for determining whether or not an argument is valid
§ argument form
o pattern of reasoning
§ modus ponens – mode of affirming (valid)
§ 1
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§ 2
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§ 3
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§ 1
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§ 2
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§ 3
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* order of the premises does not matter
* arguments can have complex antecedents and consequents
§ substitution instance
o an argument that results from uniformly replacing the variables in that argument
form with statements
§ valid argument form
o a form in which every substitution instance is a valid argument
§ formally valid argument
o one that is valid because of its form
§ if the premises are true, the conclusion must be true!
*necessary truth: a statement that cannot be false
i exist
...
-‐conclusion is a necessary truth – it is valid
...
§ conditional statement
o an if-‐then statement
§ if… [antecedent],
§ then… [consequent]
o hypothetical
o can be true even if the antecedent or consequent is false
§ antecedent
o if-‐clause of a conditional
§ consequent
o then-‐clause of a conditional
§ stylistic variants
o alternate ways of saying the same thing
o stylistic variants on “if…then”:
§ given that a, b
...
§ b if a
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§ b assuming a
...
• b is a necessary condition (requirement) for a
§ ^ convert to “if…then”
§ modus tollens (valid)
§ 1
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§ 2
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§ 3
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§ hypothetical syllogism (valid) x = y, y = z, x = z
§ 1
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§ 2
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§ 3
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§ disjunction
o an either-‐or statement
o can be inclusive or exclusive (only)
§ inclusive disjunction: either A or B (or both) ß default !
• one or both is true
§ exclusive disjunction: either A or B, but not both
§ disjunctive syllogism (valid)
§ 1
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§ 2
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§ 3
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o *a and b are disjunctions
o *the word ‘either’ is not necessary
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
Either A or B
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So, not B
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A
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^valid, but not disjunctive syllogism
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Either A or B
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If A, then C
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If B, then D
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So, Either C or D
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identify the component statements in the argument
§ argument form
o 2
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check to see whether the pattern of reasoning is taken from the list of famous
forms
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mp / mt / hs / ds / cd
1
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17
1
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If A, then B
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Not A
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So, not B
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If there is fire in our room, then there is air in our room
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There is no fire in our room
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So, there is no air in our room
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If A, then B
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B
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So, A
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If there is fire in our room, then there is air in our room
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There is air in our room
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So, there is fire in our room
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Ø counterexamples and arguments
Ø most logically sensitive form of an argument
o pay attention to key logical terms
§ “if-‐then” / “either-‐or” / “and” / “not”
o every argument has a form that is invalid
o all it takes for an argument to be valid is for it to be a substitution instance of
one valid argument form
the counterexample method
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2
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20
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2
v well-‐crafted argument
o an argument that is stated in such a way that its important logical features are
explicit
v standard form
o “if a, then b”
v excess verbiage
o a word or statement that adds nothing to the argument
v discount
o an acknowledgement of a fact or possibility that might be thought to render the
argument invalid, weak, unsound, or uncogent
v rhetorical elements
o elements in an argument that increase its psychological persuasiveness without
affecting its validity, strength, soundness, or cogency
v repetition
o a restatement of a premise or conclusion, perhaps with slightly altered wording
v assurance
o a statement, word, or phrase that indicates that the author is confident of a
premise or inference
v hedge
o a statement, word, or phrase that indicates that the arguer is tentative about a
premise or inference
v enthymeme
o an argument with an implicit premise or conclusion
v principles for constructing well-‐crafted arguments
o identify the premises and the conclusion
§ premise indicators
• because, the reason that, as, after all, for, based on the fact that,
since, in light of the fact that
§ conclusion indicators
• so, accordingly, implies that, which proves that, thus, hence, we
may infer that, therefore, consequently, it follows that
§ sometimes the premises come after the conclusion
o eliminate excess verbiage (discounts, repetition, assurances, hedges)
o employ uniform language
o be fair and charitable in interpreting an argument
§ principle of fairness
• be loyal to the original, not distorting the true meaning
§ principle of charity
• if the original is ambiguous in some respects, select an
interpretation that puts the argument in the best possible light
o do not confuse subconclusions with final conclusions
o make explicit obviously implicit premises in a charitable way (enthymemes)
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7
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B)
o ~(P v B)
o ~(P à B)
o ~(P ßà B)
o ^ tilde is the main operator
• conjunction
o
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B is not the same as ~(A
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(B à C)
o A
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C
o ^ dot is the main operator
• disjunction
o assume disjunctives are inclusive unless explicitly stated otherwise
o to express exclusive disjunctions:
§ (A v B)
...
B)
o “neither…nor…”
§ ~Y
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b à a
o a ßà b
• main logical operator
o the one that governs the largest components of a compound statement
o the one outside of the parentheses
• minor logical operator
o governs smaller components of a compound statement
o the one inside the parentheses
• well-‐formed formula (wff)
o a grammatically correct symbolic expression
• statement variable
o a lowercase letter that serves as a placeholder for any statement
symbolic language
-‐vocab: parentheses, logical operators, statement capital letters
-‐expression: any string using the vocabulary
-‐well-‐formed formula (wff): grammatically correct expression
*lowercase letters stand for statement variables
*capital letters stand for atomic statements
what counts as a wff?
v capital letters (atomic statements)
v if p is a wff, then so is ~p
v if p and q are wffs, then so is (p
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truth tables / types of compound statements
• certain compound statements are truth-‐functional (its truth value is determined by the
truth value of the atomic statements)
• systematically define the truth value of compound statements using truth tables
• find out whether the argument is valid or invalid
negations
p ~p
T
F
F
T
p: opposite truth value
conjunctions
p / q à
p
...
q: always false except when both conjuncts are true
disjunctions
*inclusive disjunction:
p / q
p v q
T / T
T
T / F
T
F / T
T
F / F
F
p v q: always true except when both disjuncts are false
material conditionals
*if the antecedent is true and the consequent is false, then the conditional as a whole is false
*the material conditional: a type of conditional as being false only when the antecedent is true
and the consequent is false
p / q
p à q
T / T
T
T / F
F
F / T
T
F / F
T
*not every english conditional conforms to the truth table for material conditionals
*so, not every conditional is a material conditional
-‐counterfactuals: false antecedents + t/f consequent = false conditional
p à q: always true except when the antecedent is true and the consequent is false
material biconditionals
p / q
p ßà q
T / T
T
T / F
F
F / T
F
F / F
T
p ßà q: always true except when its two constituent statements have different truth values
• truth-‐functional
o a compound statement whose truth value is completely determined by the truth
value of the atomic statements that compose it
• material conditional
o a conditional that is false only when its antecedent is true and its consequent is
false; otherwise, it is true
• material biconditional
o a conjunction of two material conditionals; it is true when its constituent
statements have the same truth value and false when they differ in truth value
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7
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god exists
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G: god exists / E: there is gratuitous evil
G / E
G à ~E, G :
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[~]E
T [F]FT, [T] :
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F / T
T [T] TF, [T] :
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[F]T *premise 1 true, premise 2 + conclusion false
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[T]F *p1 true, p2 false, conclusion true
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1
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17
abbreviated truth tables
• hypothesis: the argument is invalid – it is possible for all the premises to be true while
the conclusion is false
o confirm: invalid
o disconfirm: valid
• *only takes 1 row to confirm invalidity
2
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17
truth tables:
• define logical operators
• complete truth tables to discern validity and invalidity
• abbreviated truth tables discern validity and invalidity
• logically significant properties + relationships
• tautology: comes out true no matter the truth value of the atomic statements (because
of its form!)
• contradiction: because of the logical form, it always turns out false
• contingent statements: truth value depends on the truth value of the atomic statements
• logically equivalent: two statements that have the same truth value in all situations
• logically contradictory: a pair of statements that disagree in truth value in every
situation of atomic statements’ truth value
• logically consistent: some truth values of atomic statements allow the two statements
to agree in truth value
• logically inconsistent: a pair of statements where the truth values are never both true in
the same instance
*necessary truth: by virtue of the meaning of the statement, it cannot possibly be false
*necessary falsehood: by virtue of the meaning of the statement OR the form of the statement,
it cannot possibly be true
• inference rules:
o implicational (8)
o equivalence
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17
system of natural deduction
• proof
o a series of steps that leads from the premises of a symbolic argument to its
conclusion
• whatever follows from a set of statements by means of valid inferences is true if all the
statements in the set are true
inference rules
*implicational rules:
• rule 1: modus ponens
o p à q, p :
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~p
• rule 3: hypothetical syllogism
•
•
•
•
•
o p à q, q à r :
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q
rule 5: constructive dilemma
o p v q, p à r, q à s :
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q :
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q :
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p
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q
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p v q // p :
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13
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q) :: (q
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(q
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q)
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q) :: (~p v ~q)
o ~(p v q) :: (~p
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(q v r) :: (p
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r)
o p v (q
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(p v r)
• rule 15: exportation (ex)
o (p
...
p
o p :: p v p
• rule 17: material equivalence (me)
o p ßà q :: (p à q)
...
q) v (~p
Title: Philosophy - Introduction to Logic
Description: Notes from the full quarter of Phil 102 - Intro to Logic. Includes definitions and examples on famous forms methods, well-formed formulas, truth tables, inference rules, etc.
Description: Notes from the full quarter of Phil 102 - Intro to Logic. Includes definitions and examples on famous forms methods, well-formed formulas, truth tables, inference rules, etc.