Notesale: Turn your study into money

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Wednesday, 21 June 2017

Government & Politics 3C Revision Booklet
Elections, parties, pressure groups and racial politics
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To do so, familiarise yourself with the following table, outlining the various assessment
objectives and their weight on the total mark
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You are only given 15 minutes to nail this
question so it is important to address the question immediately
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- To follow on from this, because synoptic evaluations are not rewarded, there is
often little need to provide a balanced response employing multiple viewpoints
unless it is worded in the question (This will be in the form of some variation of
a ’To what extent’ prefix, so make sure to look out for these)
- Try to squeeze out 3 or 4 solid points with relevant, recent examples
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This is
important because it will help keep you on track, and will also provide legitimacy
to synoptic points, by clearly tying them to your answer
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Why is the question relevant in today’s America, or not? What’s your line
of argument? Set out your argument so from the get-go the examiner
knows how your thinking
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What the hell is that?
§ Finesse is all about linking your topic to multiple niche sections of
the course, showing that you have a breadth of knowledge across
the entire syllabus and you’re not just a keeno learning the entire
syllabus cover to cover
§ The best way to do this, is to read the news daily
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Finally, to practice make sure to do plenty of past paper questions
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ELECTIONS AND VOTING
The first major topic in the syllabus is elections
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As a result, elections are seen as a crucial way to stop any group or individual
from becoming politically dominant and seizing control for extended periods of time
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Electoral system
The American electoral system reflects the federalist nature of American where power
is shared between both state and federal governments
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In all of these elections a first-past-the-post electoral
system is used in which a simple majority is required for the winner
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The main
purpose of this chamber is to legislate and represent, with each representative elected
from a different district
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Each state
receives two senators regardless of size
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They also work as a practical check on the
House and on the executive
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The presidential election is designed to provide
a compromise in which the presidential office embodies the national will of America,
while also ensuring that federal America and interests of smaller states are protected
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However, the
Electoral College is an archaic and arcane part of the constitution which is often called
upon to be removed (this will come up later in the course)
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The first official stage of the process
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This takes officially place between
January and June of election year, but the invisible primary (where presidents like to get
a head-start) can begin much earlier
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The first few primaries are often considered to be the most important, as they can give
a nominee a perceived level of popularity, swinging downstream voters in their favour
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There are a number of different types of primary elections, such as open or closed
primaries, as well as caucuses
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Open
primaries favour candidates with money and a high media profile, but also encourages

Wednesday, 21 June 2017

more moderate voters, which can help to cancel out the extreme candidates
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A closed primary is one where only voters who have declared an affiliation to either
the Democrat or Republican party can vote in that primary
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A caucus is a state-based series of meetings between key party members and
supporters, in order to select a party’s candidate for the presidency
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The problem with caucuses is that voting is done physically and each member is
exposed as they vote
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On the flip side it does encourage greater political awareness of the electorate in
order to utilise this tactic
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Invisible primary
2
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National convention
4
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Election day
Some of the advantages that this system brings include: democracy, electoral
preparation, and policy debate
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The fact that presidents must visit a range of ideologically
different states forces them to campaign nationally and reach out to a number of
different groups
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The system also provides a testing ground for candidates to iron out political campaigns
and establish a network of grassroots support
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The primary also narrows the field and eliminates candidates who do
not sufficient political stamina
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The process also allows for rival policies to be discussed and debated
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In recent elections,
the debate part of the nomination process has increasingly become a focus point, with
candidates using their speaking and debating skills to gain attention on social media and
news networks
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What are the disadvantages of the nomination process?
There are also several disadvantages, including: undemocratic aspects, undermines party
control, frontloading, financial focus
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Turnout at
primaries is often below 10%
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This is
shown by the relative success of Ron Paul in both 2008 and 2012 who was a libertarian
Republican
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This
was recently seen by the efforts of Democrat activists in Michigan to push fellow
Democrats into voting for Rick Santorum in the 2012 Republican primary
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Candidates may be
based on personal qualities and skills rather than presidential qualities, such as Trump
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The Primaries are
compressed as states at the beginning of the ‘race’ are crucial to ‘make-or-break’ a
presidential campaign
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Michele Bachmann withdrew in 2012 after she came 6th in
the Iowa Caucus showing the importance of early success
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The invisible primary, the
space of time before the primaries actually
start, is used by nominees to try and raise as
much money as possible, in order to boost
their campaigns
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5bn
was raised by candidates themselves, showing
the immense volume of financial weighting
circulating the election
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This is where the parties battle it out to
seek success in the final election
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National party conventions
The role of the national party convention (NPC)is to formally select the presidential
nominee through a voting system of pledged ‘delegates’ and unpledged
‘superdelegates’
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- Conventions are nothing more than a ‘rubber stamp’ especially given that the
party candidate is known in advance
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Conventions
rarely discuss controversial policy as this could fragment the party, as seen in the
1996 Republican convention over arguments about abortion
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A handful of traditional roles do remain useful at NPCs however:
- Conventions can help to heal party wounds as seen by Hillary Clinton’s speeches
in the 2008 Democrat party convention
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It can help to revitalise political activism
and participation to ‘lock in’ voters
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In the last election we can see Trump utilising shock tactics to seek the attention
of media, securing hours of free air-time in order to boost his exposure to those who
may be politically dormant
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It is also rare for campaigns to turn
on the results of presidential debates
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Presidential debates
can be important in encouraging the turnout of voters, both passive and active
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Candidates must
win a majority of Electoral College votes, a system set up by the Founding Fathers as a
safeguard against ‘popular passion’
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Smaller states are overrepresented as they have three electors
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They must address all states and demographics in order to
solidify their election chances
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If
California were represented on an equal scale to Wyoming it would have 205 rather
than 55 electors
- Swing states dominate the election
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Thus the elections of 2000 and 2004 hinged on
the result in Florida and Ohio respectively
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- Minor party failure
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Perot didn’t
win any electoral college votes despite polling 18
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Usually the incumbent (the current congressional member) has the most
chance of being elected, and the incumbency re-election rate is often over 90%
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This is where political boundaries are
redrawn to gain an advantage in elections by
isolating non-incumbent voters
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I
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in a
Republican state, they would be drawn up to isolate
Democrat voters
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In 2012, incumbents raised $1
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Incumbents have
specific name recognition, and can use their success of attaining ‘pork’ for their
constituents as persuasion for votes
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This is attractive to voters
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The
incumbent president typically loses seats in congress, apart from the following
exceptions:
- 1994 Republican Revolution in which Republicans gained 54 in the House and 8 in
the Senate
- 2002 midterm elections were 14 months after 9/11 and saw a ten seat gain for
Bush’s party following his reaction to 9/11 and the need for unity in congress
- 2006 Democrats swept to victory by taking control of both houses

So that wraps up the elections topic
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However, this topic is founded on
history and culture so it is important to familiarise yourself with basic political principles
within the USA
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The first issue to take into account in this topic is the extent to which US political
parties have become more ideologically divided in their values
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The second issue to take into account is whether there is a decline or increase in party
power
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Thirdly, it is important to consider the shift of traditional voter bases in each party
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Finally, it is important to look at 3rd parties and consider the factors which have limited
the success of minor parties
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Historical context
For most of America’s history, parties were as loose coalitions serving and protecting
the interests
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White supporters in the southern state who rejected the Republican party because of
its role in the civil role and the Republican support for abolition of slavery
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Republicans
Since the Republican resurgence in the 1994 midterms (where the Republicans gained
54 house seats and 8 Senate seats) the Republican party has moved towards the right
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Her decision was driven by
the ‘atmosphere of polarisation’ which now drives congress into combat
Democrats
The Democrats, have adopted a more liberal agenda and policy position on many
economic and social issue such as government and militaristic intervention as well as
same sex marriage
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Obama proposed tax rises on rich individuals in
his 2014 Budget Proposal
- Following massacres in Aurora and Newtown the Democrat party has led the
way in seeking out gun-control legislation
However, with a complex society and
changing atmosphere in American politics,
it is often difficult to pinpoint a specific
‘centre point’ for a party’s ideology
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We will first look at the Republican
factions
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They seek free market economies, minimalist government (regarding economy) and a
balanced federal budget
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Leading members include:
- Paul Ryan, speaker of the house is in favour of cutting spending and balancing the
budget
- Rand Paul is a senator who proposed a bill to cut $500 billion from the federal
budget
Social conservatives:
They are often considered to be the ‘religious right’ of the Republican party
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These include opposition to abortion, as well as
same-sex marriage and stem cell research
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Some leaders in this faction include:
- Rick Santorum stated his support for a constitutional ban on same-sex marriage
- Tom Coburn held one of the most conservative voting records in the 112th
Congress including strong opposition to abortion and same-sex marriage
Moderates:
Republican moderates tend to adopt more central views towards many aspects of
social and fiscal policy
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Some notable leaders include:
- Susan Collins has given support to legalised abortions and gay rights and showed
support to repeal the ‘Don’t ask don’t tell’ policy
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Democrat party faction
Liberal Activists:
This faction consists of a broad range of members who are committed to a progressive
agenda
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They protect the interests of ethnic minorities, and support abortion and gay-marriage
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- President Barack Obama was reported as being the most liberal senator of 2007,
when he served in the Senate
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Moderates adopted a pragmatic approach to policy development,
appealing to conservative and progressive elements of the Democrat party
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Conservative
Democrats are in favour of reducing taxes and adopting a conservative approach to
social policies, more compliant with Christian values
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Party Decline… or Renewal?
A stock favourite question for the political parties topic is party power
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The divisive and
confrontational nature of the primaries encourages inter-party rivalry as seen by
Clinton and Obama during the 2008 primaries
- Limitation of funding – Limits on fundraising and expenditure have been
exercised by recent campaign finance reform
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This arguably limits
party control and places more onus on the candidate to seek financial support
- Pressure groups – Pressure groups have played a large role in reducing party
control and power in recent elections
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Evidence that supports party renewal
- Control of the nomination process – Parties have attempted to introduce Super
delegates as a means of increasing party control, however they are often
speculated to provide a very minimal impact, apart from exceptions such as the
2008 Democratic presidential primary race
- Party structure and leadership – Parties have developed national party structures
and have strengthened them since the 1970s
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- Fundraising involvement – Although large funds can be obtained through
independent means alone, the party still plays a role in assisting the election of
certain candidates
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The House Speaker is enjoying a much more powerful role seen by individuals such
as Boehner who conducted a ‘purge’ to remove Republicans from committee posts
who opposed his position on the fiscal cliff
Ethnic Voting Blocs
The next section to cover is the different blocs which support each specific party
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Furthermore, this knowledge will flow into other topics, making it much easier to
understand the network of political campaigns across American demographics
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Republican Support
- High income business professionals (+$100,000) 33% - This is because
republican conservative groups have always benefitted business
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- White Voters 70% - Whites tend to prefer the Republican position on social
policies, there is a support for stricter rulings on immigration and an opposition
of relaxed affirmative action laws from the Democrat party
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- Protestant Christians 58% - This is because of Republican support of ‘traditional
moral values’ which includes the GOP opposition to abortion and same-sex
marriage
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Fair Minimum Wage Act 2007 helped to
raise the federal minimum wage to $7
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- Gay and Lesbian 77% - Democrats have a more liberal stance on social policies,
and are committee to gay rights
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On the other
hand, Democrats have offered a relaxation in citizenship legislation, promising to
make the path to citizenship simpler for undocumented immigrants
- African Americans 89% - Historically this group has made up one of the most
loyal voter bases, with number typically around 90%
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Unlike other
countries, third parties get very little exposure and are incredibly unlikely to gain
significant support, even if they may seem nationally popular
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In 1992 Ross Perot gained 19% of the national vote and did
not receive a single electoral college vote
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- Limited Funding – Federal Matching Funds can be a useful tool for major parties,
boosting their initial funding to help with advertisement and campaign costs
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This makes it almost
impossible for a third party to receive full funding assistance
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This is much more
difficult for third parties because they
are often excluded from TV debates
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They are often at
the heart of the debate, rallying up passionate individuals and providing the
organised platform to make a change in the seemingly hostile environment of a
polarised congress
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Pressure groups act to fill the gap of niche and controversial issues that
may be overlooked by politicians
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Why is America such a favourable environment for pressure groups?
- There are a number of access points both at the state and federal level, which
makes it much easier for pressure groups to find sympathy at some point in the
system
- Government is expanding, and with this expansion cover control over business
there have been a number of groups which have tried to counter-act this by
protecting the interests of workers and consumers alike
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As people begin to move away from the traditional political channels, they begin
to seek pressure groups as their primary point for political activism
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What methods do pressure groups use?
Pressure groups have a number of different potential methods at their disposal in order
to seek political success
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Electioneering
This is a vast method spanning into multiple different sub-methods which pressure
groups can use to achieve political success
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The first, and
most common way this can be done is through funding
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Pressure groups
can take advantage of the constant need for funding to shift the policy position of
candidates
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There are three key groups which
do this: 527 groups, PACs and Super PACs
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527 groups then began to appear
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Although they have
been eclipsed by the more powerful Super PAC, they still play a key role in voter
mobilisation
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PACs are the more traditional funding group
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The Federal Election Campaign Act 1974 (FECA) limited campaign donations
directly to candidates, and so the PAC was formed, a way to circumvent this limiting
legislation
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But the
combined power of PAC funding can prove potent
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7m through its PAC
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The final group is the Super PAC
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Super PACs can raise
unlimited amounts of money, although they must publicly disclose their finances, and
cannot coordinate with candidates or parties directly
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Lobbying
Lobbying is also used by Pressure groups as a means to affect lawmakers and gain
influence with those already in power
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Lobbying often sees peak involvement around controversial policy formation such as
the 2010 push for Healthcare reform during the Obama presidency
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3bn was spent in order to lobby Congress regarding the Affordable Care Act
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However grassroots activism has often been criticised when pressure
groups attempt to organise it because it is often described as ‘Astroturfing’
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Ballot Initiatives
The federal nature of the Untied States creates another key access point which
pressure groups can use to achieve success: initiatives and propositions
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In 2012 EqualityMaine
collected 85,000 signatures in order to get a question regarding same-sex marriage on the
ballot
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With 535 members of congress, there are plenty of potential access points
for pressure groups to seeks sympathy
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Notably:
- Bicameral houses – this means that pressure groups can use both the House or
the Senate to equal effect (in theory) as they have the same legislative powers
- Divided government – Different parties and factions give the chance of finding
sympathy and support regardless of which party has a majority
- Committee system – Another level of legislative scrutiny which can be influenced
are the committees, which have the ability to ‘shape’ legislative
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They have the ability to influence foreign policy which can be of interest to
interest groups based on war issues or foreign affairs
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Another important aspect of the Senate is its appointment approval power
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Pressure groups have locked onto the senate in order to apply pressure against
nominations such as Robert Bork in 1987 who faced a wave of liberal activism against his
nomination
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This can be
important when Pressure groups are targeting individual senators, as it means they have
more personal influence (in combination with lower senate numbers) than each
Representative in the House
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Executive
Pressure groups may also seek to influence the
president as they hold the power to se the national
legislative agenda
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The federal bureaucracy is also a key target
for pressure groups as they are able to shape policy
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Judiciary
Finally, a pressure group may target the judiciary in order to seek influence
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One major way for a pressure group to
influence the court is through litigation
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Amicus
curiae briefs can also be submitted by pressure groups to support a viewpoint in
landmark cases
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Pressure group power… is it good or bad?
Pressure groups are undoubtedly a powerful force in American politics with their ability
to influence a number of issues, but many critics of pressure groups argue that they
concentrate power and undermine democracy, while others argue that they are a point
of participation for many who would typically not be involved in politics
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o They are limited by the Federal Election Campaigns Act 1974
§ Sets individual donation limits
o They are limited by the Bipartisan Campaign Reform Act 2002
§ Tightened restrictions from FECA by regulating soft money and
introducing advertisement restrictions
o They are limited by the Lobbying Disclosure Act 1995
§ Widened requirements for lobbyists to register their activities and
preventing the giving of gifts
o They are limited by the Honest Leadership and Open Government Act 2007
§ Attempted to reduce the effect of the revolving door by
introducing a ‘cool-off’ period after leaving office, whilst also
tightening the requirements for activity disclosure when lobbying
- Protection of minority groups and niche interests
o Civil rights groups such as the NAACP have enjoyed success and
representation through pressure group activity
§ Shown by the passage of the Voting Rights and Civil Rights Act
o Liberties groups also enjoy litigation involvement
§ American Civil Liberties Union successfully supported the 2013 Windsor
v US case which extended constitutional rights to lesbian and gay
marriage

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Arguments which oppose pressure group activity
- Revolving door syndrome
o The movement of personnel between congress and the lobby is seen to
disrupt democracy as it has the appearance of corruption in the eyes of
the public
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§ John Ashcroft served 6 years in the senate before setting up the
Ashcroft Group and using his contacts to secure a multibillion-dollar
acquisition contract for Oracle with the Department of Justice
- Iron Triangles
o An iron triangle is a political agreement between Congress, the Federal
Bureaucracy and a pressure group
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§ The Military industrial complex is a strong relationship between the
Defence Department, Congressional armed forces committees and
weapons manufacturers
• The MIC blocked attempts to save $2
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- Regulatory Capture
o Close relations between regulatory agencies and pressure groups that are
supposed to oversee them can lead to a lack of scrutiny, and perceived
corruption
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America has embittered history of slavery and racial imbalance that has
bled through to modern society, bringing social and cultural baggage with it
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The
founding fathers based a lot of their constitutional formation upon this principle, and
stands to be a core value of the American political system
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For many liberal commentators the product of this history and racial discrimination is
the continuing existence of institutional racism
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Before delving into the modern day implications of ethnicity, it is important to have a
solid understanding of the history of racial inequality in America, in order to better
understand the current situation
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Slaves were originally counted as three-fifths of a person in the
apportionment of seats to the House of Representatives and the Electoral College
which resulted in slave-owning sates (in the south) being over-represented due to their
slave-boosted population
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America went to war over slavery in the American Civil War, and finally the 13th
amendment banned slavery, in theory, but did not lead to the end of racial
discrimination
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This was constitutionally entrenched by the 1896 Plessy v Ferguson case in
which the court ruled in favour of ‘separate but equal’ facilities
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Civil rights movements swept across America in the 1950s
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Rosa Parks also spurred civil rights activists with her
refusal to vacate her seat, giving birth to the Civil Rights movement
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Equality today
There is still debate in today’s America as to race should still require government
involvement, or whether society has abolished racism on its own accord
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2% and Latino for 16
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5% of the House and 3% of the Senate is black
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8% of the House is
Latino and 4% of the Senate
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Liberals would also argue that the political inequalities are
compounded by social problems such as:
- A ‘glass ceiling’ for educational attainment for minority students
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- Racialized anti-crime political appeals
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This promotes the ‘cloud of suspicion’ attached to
ethnic minorities and promotes a racist society
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8% of Fortune 500 CEOs are White males
- 2013 study found that the wealth gap between white and African Americans
had grown to $236,500
- Recent unemployment rates stood at 6
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8% for blacks

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On the flipside of the argument, Conservatives would argue that race is no longer an
issue in America, and would even point to the success of other minority groups such as
Asian Americans who are considered to be ‘model minorities’
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4% Latinos and 66
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For example, the Texan Ten Percent Plan guarantees students who graduate in the
top 10% of their school class automatic admission to all state-funded universities
Evidence of Economic achievement:
- Minority buying power has increased significantly in the last decade, with the
Latino market accounting for $1
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This topic is closely tied into the Supreme Court, as it involves may court cases (so it is
important to learn them and their significance)
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Since the Civil Rights Act 1964 and Voting Rights Act 1965, Americans have argued
that the USA established a clear and legal framework for equality of opportunity but the
focus soon shifted to equality of outcome
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A series of
policies were created which became known as ‘affirmative action’
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A number of
court cases have limited Affirmative Action such as:
- University of California v Bakke 1978 – accepted that race could be considered in
an application but could not directly disadvantage non-minority candidates
- Gratz v Bollinger 2003 – Declared the University of Michigan’s racial quota
unconstitutional as it was ‘too mechanistic as it gave minority candidates a near
15% advantage
- Grutter v Bollinger 2003 – ruled that the University of Michigan’s Law School
admission programme was constitutional as it used an ‘individualised’ affirmative
action programme
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Conservatives suggest that the
system does not benefit the recipients in the long run and does not address the core
issue of inequality (which many Conservatives would dispel)
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It also creates a colour-blind society in which minorities are
condescended and insulted by the notion that they are inherently inferior or
disadvantaged
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Rand Paul, Republican Senator
supports the repeal of all measures of affirmative action, stating that companies should
be free to choose employees without restrictions
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Simply Affirmative Action ensures diversity
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This can provide a multitude of social benefits for employees and students working and
learning in diverse environments
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A more
diverse society will also help to break down racial stereotypes as affirmative action gives
minorities more of a stage to present their talent and expose their capability
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Nancy Pelosi was vocal in
her support for Affirmative Action, as was Barack Obama throughout his presidency
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Grutter v Bollinger 2003 showed that quotas are
unconstitutional and many are looking towards a gender/race blind
application process to ensure fair consideration
o Jeb Bush abolished affirmative action in 1999 in the One Florida initiative,
which actually led to an increase in Latino enrolment
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Therefore, a
system should be set up to benefit all races who suffer financially to
support themselves through education or employment
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While this is an extreme theory on
paper, practical applications this have proved positive
§ The Texan Ten Percent Plan ensures that minority students are not
competing with students from schools which are better funded and
since its inclusion admission of Latinos to Texas universities has
risen by 12%
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It urges the federal government to undertake a
thorough review which will lead to financial compensation to descendants
of African slavery
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With countries such as Greece, Turkey, Germany, America
and now the UK taking serious immigration reform into consideration it is clearly an
important issue
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Groups such as the National Council of La Raza have called for a path to citizenship for
over 11 million current undocumented immigrants in the USA
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All the while,
Conservatives continue to call for border control with tighter immigration laws
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The partisan nature of this debate is shown by the fact that
the Obama administration has taken no action against sanctuary states which refuse to
cooperate with the federal government on immigration matters, and it is likely that
these cities will be fiercely targeted by the Trump administration as a part of his
immigration reforms
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The Latino voting bloc is quickly becoming one of the biggest minority groups,
and their concentration in many border and western states has ameliorated their voter
affect, giving their cooperative votes more of a political impact

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