Search for notes by fellow students, in your own course and all over the country.
Browse our notes for titles which look like what you need, you can preview any of the notes via a sample of the contents. After you're happy these are the notes you're after simply pop them into your shopping cart.
Document Preview
Extracts from the notes are below, to see the PDF you'll receive please use the links above
9/8/2012
(B) Biological molecules
(B)
Biological Molecules
Chapter 2
Ch t 2
Content
• Structure of carbohydrates, lipids and proteins
and their roles in living organisms
• Water and living organisms
d li i
i
AICE Biology
Learning Outcomes
(a) [PA] carry out tests for reducing and non‐reducing sugars (including using
colour standards as a semi‐quantitative use of the Benedict’s test), the
iodine in potassium iodide solution test for starch, the emulsion test for lipids
and the biuret test for proteins;
(b) describe the ring forms of α‐glucose and β‐glucose (candidates should be
familiar with the terms monomer, polymer and macromolecule);
(c) describe the formation and breakage of a glycosidic bond with reference both
to polysaccharides and to disaccharides including sucrose;
to polysaccharides and to disaccharides including sucrose;
(d) describe the molecular structure of polysaccharides including starch
(amylose and amylopectin), glycogen and cellulose and relate these
structures to their functions in living organisms;
(e) describe the molecular structure of a triglyceride and a phospholipid and
relate these structures to their functions in living organisms;
(f) describe the structure of an amino acid and the formation and breakage of a
peptide bond;
Molecular Biology
• Study of structure & function of bio
...
A haemoglobin molecule is
composed of 2 alpha (α) chains and 2 beta (β) chains, although when
describing the chains the terms α‐globin and β‐globin may be used
...
Four most common elements in living
organisms:
• Hydrogen:
– Hydrocarbons will have more H than C
• Carbon:
– Basis of organic chemistry
– Remarkable ability to form ring and other structures
Remarkable ability to form ring and other structures
• Oxygen:
– Atmospheric and water
• Nitrogen:
– proteins
1
9/8/2012
Biological Molecules
• Formed from smaller organic molecules
(polymers) bonded together to form larger
molecules
– Repeating subunits bonded together end to end;
p
g
g
;
like beads/pearls on a string
• These larger molecules (macromolecules) may
be composed of thousands of atoms
– Polysaccharides, proteins (polypeptides) and
nucleic acids (polynucleotides)
– Process called polymerisation
Carbohydrates
• Sugar & starch
• All contain carbon
• General formula: Cx(H20)y
Polymers
• Three of the four classes of
macromolecules form chainlike
molecules called polymers
– carbohydrates, proteins, and nucleic acids
• Polymers consist of many similar or
identical building blocks linked by
covalent bonds
...
This type of rxn is called a condensation reaction
...
Glucose monomer
Sucrose
2 glucose
Maltose
Condensation Reaction
Functions of
Monosaccharides & Disaccharides
• Good sources of energy in living organisms
• Used to make ATP
• Soluble in water, so they are the form in which
carbohydrates are transported through an
b h d
d h
h
organism’s body
– process requires
energy and is aided
by enzymes
– Removes water molecule
– One monomer provides
a hydroxyl group and
the other provides a
hydrogen
Hydrolysis Reaction
Process of breaking a polymer with water
– Reverse of condensation rxn
– As the glycosidic bond is broken a hydrogen atom
and hydroxyl group from a split water molecule
attaches where the glycosidic bond used to be
– Hydrolysis reactions
Hydrolysis reactions
dominate the
digestive process,
guided by specific
enzymes
Functions of
Monosaccharides & Disaccharides
• All monosaccharides and some disaccharides act as
reducing agents and will reduce blue Benedict’s
solution to produce an orange‐red precipitate
– They are called reducing sugars
...
– Animals: glucose trans
...
in phloem sap
(Jones, 2010)
4
9/8/2012
Polysaccharides
Glycogen
• Substances whose molecules are made up of
hundreds or thousands of monosaccharides
linked in long chains
– Due to large size majority don’t dissolve in H20
Due to large size, majority don t dissolve in H
– This makes them good for storing energy (starch
and glycogen) or forming strong structures
(cellulose)
...
bonds on chain
Amylopectin
• Highly branched with side chains, similar to
glycogen
– About every 13th unit, short side chain
attached by glycosidic bond to #6 C (above
ring)
(Kimball, 2004)
Plants convert excess
glucose into starch for
storage
Cellulose
• Most abundant organic molecule
• Major component of plant cell walls
– Uses β glucose 1‐4 linkages
• Many glucose molecules linked by glycosidic bonds
– Cellulose difficult to digest
• Few organisms have an enzyme that can break β 1‐4
glycosidic bonds, therefore it passes through the intestine
– Many microbes can digest cellulose
• Herbivores (cows and termites) have symbiotic relationships
with these microbes and can digest cellulose
Cellulose
• Notice β glucose 1‐4
• Adjacent glucose molecules
in chain are upside‐down in
relation to one another
• Straight chain rather than
Straight chain rather than
spiral
• Forms bundles called
microfibrils
– Very strong
– Excellent for cell walls
– Won’t break when plant cell
swells with water
5
9/8/2012
The arrangement of cellulose in plant cell walls
Tests for Carbohydrates
• Reducing sugar
– Benedict’s reagent and heat
– Orange precipitate indicates the presence
of reducing sugar
• Non‐reducing sugar
– Test done on solutions known not to
contain reducing sugars
– Hydrolyze by heating with dilute HCl, then
neutralize with sodium hydrogen carbonate,
then carry out the test for reducing sugar
• Starch
– Use iodine in potassium iodide solution
– Blue‐black color indicates the presence of starch
Lipids
• Contain Carbon, hydrogen and oxygen
• Triglycerides and phospholipids
– All insoluble in water
• Excellent energy reserves
Triglycerides
• Most common: Triglycerides
– Three fatty acid molecules (hydrocarbons)
with one glycerol molecule
– Each fatty acid is joined to glycerol by an
ester bond
– Joined by condensation reaction
6
9/8/2012
Triglycerides
• saturated fatty acids have a high melting point and
tend to be found in warm‐blooded animals
...
g
...
– Hydrocarbon with both single and double bonds
– At room temperature they are liquids (oils), e
...
fish oil,
vegetable oils
• Used for storage, insulation and protection in fatty tissue
(adipose tissue) found under the skin (sub‐cutaneous) or
surrounding organs
– Cells in adipose tissue contain oil droplets made of triglycerides
– Protects against heat loss
– Low density tissue‐ increases buoyancy; ie
...
• Decant the ethanol into water
• A milky emulsion indicates the presence of
ilk
l i i di
h
f
lipid
Proteins: Amino Acids
• Proteins are large molecules made
of long chains of amino acids
R group: represents a
• 20 different amino acids
range of different groups
Each has:
Amine
group
– Amine group
Amine group
– Carboxyl group
– A variable R group (side chain)
Carboxyl
group
Central
Carbon
• The R group determines the
characteristics of the amino acid
– All are attached to a central carbon
7
9/8/2012
Amino Acids
Amino Acids
• Two amino acids can link together
• Dipeptide can be broken with hydrolysis
reaction
– Condensation reaction
– Forms a dipeptide
– Bond is called a peptide bond
Bond is called a peptide bond
– Bond breaks by adding water molecule
Structure of Protein Molecules
Codon Table
• Amino acids are linked together in long
chains called polypeptides
– May form from a protein molecule on its own
or associate with other polypeptides to form a
protein molecule
protein molecule
• Sequence
– called primary structure
– 3 letters = first 3 letters of amino acid
Val
Leu
Ser
Pro
Ala
Asp
Val
Lys
Thr
– Val is valine, Leu is leucine
• Chain of amino acids
often folds or curls to
form a 3D shape
• Secondary structure
Proteins continued
Beta‐
– Alpha helix
– Held together by hydrogen
bonds
• Tertiary
y
– Held together by hydrogen
bonds as well as
• Ionic bonds
• Disulfide bonds
• Hydrophobic interactions
Beta‐
– Globular structure
• Quaternary
– Same bonds as tertiary
8
9/8/2012
Globular and fibrous proteins
• Globular
– Spherical 3D shape
– Hemoglobin, insulin, enzymes
– Often soluble in water
• Fibrous
– Molecules do not curl up into a ball
– Long thin molecules, lie side by side to form fibres
• Keratin (hair) and collagen (skin, bone)
– Not soluble in water
• Collagen
– fibrous protein of three polypeptides super‐coiled
like a rope
...
• Hemoglobin
– globular protein
composed of
2 alpha (α) chains
and 2 beta (β)
chains
Quartnary Structure
Haemoglobin, the oxygen‐carrying protein in red blood cells, consists of four
globular subunits arranged in a tetrahedral (pyramid) structure
...
Immunoglobulins, the proteins that make antibodies, comprise four
polypeptide chains arranged in a Y‐shape
...
This shape allows antibodies to link antigens together,
bridges
...
Actin, one of the proteins found in muscles, consists of many globular
subunits arranged in a double helix to form long filaments
...
These form part of the cytoskeleton, and make cilia and
• Bonds involved in structure of proteins
flagella move
...
• Purple color indicates presence of a protein
9
9/8/2012
Water
• About 80% of an organism’s body
is water
• Molecule
– Slightly negative
dipole
– Slightly positive
Slightly positive
– Hydrogen bonds between
molecules
• Universal solvent
– Dipoles make it an excellent solvent
• Transport medium
Water
Inorganic Ions
• Thermal properties
– Liquid at normal temp
– High latent heat of evaporation
• Kinetic energy
Kinetic energy
– Specific heat capacity
• A lot of heat energy is needed to raise temp of water
– Freezes from top down
• Density & freezing properties
• High surface tension and cohesion
(Jones, 2010)
Resources
Farlex, INC, (2009)
...
Retrieved September 11, 2009, from Obesity Web site:
http://medical‐dictionary
...
com/Obesity
Gunin, (2009)
...
Retrieved September 7, 2009, from Cytology Web site:
http://www
...
chuvashia
...
htm
Kimball, J
...
Biology
...
rcn
...
ma
...
html#starches
Jones, M
...
Cambridge International A/AS‐ Level Revision Guide
...
Hodder
Education
...
, Fosbery, R
...
, & Gregory, J
...
AS Level and A Level Biology, 2nd ed
...
10