Search for notes by fellow students, in your own course and all over the country.
Browse our notes for titles which look like what you need, you can preview any of the notes via a sample of the contents. After you're happy these are the notes you're after simply pop them into your shopping cart.
Document Preview
Extracts from the notes are below, to see the PDF you'll receive please use the links above
Chapter 2-3 notes
●
Every living organism and everything around them are composed of matter
○
●
Which is classified by anything that occupies space and has mass
An element is a substance that can not be broken down any further
...
●
The amount of valence electrons is how many electrons are in the outer electrons are in
a element
...
●
Two pairs of shared bonding electrons, represented by a double line
...
Both elements share electrons with each other
●
Ionic bonding is when a metal and a metal bond together or a nonmetal and a nonmetal
bond together
●
Polar covalent bonds fall between ionic and covalent bonds
...
7 in electronegativity difference
...
●
Hydrogen bonds only form between hydrogen and oxygen (O), nitrogen (N) or fluorine
(F)
...
●
Hydrogen bond: A weak bond between fluorine,oxygen or nitrogen in one molecule or
ion and a hydrogen atom bonded to a fluorine, oxygen or nitrogen atom in another
molecule or ion
...
Example proteins and DNA
●
When it comes to bonding, everything is based on how many electrons an element has
or shares with its compound partner or partners
...
●
Groups
○
A hydroxyl or hydroxy group is a chemical functional group containing one
oxygen atom connected by a covalent bonding to one hydrogen atom
○
In organic chemistry, a carbonyl group is a functional group composed of a
carbon atom doubly-bonded to an oxygen atom: C=O
...
A carboxyl group is
defined as having a carbonyl and hydroxyl group both linked to a carbon atom
...
○
amino group, in chemistry, functional group that consists of a nitrogen atom
attached by single bonds to hydrogen atoms, alkyl groups, aryl groups, or a
combination of these three
...
They create every organism and
every non living thing
...
The protons have positive charge the neutrons have neutral charge and the electrons have a
negative charge
...
A element compound is 2 or more
elements compounded together to create another substance water, stainless steel, and many
others are 2 or more elements together
...
●
Carbohydrates
○
Carbohydrates are the sugars, starches and fibers found in fruits, grains,
vegetables and milk products
...
○
A class molecules
○
A carbohydrate is a biological molecule consisting of carbon, hydrogen and
oxygen atoms
...
○
High-fructose corn syrup is a common sweetener in sodas and fruit-flavored
drinks
...
○
●
Polysaccharide are long chains of sugar units
○
Polysaccharide are long chains of monocachari by dehydration
○
Starch is a Polysaccharide In plants consisting entirely of glucose
○
Animals store glucose in a different form of Polysaccharide called glycogen
...
Most glycogen is stored in granules in
your liver and muscle cells
...
The most common disaccharide is sucrose which is made of plant sap
■
○
Sucrose provide raw energy of all plant part
Lactose have glucose and glucose
●
Enzymes
○
They make accelerate chemical reactions
○
Enzymes are macromolecules biological catalysts
■
A catalyst is a substance that increases the rate of a chemical reaction
without itself undergoing any permanent chemical change
...
hydrolysis
a chemical process in which a compound is
broken down and changed into other
compounds by taking up the elements of
water
carbohydrates
compound made up of carbon, hydrogen,
and oxygen atoms; major source of energy
for the human body
disaccharide
a sugar formed from two monosaccharides
polysaccharide
any of a class of carbohydrates whose
molecules contain chains of
monosaccharide molecules
starch
a complex carbohydrate found chiefly in
plants
glycogen
an extensively branched glucose storage
polysaccharide found in the liver and
muscle of animals; the animal equivalent of
starch
cellulose
polysaccharide consisting of glucose
monomers that reinforces plant-cell walls,
never branched and has beta linkages
chitin
complex carbohydrate that makes up the
cell walls of fungi; also found in the external
skeletons of arthropods
lipids
energy-rich organic compounds, such as
fats, oils, and waxes, that are made of
carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen,
hydrophobic
fat
constructed from glycerol and fatty acids
fatty acids
unbranched carbon chains that make up
most lipids
triglyceride
A type of lipid in which the macromolecule
is composed of three molecules of fatty
acids joined to a glycerol molecule
proteins
contains carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, and
nitrogen
...
needed by
tissue for repair and growth
...
amino acids
building blocks of proteins
nucleic acid
macromolecule containing hydrogen,
oxygen, nitrogen, carbon, and phosphorus
DNA
Double stranded and shaped like a double
helix, stores hereditary information
RNA
single-stranded nucleic acid that contains
the sugar ribose, various functions during
gene expression, including carrying
instructions from DNA to ribosomes
nucleotides
Basic units of DNA
molecule,
composed of a
sugar, a
phosphate, and
one of 4 DNA
bases
purine
nitrogenous bases that have a double ring
of carbon and nitrogen atoms such as
adenine and guanine, a nitrogenous base
that has a double-ring structure; one of the
two general categories of nitrogenous
bases found in DNA and RNA; either
adenine or guanine
Function
Carbohydrates
Chief energy source
Commons Names
Sugar, bread, pasta, crackers, cake, vegetables, beans, whole
grains, fruits, nuts, and yogurt
...
Starch granules serve as carbohydrate “banks”
Glycogen is created from animals and is stored in your life and
muscle cells
...
Function
Glycerol and fatty acids
Commons Names
Glycerol- C3H8O3
Butyric Acid- H8C4O2 Caproic Acid- C6H2O2
Triglyceride and Monounsaturated Triglyceride
Building Blocks
Saturated, Unsaturated, Trans Fat,
Chemical formula
Polymers
Different kinds
Example:
Summary:
There are many substitutes for foods that are well cheaper and easier to make summ
Study this!!
○
Lactose have glucose and glucose
○
Enzymes end in ase
○
Sugars end in os
○
Carboxyl group doubled bonded oxygen AND a hydroxyl group
○
Carbonyl Carbon double bonded to an oxygen
○
Bend is double bond
○
Need to know all structural formulas
○
When you make a polisachari of glucose it becomes starch
○
Breaking down maltose is called hydrolysis
Ecology is the study how organisms interact with their environment
...
Major factors
include energy sources, temperature, the presence of water, and inorganic
nutrients
...
Most climate vary in temperature enabling different types of animals to live in
each
...
It can't survive
...
The biological species concept holds
that a species is a group of populouses hos members can interbreed and
produce fertile offspring with each other but not member of other species
...
Most organisms are classified on
their observable traits-morphological species concept
...
Such barriers isolate a species’
gene pool and prevent interbreeding
...
Researchers have documented the beginning of reproduction in dragonflies
...
Sun light is a key factor in
Carbon cycle
...
Species diversity includes relative abundance and species richness
...
There is a thing called a keystone species
...
MAny are not the biggest animals but they play a large part in the
population by making food or eating common predators
...
One
example is the rabbits in australia
...
They wind was dispersed the seeds
...
It
helped spread out the seeds
...
THere are different types of seeds that travel different ways
...
Secondary disturbance is displacement of different factors of the ecosystem
such an a wildfire or a volcanic eruption
...
WInd buried seeds
...
Created new habitats
...
Created new
soil
...
Buried some landscapes shifted
streams into beds
...
Changes it is most rapid and efficient after a wildfire
...
Right after the eruption many there
was a lot of growth and development
...
Organisms mys either survive or
dispuse into a disturbed area
...
MAny factors limiting
espanlisments
...
ABility for spores to germinate and grow
...
Proproiate food
...
many consequences
Interactions in succession is very important
...
Facilitation mechanism of succession
SPecies achiral mans the recovery of species over time
...
COlonization is a process by
which a place gets populated
Effects of human interaction on the interaction
...
We tried helping the environment but we ended up
hurting it in the process
...
As a pro we got
the ogs out of the river, and we ate lots of the fish
...
Global warming occurs when carbon dioxide (CO2) and other air pollutants and
greenhouse gases collect in the atmosphere and absorb sunlight and solar
radiation that have bounced off the earth’s surface
NEW UNIT DNA:
●
Dna is a double helix
...
The single strand RNas travel around the cells
and create proteins
...
Each base pairs to complement the
other
●
Dna is in the nucleus
●
Almost all humans have the same DNA
●
DNA make up chromosomes in gametes
●
PHosphate grope bonded to a sugar and a nitrogen base
●
Humans have 23 pairs of chromosomes or 26 sets
●
All covalent bonds
●
Why is the DNA shaped in helixes?
○
●
What is their significance to function
Four different nucleotides found in cells
○
Thymine, cytosine, adenine and guanine
●
RNA goes and creates proteins and basically replicates the DNA
●
DNA→ 3 parts make up a NUCLEOTIDE
○
sugar, phosphate and bases
■
that are linked together chemically in a particular way
...
●
Two polynucleotides wrapped around each other
...
●
The double helix is “unzipped” or unwound then goes through dna polymerase
●
What polymerase does is it adds pieces of dna into the unzipped single helix
...
This process includes the help of many different enzymes that unzip
the double helix, bond necessary parts to the singles helix and much more
...
●
DNA and RNA are long linear polymers, called nucleic acids,
● Genes specify the kinds of proteins that are made by cells, but DNA is not the direct
template for protein synthesis
...
All forms of cellular RNA are synthesized by
RNA polymerases that take instructions from DNA templates
...
● This flow of information is dependent on the genetic code, which defines the relation
between the sequence of bases in DNA (or its mRNA transcript) and the sequence of
amino acids in a protein
● Uracil in the place of a
Summary:
DNA contains information that can be used to create proteins
...
The RNA travels
to the ribosomes and there they create proteins based upon the DNAs blueprints
...
■ rRNA
■
Ribosomal RNA (rRNA) is the RNA component of the ribosome,
and is essential for protein synthesis in all living organisms
...
■ Codon
●
a sequence of three nucleotides that together form a unit of genetic
code in a DNA or RNA molecule
...
■ Stop codon
● A codon that tells them to stop production
● Translation
○ The RNA tells the ribosomes what to make
○
Meiosis
● Typical body cell is a somatic cell
○ 46 chromosomes
● Homologous chromosomes are similar
...
● Sex chromosomes (pair 23) determines a person's gender
○ XX is female
○ XY is male
■ Male gamete determines if individual is male or female
● Diploid
○ 46 chromosomes
● Haploid
○ 23 chromosomes
● Sperm and egg fertilize
○ Creates a zygote
■ Zygote is diploid because it has the genetic information from both the
male and female sex cells
● Meiosis
○ Interphase
■ DNA is replicated and cell does its regular business
● Growing and regulating the cell
● Meiosis 1
○ Prophase 1
■ Chromosomes move away
■ Spindle fibers form nucleus disintegrates
○ Metaphase 1
■ Chromosomes line up at the middle (metaphase plate)
○ Anaphase 1
■ Homologous chromosomes separate and go to different poles of the cell
○ Telophase 1
■ 2 cells about to break apart
● Cleavage furrow down the middle
■ Each cell has haploid chromosome set
○ Cytokanisis 1
■ Cytoplasms divide
■ Results in 2 new cells
○ Prophase 2
■ Spindle fibers form and move chromosomes towards middle of cell
○ Metaphase 2
■ Chromosomes align at metaphase plate
○ Anaphase 2
■ Centromeres of sister chromatids separate and are pulled to opposite poles
of the cell
○ Telophase 2
■ Nuclei form at the cell poles
○ Cytokanisis 2
■ Cytoplasms split and this results in 4 haploid cells
● Meiosis ends with 4 haploid cells
● There are many possibilities of the chromosome araingment throughout meiosis
● The slightest change can affect a lot
● Missing a chromosome can result in catastrophic consequences
○ Down syndrome
○ Williams syndrome and much more
● Highly varied offspring from meiosis
● For any species the number of combinations figure, n=2 and you put that to the number
of chromosomes
○ In humans that would be 2 to the 23rd power
■ That's around 8 million different chromosome possibilities
Summary:
Meiosis is the process at which our sex cells divide
...
Unlike regular animal cells gametes have half the genetic information
...
This is so because when the two sex cells
come together, sperm and egg, they create one cell with full genetic information called a zygote
...
When meiosis happens there are lots of variations that can happen to change the outcome
...
● 9
...
2
■ Gregor Mendel was father of genetics
● Breaded peas
○ He chose to study peas because they had short generation time
○ He cross fertilized them and self fertilized them
○ And had many different distinct traits
■ Color of flower
■ Shape of pea
■ Size of pea
● Heritable features are called traits
○ Traits are phenotypic
● Two plants with different features came together to create a hybrid
○ A hybrid has some of the characteristics of each of the parents
● P generation was the first generation or the parent generation
● S1 generation was the offspring from the P gen plants
● S2 generation was offspring of S1 gen
● 9
...
3
○ In the true generation when one plant has one trait the dominant trait ALWAYS
shows even if it is a hybrid
...
○ Homozygous
■ Both alleles are the same
● Can either be dominant or recessive
○ Hetrozygous
■ Both the alleles are different
● Always dominant
○ But carries recessive gene
○ One trait is called an allele
■ Can either be dominant or recessive
○ Punnett square shows 4 possible allele combinations that could occur when the
gametes combine
○ Phenotype determines real characteristics that the gene actually codes for
○ Genotype is the actual genetic makeup
○ There are labeling bands on the chromosomes
■ Called locusts
● 9
...
6
○ The F2 generation DOES NOT FOLLOW THE PUNNETT SQUARE
■ Instead it has a 4 by 4 chart with 14
■ More possibilities
■ Called mendel's law of independent assortment
...
■ Testcross
● To identify whether an organism exhibiting a dominant trait is
homozygous or heterozygous for a specific allele, a scientist can
perform a testcross
...
● 9
...
8
○ In a punnet square you have a ¼ chance of getting each outcome
■ This discludes if there are any of the same outcome
○ The F1 gen has a ¼ chance of getting each trait
○ Mendel's laws apply to most organisms
■ That go through sexual reproduction
○ a pedigree is a diagram showing genetic relationships between members of a
family
...
■ Using mendel's laws you can analyze pedigrees
● Hardy-Weinberg
○ Trying to calculate the frequency of an allele in a population
■ It is (dominant or recessive) over the number of total alleles in the gene
pool
● Calculating the number of times a certain allele will show up X
number of times is just the fraction from before times itself X
times
...
When you get that amount you have to double
it
...
It's the
dominant frequency squared
...
2 times the frequency of the
dominant times the recessive
...
It's the recessive
frequency squared
...
10
○ There are new technologies that are showing us things that we didn't know before
about variation in the body
■ People are trying to figure out why it happens
● Such as using an ultrasound
■ Sometimes using these methods can harm the wellbeing and safety of
mother
■ They can check the genes of the baby even before it is born
● 9
...
12
○ Variations of mendel's laws
■ Complete dominance (normal)
● The dominant allele has the same phenotypic effect whether
present in one or two copies
...
This results in a third phenotype in which the
expressed physical trait is a combination of the phenotypes of both
alleles
...
This results in offspring
with a phenotype that is neither dominant nor recessive
...
13-9
...
15-9
...
18-10
...
Bacterium exists in the mouth and
stomach to help digest
...
Viruses multiply very
quickly
...
22
● Bacteria can transfer DNA in 3 ways
○ Transformation
■ bacterial transformation the exchange of genetic material between
strains of bacteria by the transfer of a fragment of DNA donor
■ followed by recombination in the recipient chromosome
...
All three have the same central goal of passing DNA or
information from one cell to the next
...
1-16
...
8 16
...
● Some bacteria cause disease
Summary:
Prokaryotes are simple cells
...
They
have cell walls and a nucleoid (were their DNA is)
...
There are many prokaryotes
...
These microorganisms thrive in certain specific environments
...
● Natural selection
○
the process whereby organisms better adapted to their environment tend to
survive and produce more offspring
...
○ Frequency of alleles will be more stable in bigger population
■ Bottleneck effect
● A drastic reduction in population size
■ Founder effect
● When a few individuals colonize a new environment or habitat
...
●
Stabilizing selection
○
●
When the regular trait are favored over the extreme traits
Directional selection
○
When the adaptations go to one extreme of the other
Summary:
Evolution was a process that existed long before Darwin's time
...
On a trip to the Galapagos islands
he saw that there were many different types of finches and tortoises on different environments of
the island
...
Using this theory he applied it to other species
...
This theory has been widely accepted by
scientists
...
4-13
...
● When organism die they settle along with the sediments in the rock
● Over millions of years the mud and dirt is compressed into rock
● Each level of the sedimentary rock is called a strata
○ The younger more recent fossils are towards the top while
larger fossils are on deeper levels of the strata
■ People can use fossils to track the gradual change in organisms such as
gradual modification of jaw and teeth
○ Biogeography
■ Darwin suggested that organisms evolve from ancestral species
...
○ He concluded that the Galapagos species evolved from
animals that migrated from South America
■ These immigrants eventually became a new species
○ Comparative anatomy
■ Similarity in characteristics between species gives signs of common
descent
...
● They can compare DNA sequences to see how similar the two
strands are
● This is helpful when the two species may not have characteristics
in common
○ Trees
■ Darwin was the first to represent ancestry as a tree
■ The tree has a common ancestor and works its way down
■ Each branch is a new species
Summary:
All animals are related
...
The reason that different animals evolved was so that they could adapt and fit their
environment better such as thick fur for polar bears and shells to help protect turtles
...
The
use of fossils is very common to try to understand an organism's past
...