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CHAPTER 1: The Human Body: An Orientation
Anatomy (form)-body structures and how they relate:
• Gross/macroscopic: study of structures large enough to see with the naked eye (e
...
regional
(in specific region), systemic (in body system), surface)
• Microscopic: study of structures that are too small to see with the naked eye (e
...
histology
(tissue) & cytology (cells))
• Developmental (e
...
embryology)
Specialized branches of anatomy: Pathological, Radiographic, Molecular biology
Physiology (function): explained by chemical and physical principles; focuses on cellular and molecular
events
• renal
• neurophysiology
• cardiovascular
The principle of complementarity of structure and function: “Form Fits Function”
The human structure
Atoms (John Dalton)!Molecules! Organelles!Cells!Tissues!Organs!Organs Systems!Organisms
Eight Necessary Life Functions
maintain Boundaries, Movement, Respond to environmental changes, take in and Digest nutrients, carry
out Metabolism, dispose of Waste, Reproduce, and Grow
...
Receptor is like a sensor (uses afferent pathway) (i
...
, thermo receptors (measures body temp),
baroreceptors (monitor blood pressure)
2
...
Effector
Afferent= Approaches control center; Efferent= Exit control center
...

Positive feedback mechanism: enhances stimulus to accelerate response; direct relationship between
variable and adjustment
Anatomical position- body is erect with feet slightly apart, and palms facing forward with thumbs
pointed away from body
...

• Superior (cranial); (above)
• Intermediate: b/w medial & lateral
• Inferior (caudal); (below)
• Proximal: closer to attachment of limb
• Anterior (ventral); (in front)
• Distal: farther from attachment to limb
• Posterior (dorsal); (behind)
• Superficial: toward or at body surface
(external)
• Medial: toward midline of body (inner)
• Deep: away from body surface (internal)
• Lateral: away from midline (outer)
• Ipsilateral: same side of the body
• Contralateral: opposite side of body
Regional terms identify specific areas within the body; there are two fundamental divisions: axial and
appendicular
Axial: central part of body (head, neck, and trunk)
• Cephalic: pertaining to the head
o Cranial
o Facial
o Frontal



o Orbital
o Buccal
o Otic
o Oral
o Nasal
o Mental

• Cervical: pertaining to the neck
• Thoracic: pertaining to the chest
o Sternal
o Pectoral
• Abdominal: pertaining to the abdomen
o Umbilical
• Pelvic: pertaining to the pelvis
o Pubic
• Dorsal: pertaining to the back
o Scapular
o Vertebral
Appendicular: appendages (extremities)/limbs attached to axis
• Upper Limb
o Acromial
o antebrachial
o Axillary
o Olecranal
o Brachial
o Carpal
o Antecubital
o Manual

• Lower Limb
o Inguinal
o Crural
o Gluteal
o Fibular
o Femoral
(peroneal)
o Patellar
o Sural
o Popliteal
o Tarsal

o Occipital

o Mammary
o Coxal

o Lumbar
o Palmer
o Pollex
o Digital

o
o
o
o
o

Pedal
Plantar
Calcaneal
Hallux
Digital

Body planes and sections:
a) Sagittal Plane: vertical plane that divides body into left and right parts (median/mid, and para)
b) Frontal Plane: vertical plane that divides body into anterior and posterior (coronal)
c) Transverse Plane: horizontal plane that divides body into superior and inferior (cross section)
d) Oblique section: cuts made diagonally
Dorsal and Ventral body cavities:
• Closed to outside environment
• Differ in mode of embryonic
development, and membrane
• Provide different degrees of
lining
protection to enclosed organs
A
...
Cranial cavity
b
...

B
...
There are two
subdivisions separated by the diaphragm
...
Thoracic: (pleural and mediastinum)
b
...
19)
Serous Membrane (Serosa): thin double layer membrane that covers ventral cavity walls & its organs; is
separated by thin layer of lubricating fluid called serous fluid
...

*Parietal serosa: lines cavity wall
*Visceral serosa: covers the organs in the cavity



Examples include: the pleurae: lines the thoracic wall and covers the lungs, pericardium: encloses the
heart, and peritoneum: encloses the abdominopelvic viscera
CHAPTER 2: Chemistry Comes Alive
• Part 1: Basic Chemistry
2
...

Kinetic: energy of motion (1/2 (mass x velocity2)) Potential: stored energy (mass x gravity x height)
Chemical energy, Electrical energy, Mechanical energy, Radiant energy/electromagnetic radiation
Energy conversions in body releases heat; during conversion energy is “lost” to the environment as heat
2
...
96% of Human Body made of Oxygen,
Carbon, Hydrogen, and Nitrogen
...
g
...
All atoms are electrically neutral
b/c protons equal electron
...
3 Atoms/Molecules/Mixtures
2+ atoms= molecule, 2+ different atoms = molecule of a compound; chemically pure (all molecules are
identical)
...

Molarity= moles per liter
...
g
...
4 Chemical Bonds
Chemical bonds attractive forces that hold atoms together
...

Ionic bonds: attraction between a cation ion (positively charge element) and anion (negatively charged
element)
Covalent bonds: when atoms share 1 pair valence electrons; 2 pairs equal double covalent bond, 3 pairs
equal triple covalent bonds
...
and a neg
...
Therefore hydrogen acts as a bridge between the two atoms
...


2
...

Most chemical reactions can be categorized as one of three types: synthesis, decomposition, or exchange
reaction
...
E
...
oxidation- reduction reactions
Energy flow: exergonic reaction (release energy) or endergonic reaction (absorbs energy)
Factors influencing rate of chemical reaction include: temperature, concentration, particle size, and
catalyst
...
6 Inorganic Compounds
Lack carbon
Water: universal solvent
Salts: ionic compounds that act as electrolytes when dissolved in water
Acids and Bases: acids (proton donors), bases (proton acceptors)

PH measure hydrogen ion concentration of a solution (molarity)
2
...
e
...

Polymers, i
...
carbs and proteins, are chainlike molecules made up of monomers (small “building blocks”)
joined by dehydration synthesis, and separated by hydrolysis
...
8 Carbohydrates “hydrated carbon”
Group of molecules including sugars and starches
...
The hydrogen
and oxygen exists is present in a 2:1 ratio
...
g
...

Disaccharide “two sugars”: 2 monosaccharaides join through dehydration synthesis
...
g
...

Isomer: same formula but different structure
2
...
It includes: triglycerides,
phospholipids, steroids, etc
...
Composed of fatty acids
and glycerol (3:1 ratio)
...
Found mainly beneath the skin
...

Phospholipids: chief material for building cell membranes
Steroids: flat molecule made of four interlocking hydrocarbon rings, i
...
, cholesterol
...
Plays key role in blood clotting and regulation,
labor contractions, pressure, and inflammation
...
10 Proteins
Basic structural material of the body (10-30% of cell mass)
All contain Carbon, Oxygen, Hydrogen, and Nitrogen; some contain sulfur
...
R group is what
makes each amino acid unique
Protein structure: primary, secondary, tertiary, and quaternary
Keratin and collagen: fibrous protein with secondary and maybe tertiary and quaternary structure
...
They
have special roles in cells
...

2
...




Ribonucleic acid (RNA): single strand of nucleotide, uses ribose sugar (messenger RNA, ribosomal RNA,
and transfer RNA)
Structural units of nucleic acids are Nucleotides: nitrogen containing base, pentose sugar, and phosphate
group
...
12 ATP
Adenosine triphosphate: primary energy transferring molecule in cells
...

Release of energy yields: ADP (adenosine diphosphate) or AMP (adenosine monophosphate)
CHAPTER 3: Cells: The Living Units
3
...

Human cell has 3 main parts: plasma membrane, cytoplasm, and nucleus
Extracellular materials: substances found outside the cell that contribute to body mass
...
e
...
2 Fluid Mosaic Model
Lipid bilayer is composed largely of phospholipids but has small amount of glycolipids and cholesterol
...
Stabilizes membrane= 20% of membrane
Glycocalyx: (glycoproteins + glycolipids): forms fuzzy, sticky, carb-rich area at cell surface; cell recognition
Proteins= half of membrane mass; “special functions (PG
...

3 factors act to bind cells together: 1
...
Wavy contours of
the membranes of adjacent cells fit together in a “tongue-and-groove” fashion, 3
...
e
...
3 Passive Transport
Does not require energy (i
...
, diffusion & filtration),
3
...
e
...
5 Membrane potential
Difference in charge across membrane; large anions (-) in cell attract cations (+) from outside f cell (i
...
,
sodium (-)-potassium (+) pump)

3
...
Consists of 3 major elements: cytosol, organelles, and inclusions



3
...
8 Cellular extensions:

Cilia are found on ciliated epithelial cells, like in the lungs
...
They move substances in one direction across cell surface
...

Microvilli are found in the small intestine, and increase the surface area for nutrient absorption
Part 3: Nucleus
3
...
10 Cell Cycle
3
...
12 Apoptosis: “Cell Death”
3 steps: initiation, execution, and phagocytosis
Biochemical events lead to characteristic cell changes (morphology) and death

CHAPTER 4: Tissue: The Living Fabric
Tissues are groups of cells that are similar in structure that perform common function
...
Epithelial (covers)
3
...
Connective (supports, protects, binds)
4
...
1Microscopy
Allows us to study tissue structure
...
Artifacts
(minor distortion) can occur in preserved tissues
...
2 Epithelial tissue
Sheet of cells that cover body surface or lines body cavity
...
Two forms occur in body:
1
...

2
...
This polyhedron shape allows
cells to pack closely together
...
g
...
Functions include absorption, secretion, and
filtration
...
Its name depends on what cells are in the top/apical layer
...

Regenerates from basal lamina layer upwards
...

Glands are classified by two traits:
1
...
Number of cells (unicellular or multicellular)
• Unicellular cells are scattered within epithelial sheets
• Multicellular cells form by invagination (inward growth) of an epithelial sheet into the
underlying connective tissue
...
They produce
hormones, and are structurally diverse
...

• Unicellular: direct secretion by exocytosis
...
Examples include, mucous and goblet cells
which produces mucin
...

• Multicellular: Composed of two basic parts: epithelium-walled duct & secretory unit (acinus)
...
The acinus is surrounded by connective tissue that supplies it with blood vessels and nerve
fibers
...
Multicellular exocrine glands are classified by structure and secretion
...

" Simple (unbranched ducts) or Compound (branched ducts)
...
I
...
, pancreas, sweat glands, and salivary glands
" Holocrine glands: accumulate their product until they rupture, then the underlying
cells replace them
...
e
...

" Apocrine glands: similar to holocrine/merocrine glands
4
...
Major functions include…
1
...
Storing reserve fuel
5
...
Protecting
substances within the
3
...
Common origin: All connective tissues arise from an embryonic tissue called mesenchyme (has
mesenchymal cells)
2
...
Extracellular Matrix: made up of ground substance and fibers
There are four classes of connective tissue and several subclasses: Areolar connective tissue is the prototype
from which all other subclasses are derived
...
Connective tissue proper (includes fat and fibrous tissues of ligaments)
• Loose connective tissue
o Areolar, Adipose, and Reticular
• Dense connective tissue (*sometimes called fibrous)
o Regular, Irregular, and Elastic
2
...

• Hyaline, Elastic, and Fibrocartilage
3
...
Blood
Connective tissues have 3 main elements that vary in combination, thus creating diversity in connective
tissues
...
Ground substance (*sometimes called matrix) is the fiber containing material that fills the spaces
b/w the cells of connective tissue
...

2
...
Three types found in connective tissue matrix:
Collagen, elastic, and reticular; collagen fibers are the strongest and most abundant
...
Cells: each class of connective tissue has it’s own type of cells; they can be (-blast) immature &
mitotic, or (–cyte) mature
...
Fibroblast___connective tissue proper
b
...
Osteoblast __ bone
d
...

4
...
There are three types of muscle tissue:




Skeletal (voluntary muscle): contractions pull on bones or skin and cause movement
...

• Cardiac (involuntary muscle): striated muscles found only in the walls of the heart
• Smooth (involuntary muscle): spindle shaped cells with central nuclei; found mainly in walls of
hollow organs excluding the heart
...
5 Nervous Tissue
Two major cell types: neurons and supporting cells
Neurons are nerve cells that generate and conduct nerve impulse
...
Glial cells or neuroglia) support, insulate, and protect the delicate neurons
...
6 Cutaneous membrane is dry; mucous and serous membranes are wet
Covering and lining membranes are continuous multicellular sheets composed of at least two primary
tissues: an epithelium bound to an underlying layer of connective tissue proper
...
Cutaneous membrane is the skin
...
Mucous membranes (mucosae) line all body cavities open to the outside
...
Serous membranes (serosae) lines closed ventral body cavities
...
7 Tissue Repair
Tissue repair occurs in two major ways: Regeneration or Fibrosis
The type of tissue damage and the severity of the damage determine which process occurs
...
Inflammation: inflammatory cells are released by injured tissue; clotting occurs
2
...
Regeneration/Fibrosis: depends on severity of damage
• Regeneration: replaces dead or damaged cell with the same cell type, thus restoring normal
function of the tissue
• Fibrosis: replaces damage or dead cells with scar tissue, which holds tissue together but
does not restore function
...
From superficial to deep these layers are the ectoderm, mesoderm, and
endoderm
...
By the end of the second month of development, the primary tissues have appeared, and
all major organs are in place
...

5
...
7% of body weight in avg
...
It consists of two layers:
•




Epidermis: outermost protective shield of the body; it is composed of epithelial cells
...

• Dermis: makes up the bulk of the skin (tough, leathery layer); composed mostly of dense connective
tissue
...

Hypodermis (superficial fascia) is subcutaneous tissue deep to the skin
...
It consists mostly of adipose tissue
...
It also anchors the skin to underlying organs i
...
, muscles
...
2 Epidermis
The epidermis is an avascular keratinized sheet of stratified squamous epithelium
...
Cells of epidermis:
• Keratinocytes: most common; protection
• Dendritic cells (Langerharns cell): from
and waterproofing
red bone marrow; immunity
• Melanocytes: produce and transfer
• Tactile cells (Merkle cells): in stratum
melanin to keratinocytes
basale responds to touch
Layers of epidermis: The variation in epidermal thickness determines if skin is thick or thin
...
e
...
There are five stratas:
from deep to superficial, they become increasingly more keratinized
...
Stratum basale (germinativum) is the basal/bottom layer attached to the underlying dermis
...
10-25% of cells are melanocytes
...
Stratum spinosum
3
...
Contains two types of keratin granules:
keratohyaline and lamellar
...

4
...
2-3 rows of clear, dead keratinocytes w/ indistinct
boundaries
5
...
(20 to 30 cell layers; the cells lack a nucleus)
5
...
It has nerve fibers, blood vessels, and
lymphatic vessels
...
The two layers lie next to
each other along an indistinct boundary
...
It is thin and made of areolar connective tissue
...

• Reticular Layer is deep to the papillary layer
...
80% of the dermis thickness
...

When incisions are made parallel to cleavage tension lines, the skin heals faster
...
g
...
4 Skin Color
Melanin, carotene, and hemoglobin determine skin color
...
Its rate of synthesis depends on tyrosinase: an enzyme in melanocytes (stimulated
by UV rays)
• Carotene is a yellow to orange pigment found in certain plant products such as carrots
...
In the body, it can be converted to
vitamin A
...

Alterations in skin color can indicate certain disease/ emotional states i
...
,
• Redness (erythema)
• Pallor (blanching)
• Jaundice (yellow cast)
•




Black-and-blue marks
(bruises)
5
...

Main functions are to sense insects before they bite, guard head from physical trauma, heat loss, and
sunlight, and to filter large particles from the air for our eyes and nose
...
Hair
pigment is made by melanocytes in the base of the hair follicle
...

The hair papilla contains a knot of capillaries that supplies nutrients to the growing hair and signals it to
grow
...
Also, on male legs, underarm, etc
...

5
...
There are ten parts to a nail structure:
• Free edge
• Nail bed
• Proximal fold
• Hyponychium
• Lateral nail fold
• Root of nail
• Nail body
• Eponychium (cuticle)
• Nail matrix
Changes in nail appearance can help diagnose certain conditions
...
7 Sweat and sebaceous glands
Sympathetic division of autonomic nervous system regulates sweating; its main role is to prevent
overheating
...

Sweat glands (sudoriferious glands): contain secretory cells associated with myoepithelial cells, which
contract when stimulated by the nervous system
...
Two types:
• Eccrine (merocrine) sweat glands are simple, coiled, tublar glands whose ducts extend into pores;
abundant on palms, soles of feet, and forehead
...

Sebaceous glands (oil glands) are simple branched aveolar glands that secrete an oily substance called
sebum
...
Functionally, they are
holocrine glands
...

5
...
9 Skin Cancer & Burns
Three major forms of skin cancer: cell carcinoma, squamous cell carcinoma, and melanoma
Burns cause tissue damage, denatured cell protein, and kills cells in the affected area
...
5th- 6th month fetus is covered with colorless
hairs called lanugo coat that sheds by the 7th month and vellus hairs appear
...
Newborn skin is very thin; it thickens and accumulates
subcutaneous fat during infancy and childhood
...

Ectoderm! epidermis
• Mesoderm! dermis and hypodermis
CHAPTER 6: Bones and Skeletal Tissues
Bones and cartilage form the internal supports of the body
Hyaline, Elastic, and Fibrocartilage help to form the skeleton
6
...

Hyaline cartilage functions include: shock absorptions, friction reduction, and support with flexibility and
resilience
...
Articular cartilage: joints, point of connection
2
...
Respiratory cartilage: forms larynx (voice box)
4
...
Functions: provide shape, and support
Fibrocartilage occurs in sites subjected to pressure and stretch, e
...
knees and discs between vertebrae
Cartilage can grow by appositional growth or interstitial growth
...

• Appositional growth: growth in diameter (lateral growth), occurs in periosteum
• Interstitial growth: growth in length, occurs in epiphyseal plate

6
...
3 Bone Classification: long, short, flat, or irregular
206 bones divided into axial and appendicular regions
Axial: support, protect, or carry other body parts
Appendicular: locomotion, and manipulation of environment
• Long bones are all appendicular bones excluding the wrist, patella, and ankle
• Short bones: roughly cube shaped e
...
wrist and ankle
...

• Irregular bones: complicated shapes unlike the other categories, e
...
, vertebrae and hip bones

6
...
Spongy bone (trabecular bone)
is the internal portion of a bone; it consists of trabeculae whose spaces are filled with red or yellow bone
marrow
...
Epiphyseal line separates epiphysis
from diaphysis
...
It is a double layer membrane
formed by dense irregular connective tissue, and osteogenic cells
...

o Endosteum lines the internal portion of bones, i
...
, covers trabeculae of spongy bone
...

Red marrow is hematopoietic tissue
...

Microscopic:
There are five major cells of bone tissue:
1
...
Osteoblasts (bone growth, & synthesis of matrix)
3
...
Bone lining cells: periosteal and endosteal; found on nonremodeling bone surface and helps
maintain matrix
5
...


*Compact Bone contains structural units called osteons (Haversian system)
...
Central canals running through osteon
“center” contain blood vessels and nerve fibers
...
Spider-shaped osteocytes occupy hollow lacunae
...

Interstitial vs
...
Receives its nutrients from
endosteum through the canaliculi
...
Inorganic substance: hydroxyapatites/mineral salts
(65% of mass)
...

6
...

Bones develop by Intramembranous ossification or Endochondral ossification
...
All bones below skull excluding clavicle are formed this way
...

Intramembranous ossification: bone develops from fibrous membrane
...

6
...

Occurs at periosteal and endosteal surfaces of a bone
• Bone Deposit: bone cells rebuild bone tissue by depositing minerals obtained from the bloodstream
• Bone Resorption: bone cells break done bone tissue and release calcium and other minerals for use
by other cells in the body
...
7 Bone Repair



6
...
Longs bones begin ossification 8 weeks post conception and have developed
ossification centers by week 12
...


CHAPTER 7: The Skeleton
Functions:
• Locomotion
• Manipulation
• Protection
Ligaments connect bones and reinforce joints
...

Part 1: The Axial Skeleton
It has 80 bones separated into three regions: skull, vertebral column, and thoracic cage
...

7
...
Interlocking joints called sutures unite all bones of
the adult skull
...

The Skull
Cranial Bones: 8 bones
• Frontal
• Parietal (2)
• Occipital
o Foramen magnum
o Occipital condyles
• Temporal (2)
• Sphenoid
o Zygomatic process
o Body
o Mandibular fossa
o Greater wings
o Styloid process
o Lesser wings
o Mastoid process
o Sella turcia
o External auditory (acoustic)
o Hypophyseal fossa
meatus
• Ethmoid
o Cribform plate
o Olfactory foramina
o Crista galli
o Nasal conchae
o Ethmoid air cells

Facial Bones: 14 bones
• Mandible
o Temporomandibular joint
• Maxillae (2)
• Zygomatic (2)
o Temporal process
• Lacrimal (2)
• Palatine (2)
• Nasal bone
• Vomer
• Inferior nasal conchae (2)



Sutres: sagittal, corocal, lambdoid, squamous

7
...

• 7 cervical vertebrae
• 12 thoracic vertebrae
• 5 lumbar vertebrae
(neck)
(supports lower back)
In adults, there are five major regions: increase flexibility and resilience of the spine
...
cervical curvature
3
...
coccyx (terminus)
2
...
sacral curvature (hips)

Ligaments and thoracic muscles support the vertebral column:
• Anterior longitudinal ligament: prevents hyperextension, strong continuous band (front of spine)
• Posterior longitudinal ligament: resists hyperflexion, weak continuous band down the back of spine
• Ligamentum flavum: connects adjacent vertebra; very strong
• Short ligaments connect each vertebra to those immediately above or below
Intervertebral discs act as shock absorbers; consists of nucleus pulposus and annulus fibrosus
Structure of vertebra:
• body (centrum)
• laminae
• inferior articular
process
• vertebral arch
• spinous process
• vertebral foramen
• transverse process
• vertebral canal
• superior articular
process
• pedicles

Characteristics:
Flexion & extension: anterior bending and posterior straightening
Lateral flexion: bending upper body to the right or left
Rotation: vertebra rotate on one another in the longitudinal axis of the spine
Cervical: (neck) smallest part of the spine
...

• c3-c6 small bodies with posterior and lateral pedicles, bifid spinous process, and foramen
trasnversum (c6: anterior and posterior tubercle)
• c1 (Atlas) is the first vertebra in spinal column
...
3 Thoracic Cage (bony thorax)
• Thoracic vertebrae is
• Ribs are lateral
• Sternum and coastal
posterior
cartilage are anterior
The Sternum consists of: manubrium, body, and xiphoid process (made of hyaline cartilage)
There are 12 pairs of ribs

Pairs 1-7 are called true ribs because they are directly attached to the sternum by coastal
cartilage

Pairs 8-12 are called false ribs because they are indirectly attached to the sternum through
the cartilage of pair 7

Pair 11 and 12 are considered false ribs but they are called floating ribs because they do not
attach to the sternum at all



Part 2: The Appendicular Skeleton
*ALWAYS USE DISTAL AND PROXIMAL FOR APPENDAGES


7
...
5 Upper Limb
Metacarpal: any of the five fingers of a hand; has 3 parts: bone head, shaft, and base
Phalax (singular) Phalanges (plural): each hand has 14 phalanges, fingers have 3 each, and thumb has 2
...
6 Pelvic Girdle

pelvic girdles (hip): coxal bones (coxa: sing; coxae: plural) articulate the sacrum

hip bone consists of 3 fused bone: illium (sacroiliac joint: between sacrum and illium), pubis (pubis
symphysis), and ischium
aceatabulum: coated by hyaline cartilage where the femur attaches

7
...
Tendons connect muscle to bone
...
1 Joint Classification
Joints are classified into 3 structural and 3 functional categories
Structure (3): determined by the material binding the bones and by the presence/absence of a joint
• Fibrous: sutures, syndesmoses, and gomphosis
• Cartilaginous: synchondrosis, and symphese



• Synovial: most abundant, and the ONLY joint with joint cavity
...
e
...
e
...
e
...
2 Fibrous Joints
Connected by dense regular connective tissue, no joint cavity
...

• Sutures “seams”: found only between bones of the skull
...
Amphiarthrotic; when
shorter, it yields less movement, and when longer, it yields more movement
...
3 Cartilaginous Joints
Connected by cartilage
• Synchondroses: synarthrotic, the articulating bones are coated with hyaline cartilage
• Symphyses: All are amphiarthrotic, the articulating bones are coated with hyaline cartilage, but also
attached by a layer (disc) of fibrocartilage (e
...
, intervertebral discs, and pubic symphysis)
8
...
These joints are diarthrotic
...
Bursae are small sacs filled with synovial fluid, and tendon
sheaths are essential cylindrical bursae wrapped in muscle tendons
...

*Structure: (6)
• Articular capsule
• Nerves and blood vessels
• Articular cartilage
• Reinforcing ligaments
• Joint (articular) cavity
• Synovial fluid

*Classification: diversity of synovial joints; determined by shape (6)
• Ball-and-socket:
• Hinge
• Plane
• Condylar (ellipsoid)
• Pivot
• Saddle

*Movement:
• Gliding
• Rotation
• Angular
o Flexion: muscle crosses anterior side of joint
...
e
...
5 Diversity of Synovial Joints (5 examples)
• Knee joint is a hinge joint, and the largest and most complex joint in the body
...

o Tibiofemoral joint (2 in1) is a hinge joint that permits flexion and extension
o Femoropatellar joint is a plane joint (patella glides across distal end of femur during knee
flexion)
The extracapsular, capsular, and intracapsular ligaments help to stabilize it
...
Head of humerus fits in glenoid cavity of scapula
...

• Elbow joint: hinge joint that allows only flexion and extension
...
Head of femur fits in the
acetabulum of the hip bone
...
The condylar process of the mandible
articulates with the inferior surface of the squamous part of the temporal bone
...

8
...
Also, water exercises help relieve and prevent joint stress/damage
...
1 pg
...
2
Focus Figure 8
...
262
Will have to know movements allowed by synovial joints and special movements (pg
...
Tendons connect muscle to bone
...
Thus, they generate force
...
1 Types, Characteristics, and Functions of Muscle Tissue
• Skeletal “muscle fibers”: elongated, striated, voluntary, adaptable, and responsible for mobility;
long, cylindrical cell with many nuclei
...

• Smooth “muscle fibers”: found in walls of hollow organs (excluding the heart), elongated, smooth,
involuntary, forces fluids and other substances through internal body channels, constricts and
dilates pupils of your eyes, and forms arrector pili muscles
...

Characteristics (4): enable tissue to perform its duties
• Excitability: receive/respond to stimuli
• Extensibility: can be stretched/extended
• Contractility: shorten when stimulated
• Elasticity: can recoil
Functions (4):
• Movement
• Maintain posture and body position
•




• Generate heat
9
...

A
...
Muscle capillaries are the smallest of the body’s blood vessels; they
accommodate changes in muscle length
...
Connective tissue sheaths supports each cell and holds the muscle together; they provide entrance
and exit to blood vessels and nerve fibers
...
e
...
Attachment: when muscles contract, the movable bone (muscle’s point of insertion) moves towards
the immovable bone (muscle’s point of origin); in limbs, origin lies proximal to insertion
...

• Indirect attachments: a continuation of ct sheaths of a muscle i
...
, a tendon (rope-like) or
aponeurosis (sheet-like); they are more common due to their durability and small size,
9
...
Myofibrils: rod-like structures wrapped in sarcolemma that connected to each other by
intermediate (desmin) filaments, which extend from the z discs
...

a) Sarcomeres are the functional units of skeletal muscle, and the smallest contractile units of a
muscle fiber
...

b) Myofilaments are connected to the sarcolemma and held in alignment at the Z discs and M lines
...

Thick: composed of protein myosin
ii
...

Elastic: core of thick filament that helps form its structure; composed of the protein titin
c) Molecular composition of myofilaments: Actin and myosin play a role in motility and shape of
nearly every cell in the body
i
...

Dark A Band: has lighter region in midsection called H Zone which are bisected vertically by
a dark lines called M Line “m for middle and myomesin” whom are formed by molecules of
protein called myomesin
...

ii
...
Thin/actin filaments
extends the I band and part of the A band, and they are anchored up by Z discs
...
Sacroplasmic reticulum (SR): network of ER tubules surrounding and running (longitudinally + in
pairs), along myofibril
...

Its function is to regulate intracellular levels of ionic calcium (store/release Ca2+), which provides
the final “go” signal for contraction
...

C
...
It transversely wraps around myofibrils;
forms “Triad” with terminal cistern i
...
, (Terminal cistern--T tubule--Terminal cistern)
...

Electrical impulse causes T tubule protein to change which causes SR protein to change which leads to
the release of calcium into the cytoplasm
...

" Contraction is the activation of myosin’s cross bridges which are the force generating sites
...
Contraction ends when cross bridges become inactive
...
4 Motor Neurons
Stimulate skeletal muscle fibers to contract: explains WHY a muscle contracts: (4 steps)
1
...
Somatic motor neuron residing in the brain or spinal cord activates the fibers
...
A
space filled with gel-like extracellular substance rich in glycoproteins and collagen fibers
(synaptic cleft) lies between the fiber and axon
...
Junctional folds provide large surface area
for Ach receptors
...
Nerve impulse reaches end of axon ! axon release Ach into synaptic cleft
ii
...
Ach binding yield events that generate action potential
2
...
Generation of end plate potential: the process of change in membrane potential as a result of
opened gated ion channels
...
Depolarization: generation and propagation of action potential
...

c
...
Muscle fibers are in
“refactory period” b/c cell cannot be stimulated until repolarization is complete
...

3
...

4
...
(ExcitationContraction)
...
5 Graded Muscle Contractions
Muscle tension: force exerted on load/object to be moved
Isometric muscles: do not shorten b/c although muscle tension increases, it does not exceed load
Isotonic contraction: muscles shorten b/c muscle tension exceeds the load
...




1
...
Period of contraction: tension increases
3
...

9
...
Direct phosphorylation of ADP by CP; CP is enzyme that carries out transfer of its phosphate
2
...
Uses glucose to produce 2 ATP molecules
3
...
7 The Force, Velocity, and Duration of Skeletal Muscle Contractions
9
...

In skeletal muscle, resistance exercises cause hypertrophy and large gains in strength
...

9
...
Contains only epimysium
...

Contractions: longitudinal layer causes organ to contract; circular layer causes lumen of organ to constrict;
Peristalsis is the alternation contractions of the layers mix and squeeze substances through lumen of
hollow organs
...
Skeletal muscles
stop dividing early on, cardiac muscles divide at a moderate rate, and smooth muscle divide regularly
throughout our lifetime
...
Smooth muscle
attempts to rid itself of irritants through diarrhea and vomiting
...
Tendons connect muscle to bone
...
1 Muscle Action
Muscles can only pull; they never push
...
2 Skeletal Muscle Name
• Location: They are located in the region of the body part they manipulate
...
e
...

• Number of origins:
• Points of attachments: the origin is always named first, e
...
sternocleidomastoid





•

Muscle action: They are named for the action they produce, i
...
, flexor or extensor

10
...
g
...
Most common shapes include: circular “sphincters” (orbicularis oris), convergent (pectoralis
major), parallel (sartorious), and pennate (extensor digitorium)

10
...
speed; relationship between load and effort relative to the fulcrum
• Mechanical advantage (power): small effort can move large load b/c load is close to fulcrum and
effort is far from fulcrum
...
g
...
g
...
e
...
g
...
g
...
5 Determination of Muscle Function
A muscles origin and insertion determine its action:
1
...

2
...

3
...

4
...

CHAPTER 11: Fundamentals of the Nervous System and Nervous Tissue
The nervous system is the master controlling and communicating system of the body; it receives,
integrates, and responds to information
11
...
Sensory input ! information received
2
...
Motor output! (effector organs)
Structure: two principle parts
1
...
Thinking, emotions, etc
2
...
Sensory (Afferent) division: detects changes and send information Away from the body to
the CNS



II
...
Somatic nervous system
ii
...
Sympathetic division
b
...
2 Neuroglia (glial cells)
There are six types: 4 in CNS, and 2 in PNS
CNS:
• Astrocytes
• Microglial cells
• Ependymal cells
• Oligodendrocytes
PNS:
• Satellite cells
• Schwann cells
11
...
They are the key to neural communication because, they
send electrical signals along their length, and communicate using chemical signals
...
4 Resting Membrane Potential
The potential difference in a resting neuron (Vr) is called the resting membrane potential; membrane is
polarized (-70mV)
...

Neurons use changes in their membrane potential as signals to receive, integrate, and send information
...

Membrane potential change produces two types of signals:
• Graded potentials
• Action potentials
Depolarization is a decrease in membrane potential so it becomes less negative, and hyperpolarization is
an increase in membrane potential so it becomes more negative
...

11
...
6 Action Potentials
Brief, long-distance signals within a neuron



11
...
8 Postsynaptic Potentials
Excite or inhibit receiving neuron
11
...
10 Neurons act together, making complex behavior possible
Developmental Aspects of Neurons
CHAPTER 12: The Central Nervous System
The central nervous system (CNS) consists of the brain and spinal cord
...
1 Adult Brain Structure
12
...
3 Diencephalon
It includes the thalamus, hypothalamus, and epithalamus
...
4 Brain Stem
It consists of the midbrain, pons, and medulla oblongata
12
...
6 Functional Brain Systems
They are networks of neurons that work together but span multiple brain structures
• Limbic system
• Reticular formation
12
...
8 Brain Protection
The brain is protected by bone, meninges, cerebrospinal fluid, and the blood brain barrier (HEB)
...
9 Brain injuries and disorders
12
...

12
...
1 Sensory Receptors
13
...
3 Nerves and associated ganglia
13
...
5 Spinal Nerves
• Part 3: Motor Endings and Motor Activity
13
...
7 Motor Activity
• Part 4: Reflex Activity
13
...
9 Spinal Reflexes
Developmental Aspects of the peripheral nervous system



CHAPTER 14: The Autonomic Nervous System
14
...
Somatic nervous system
14
...
3 Parasympathetic Division
14
...
5 Visceral Reflexes
14
...
7 Interaction between sympathetic and parasympathetic divisions
14
...
9 What happens when things go wrong?
CHAPTER 15: The Special Senses
• Part 1: The Eye and Vision
15
...
2 How the Eye Focus light
The cornea and lens focus light on the retina
15
...
4 Processing and relaying visual information
Visual information from the retina passes through relay nuclei to the visual cortex
• Part 2: The Chemical Senses: Smell and Taste
15
...
6 Sense of Taste
• Part 3: The Ear: Hearing and Balance
15
...
8 Hearing
15
...
10 Equilibrium
15
...
1
16
...
3 Hormone Action
16
...
5 Cell Response to Hormone
16
...
7 The Thyroid Gland
controls metabolism
16
...
9 The Adrenal Glands
16
...
11











Appendix A: Root Words (from study guide)
Word Root

Abodomin-
Acromin-
Axill-

Abdomen
High point of
shoulder
Armpit

Brachi-

Arm

Bucc-

Cheek

Calcane-

Heel

Carp-

Wrist bone

Cervic-
Cox-

Neck or neck-like
structure
Hip

Crani-

Cranium

Cubit-

Elbow or ulna

Digit-

Finger or toe

Dors-

Faci-
Fibul-
Front-
Glute-
Lumb-

Back
Face
Lateral leg
Forehead
Buttocks
Lower back or joint

Ment-
Nas-
Occipit-

Mind or chin
Nose
Back of head

Olecran-
Or-
Orbit-

Proximal
projection of ulna
Mouth
Eye

Ot-


Definition

Ear


Noun

Adjective

Abdominis
Acromion (sing
...
)
Axillae (pl
...
)
Brachia (pl
...
)

Buccae (pl
...
)
Calcanei (pl
...
)
Carpi (pl
...
)
Cervices (pl
...
)
Coxae (pl
...
)
Crania (pl
...
)
cubiti pl
...
) Digiti (pl
...
)
Dorsa (pl
...
)
Fibula
Frons (sing
...
)
Lumbi (pl
...
)
Nasus (sing
...
)
Olecranon (sing
...
)
Oris (sing
...
)
Orbitae (pl
...
)
Palmae (pl
...
)
Patellae (pl
...
)
Pectora (pl
...
)
Pedes (pl
...
)
Pelves (pl
...
)
Plantae (pl
...


























Pectoral



Pedal



Pelvic



Plantar



Pubic



Scapular



Sternal
Thoracic




Umbilical



Vertebral







Patellar

Scapula (sing
...
)
Sternum (sing
...
)
Thoraces (pl
...
)
Vertebra (sing
...
)

Vertebra, spinal
column





Palmar









Singular vs

---