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CHAPTER ONE
INTRODUCTION
1
...
Unfortunately,
people depend mostly on roots/tubers, cereals, and animals for their nutritional value
...
, 2011)
...
The leaves are green with a characteristic odour
and a bitter taste
...
, 2012)
...
(Ikeh et al
...

Bitter leaf grows under a range of ecological zones (a humid environment) in Africa,
though it is a drought tolerant
...
, 2009)
...
2

Nutritional Values of Some Vegetables in Nigeria
Nutritional importance of vegetables cannot be neglected in our daily meals
...
Fresh bitter leaf is important food both from an economic, health and
nutritional point of view and vegetable of all types are valuable part of our diet
...
, 2011)
...
The high biological value
of vegetables depend on the pronounced content of the minerals compounds especially,
Calcium-Ca, Magnessium-Mg, Phosphorus-P and Iron-Fe (Jaworska and Kmiecik, 2009)
The nutritional values and mineral contents of some vegetables in Nigeria are shown in
Table 1 and 2 below;

Table 1: Nutritional Values of Some Vegetables (Mg/100g) in Nigeria
Samples

Ascorbic

Carbohydrat

Protein

Moisture Fiber

acid

e

Ocimum gratissium

189

3
...
4

32
...
5

Corchorous olitorus

170

27
...
2

27
...
2

Vernonia amygdalina

348

48
...
9

21
...
0

Solanum macrocarpon

340

6
...
6

85
...
6

Senecio biafrae

203

30

12
...
8

Celosia argentea

425

4
...
1

Amaranthus hybrids

408

7
...
6

86

1
...
8

5

93

1
...
6

5
...
5

2
...
9

4
...
7

Source: Ajiboye et al
...
Mineral Contents of Some Vegetables (Mg/100g) in Nigeria
Samples

Ca

K

Mg

Na

Fe

Ocimum gratissium

1
...
35

0
...
76

0
...
27

3
...
60

0
...
05

Vernonia amygdalina

2
...
76

0
...
04

0
...
43

5
...
93

4
...
07

Senecio biafrae

2
...
74

1
...
85

0
...
67

3
...
42

5
...
06

Amaranthus hybrids

2
...
83

2
...
85

0
...
45

6
...
23

0
...
44

Hisbiscus esculenta

2
...
75

1
...
35

0
...
46

0
...
18

0
...
74

Source: Ajiboye et al
...
0

Nutritional Values of Bitter Leaf

2
...
The general functions of nutrients include energy, building materials for
the structures and regulations, and control of body processes
...
The
carbohydrates and proteins present in the bitter leaf may be a conglomerate of bioactive
sugars, glycoproteins or proteins which gives its medicinal potency against certain
diseases (Ajiboye et al
...


2
...
1 Vitamins
Vitamins are essential nutrient because they build and maintain healthy bones and
muscles tissues
...
Vitamins are micro-nutrients, needed in small amounts to
sustain our normal health and body functions
...
1
...
The body uses protein mainly for
building and maintaining all its tissues
...

2
...
3 Carbohydrate
Carbohydrates are the energy given food which essentially needed in the body for
growth, repair and maintenance of a healthy body
...

4

2
...
4 Moisture Contents
Moisture generally refers to the presence of water however, the moisture content in
vegetables is indicative of its freshness as well as easy perishability (Adepoju and
Oyehran, 2008)
...
Proximate Nutrients Composition (Mg/100g) and (%) of Bitter Leaf
Proximate

Values

Author (s)

Composition
Moisture

66
...
0b,

79
...
, (2009),

76
...
09a,

Ejoh et al
...
7%b,

19
...
, (2015)a

1
...
28e

Udensi et al
...
, (2007)c, Fred et al
...
58a, 52
...
4c

Sodamade (2013)a, Agunbiade et al
...
, (2007)c

Crude Fibre

12
...
46b, 19
...
, (2015)a, Sodamade (2013)b
Eleyinmi et al
...
5a, 2
...
48c

Fred et al
...
, (2015)b, Sodamade, (2013)c

Fat/Lipids

9
...
7b

Sodamade (2013), Eleyinmi et al
...
0

Agunbiade et al
...
10

Agunbiade et al
...
5b

Udensi et al
...
,(2007)b

Source: 1
...
, 2015 (2) Ejoh et al
...
, 2008
(4) Fred et al
...
, 2002
5

In table 1 and 2 above, bitter leaf has been shown to contain significant quantities of
energy (Okeke et al
...
, 2015); moisture [Agunbiade,
et al
...
, (2009)]; protein (OKeke et al
...
, 2015) and (Ejoh et al
...
, 2015) and crude fibre (Aqunbiade et al
...
, 2008)
...
, 2008; Ash (Agunbiade et al
...
, 2009;
and Sodamade, 2013); and Ascorbic acid (Udensi et al
...
, 2007)
...
2

Mineral Content
The mineral content of any plant is dependent on the presence of such minerals in the soil
in which it is grown (Nelson et al
...
Soils lacking in individual minerals will
produce vegetables that are also deficient in that mineral
...


2
...
1 Calcium
Calcium is known to play a significant role in activates ATP during muscular contraction,
formation of bones and teeth structure, and helps in blood clothing and capillary
permeability (Heaney, 2009)
2
...
2 Phosphorus
Phosphorus is a mineral that makes up 1% of a person’s total weight
...
It is important for the

6

utilization of nutrients in the body in order to release energy inside the cells (Guerrero et
al
...
2
...
It is crucial to heart function and plays a key role in skeletal
and smooth muscle contraction, making it important for normal digestive and muscular
function
...

2
...
4 Magnesium
Magnesium is the fourth most abundant mineral in the body and is essential for good
health
...
Magnesium is an important mineral in
connection with circulatory diseases such as ischemic heart diseases (Ichida et al
...
2
...

2
...
6 Zinc
Zinc is an important trace mineral needed for good health
...
It is needed for the body defensive (immune) system for properly
work
...
It participates for carbohydrate,
protein and nucleic acid metabolism (Camara et al
...
2
...
The heamoglobin containing iron
also serves as buffer to regulate changes in blood pH (Kamshilov and Zaprudnova, 2009)
2
...
8 Copper
Copper is an essential trace element present in all body tissues
...
It plays a role in brain nerve
function
...
Copper aids in utilization of iron stores lipid, collagen,
pigment role in neutron transmitters synthesis
...
66a, 7
...
71c Echem et al
...
, (2007)b
2
...
, (2009)c, Sodamade, (2013)d

Lead – Pb

0
...
1b

Echem et al
...
123

Echem et al
...
09a, 2
...
13c

Echem Et al
...
, (2019)

Calcium – Ca

151
...
90b

Sodamade, (2013)a, Agunbiade et al
...
50a, 6155b

Agunbiade at al
...
, (2009)b

Potassium – K

418
...
5b

Agunbiade et al
...
90a, 96
...
, (2015)a, Sodamade, (2013)b

Sodium – Na

299
...
5b

Agunbiade et al
...
56a, 0
...
, (2015)a Sodamade, (2013)b

Source: (1) Agunbiade et al
...
, 2013 (3)
...
, 2017
(4) Fred et al
...
, 2015; Sodamade, 2013; and Fred et
al
...

2
...
Phytochemicals act as natural defense system
for the host plants and in addition provide colour, aroma and flavor
...

Phytochemicals can have profound physiological antioxidants, mimic body hormones and
suppress development of diseases in the body 9Hayes, 2005)
...


2
...
1 Flavonoids
Flavonoids are found in cell membranes, between aqueous and lipid bilayers
...
Flavonoids enhance the potency of vitamin C
(ascorbic acid) and function as antioxidants due to the ability to act as free radical
acceptor and to complex metal ions
...
Flavonoids protect the
body cells especially the tiny capillaries that carry oxygen and nutrients to slow down the

9

development of cataracts in diabetics (Ugwuona, 2014)
...

2
...
2 Oxalates
Oxalates are naturally occurring chemical substance found in a wide variety of
vegetables
...
, 2005)
...
3
...
, 1992)
...
This effect produces elevated cytosolic Ca2+ which strength the concentration of
the congestive heart muscle and thereby reducing congestive heart failure (Schneider and
wolfing, 2004)
...

2
...
4 Alkaloids
Alkaloids are a group of natural occurring chemical compounds that mostly contain basic
nitrogen atoms
...
g
...
g
...

2
...
5 Tannins
...
Tannins exhibit anti-microbial and antioxidant activities, increase
antioxidant activity, it prevent proliferation of cancer and help speed excretion of
carcinogen from the body (Ugfwuon, 2014)
...
19a, 0
...
, (2005)a
Okeke et al
...
92

Okeke et al
...
0a, 0
...
, (2015)a,
Okeke et al
...
38%

Okeke et al
...
10%

Okeke et al
...
18

Agunbiade et al
...
, 2015

(2)

Okeke et al
...
The presences of
flavonoids, oxalate, saponins, alkaloids, tannins and polyphenols have been reported
(Agunbiade et al
...
, 2015)
...

These phytochemicals present in bitter leaf may act singly, or synergistically to produce
the results for which the medicinal values of bitter leaf have been smartly examined and
reviewed
...
4

Medicinal Values of Bitter Leaf
Bitter leaf (Vernonia amygdalina Delite) is probably the most used medicinal plant in the
genius vernonia (Erasto etal…
...
The observation that apparently sick wild
chimpanzee chewed bitter leaf and seemed to return to normal activity after a while, by
(Huffman and Seifu, 1989) and (Ohigashi et al…, 1991) elicited the attention of the
phytomedicine community such that dozens of studies have been done since then to test
efficiency of different extracts of the plant in managing a wide array of medical ailments
...
Others use it as a digestive tonic,
appetizer, febrifuge stomach and gastrointestinal problems, and for the tropical treatment
of wounds (Iwu, 1986)
With its rich nutrition and phytochemicals, bitter leaf is one of the most powerful
medicinal plants
...


Reduce Fever
Bitter leaf contains an antiseptic that is very effective to reduce the heat inside the body
...
Boil dried bitter leaf and dried turmeric tuber with water, add honey and
drink 3 times daily

2
...
Andrographolide bitter extract shows activity in particular
substances that are effective in preventing liver disease, improve the immune system, anti
– cancer, etc
...
, 2005)
...

3

Anti-Malaria:
Malaria is a disease caused by the parasite plasmodium
...
Boil bitter leaf with water and drink 3
times daily
...


Treatment of Skin Diseases (Eczema and Ringworm)
Bitter leaf contains antibiotics and antifungal properties
...
It aids quicken cure of eczema and ringworm
...


Cure to Stomach Ache: Chewing the tender stem and swallowing the juice, cure
stomach ache
...


6
...
Repeat this procedure for 3
days to get cure from cough
...


Prevent Diabetes: Bitter leaf reduces the raised blood sugar levels
...


8
...
You may add honey to it if you have sleeping difficulties
...


Fatigue: Bitter leaf rich in vitamins such as Vitamin A, Vitamin B1, Vitamin B2,
Vitamin C and Vitamin D helps to regain strength for people that lose strength
...
Consuming this juice will
bring instant energy in the body

10
...
Boil fresh bitter leaf
and drink 2 times daily after chilling filtered
...


As a Drug for a Headache: The bitter leaf can also be utilized to eliminate the
headaches, create dry powder of 1g of bitter brewed with a cup of hot water
...


12
...
Boil dried bitter leaf and drink ½ cup 2 times daily after chilling filtered
...
0

CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS

3
...
Bitter leaf content of virtually all major food classes, despite in modest
ratios, make it ideal supplement that can be used to augment the nutrient requirements
Nigeria and the developing countries
...


3
...




The use of bitter leaf juice should be recommended for the curing of common diseases in
the body
...


Adequnwa, M
...
O, Bakare, H
...
O (2011)
...
American Journal of Food and Nutrition
1
...
171
...


Agunbiade, S
...
O;; and Alao, O
...
Evaluation of the
Nutritional, Phytochemical Composition and likely Medicinal Benefits of
Vernonia Amygdalina, Talinum Triangulare and Ocimum Basilium Leafy –
Vegetables Advances in Biological Research 9(3): 153 – 154
...


Ajebesone, P
...
O (2004)
...


4
...
http://www
...
uni-bonn
...
html
...


Dr health benefits
...


6
...
G
...
G
...
Heavy Metal Content in Bitter Leaf
(Vernonia amygdalina) Growth along Heavy Traffic Routes in Port-Harcourt
...
10:207

7
...
R
...
V, Inocent, G
...
C (2007)
...

Pakistan journal of nutrition
...


8
...
F, Sporns, P; and Bressler, D
...
Nutritional
Composition of Gongronema Latifolium and Vernonia amygdalina
...

16

9
...
S; and Afolayan, A
...
Bioactive susquiterpene
lactones from the leaves of vernonia amygdalina
...

106:117 – 120
...


Food and Agricultural Organization (FAO), (2004)
...
FAO, Rome, PP
...


11
...
J
...
M
...
Nutritional and antimicrobial
properties of vernonia amygdalina leaves
...
2:53 – 54
...


Huffman, M
...
(1989)
...
Del
...


Ifeoma I
...
C
...
Current perpectires on the
medicinal potentials of vernonia amygdalina Del
...
5(7):1051 – 1061
...


Igile, G
...
A (1994)
...
Journal of Agricultural Food Chemistry, 42:2445 – 2448
...


Ikeh, C
...
E and Ezike, C
...
(2014)
...
induced
myelotoxicity, IOSR Journal of Pharmacy 4,3, 06 – 14
...


Iwu, M
...
Emperical Investigation of Dietary Plants used in Igbo –
Ethnomedicine
...
M Plants in indigenes Medicine and Diet
...

17

17
...
and Kmiecik, W
...
Content of selected minerals
...
Vol
...
2:546 – 550
...


Nwanekezie, E
...
N
...
Mineral content of
five tropical leafy vegetables and effect of holding methods and time
...


19
...
A;
Nishada, T; Kaji, M; and Koshimizu, K (1991)
...
Agriculture –
Biology – Chemistry, 55:1201 – 1204
...


Okeke, C
...
A; Okoronkwo, O
...
D; Uka, C
...
A (2015)
...
Journal
of human nutrition food science
...


21
...
A (1992)
...
Pakistan journal of science ind
...


22
...
A; Alermika, E
...
, Rafat, A
...
S
...
B
...
(2012)
...
2(7):1 – 8
...


Sodamade A
...
Proximate analysis, mineral content, amino acid

18

composition and functional properties of vernonia amygdalina vegetable leaf
protein concentrations
...
205 – 208
...


Song, Y
...
Y, Kim, S
...
W, Kang, D
...
Y, Kim, Y
...


signaling pathway
...


(2005)
...
A; Ijeh, I
...
Effect of traditional
processing on the phytochemical and nutrient composition of some local Nigerian
leafy vegetables
...


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