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Title: The Chemistry of Life 2
Description: Notes on transcription and translation, enzymes, cell respiration and photosynthesis. Suitable for Higher, A-level and IB students. Previous set of notes titled "The Chemistry of Life".
Description: Notes on transcription and translation, enzymes, cell respiration and photosynthesis. Suitable for Higher, A-level and IB students. Previous set of notes titled "The Chemistry of Life".
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Transcription and Translation
DNA -‐ controls the processes of the cell by producing different types of proteins,
e
...
enzymes, hormones
...
Transcription takes place inside the nucleus and translation takes
place outside the nucleus
...
Genes
have specific types of nitrogenous bases arranged in groups of three (triplet
code)
...
DNA and RNA have the same number of carbon but differ by a single oxygen
atom (Deoxyribose nucleic acid)
...
IN DNA there is adenine, thymine, guanine and cytosine
...
Complementary base pairing is the process in which opposite nitrogenous bases
are bonded together
...
(2) Free nucleotides move into place along one of the two strands
...
(4) The size of the single strand of mRNA is much smaller than the DNA because
transcription copies only one gene into mRNA
...
Translation:
(1) Due to complementary base pairing, the sequence of bases along the mRNA
molecule corresponds to the sequence of the original DNA molecule
...
(2) One amino acid can bind with one triplet could, but one triplet code
associates only with one type of amino acid (there are 20 different amino acids
and 64 different triplet codes)
...
(4) Translation is carried out in the cytoplasm by the structures known as
ribosomes and another type of RNA known as tRNA (transfer RNA)
...
(6) Only two tRNA molecules bind to the ribosome at once
...
(7) The anti-‐codon for tRNA binds with the codon of the mRNA molecule with a
hydrogen bond
...
Once a dipeptide has
been formed, the first tRNA molecule detaches from both the amino acid and
ribosome
...
(9) The same process will happen until it reaches the stop codon (which signals
the end)
...
g
...
Enzymes
In every enzyme there is a specially shaped region known as the active site
...
Aerobic respiration is more efficient than anaerobic respiration because it
produces more energy (producing 6 to 8 more ATP molecules)
...
The first step being
glycolysis (splitting the glucose molecule), where six-‐carbon glucose is split into
pyruvate, which is a three-‐carbon chain (+ two ATP molecules produced)
...
Glycolysis takes place in the cytoplasm
...
The first product of aerobic respiration is acetyl-‐coA, which is produced in a link
reaction
...
The link reaction
takes place in the mitochondria (glycolysis takes place in the cytoplasm)
...
The acetyl-‐coA (two
carbon) bonds with the four carbon to form a six carbon compound which is
known as a citrate
...
That five carbon compound releases carbon dioxide at a
later stage and forms a four carbon compound
...
The second time carbon dioxide was released to form a four carbon
compound another reduced NAD (NADH2) is formed
...
In total two NAD and one FAD molecules are formed (third formed when four
carbon compound is converted into oxalo acetate)
...
In each Krebs cycle NAD accepts three
protons in total and FAD accepts one proton in total)
...
One consequence of lactate in
animal cells is that it causes lactate
...
In
fermentation the pyruvate molecule is converted into ethanol and carbon
dioxide
...
Photosynthesis
Photosynthesis means combining small molecules of carbon dioxide and water
to form glucose and oxygen with the help of sun light
...
Visible light has a range of wavelengths, but the most important regions for
photosynthesis are red and blue
...
If the temperature becomes too high then the enzymes in the cells will denature
and photosynthesis will not take place
...
The first being the light
dependent reaction and the second being the light independent reaction
...
Chlorophyll absorbs light energy, which is used to
produce ATP
...
Hydrogen ions, electrons and oxygen are
released after photolysis
...
The ATP, hydrogen ions and electrons are used in the light independent
reactions
...
The conversion of inorganic carbon dioxide into organic molecules,
such as, glucose is known as carbon fixation
...
6CO2 + 6H2O -‐> C6H12O6 + 6O2
The mass of the plant (its biomass) will increase as glucose is used, to produce
other plant materials
...
Any of these three factors is used to measure how quickly
photosynthesis is taking place
...
Equated plants also
remove carbon dioxide from the environment, causing the PH of the water to
rise
...
Therefore, as a way of determining photosynthesis
experimentally is to monitor changes in the PH of the water surrounding the
equated plant over a period of time
...
It can be done experimentally, by supplying a terrestrial
plant radioactive carbon dioxide, which can be measured as it is taken up and
released by the plant
...
This is an indirect method, where the samples of
plants can be measured at different times at the rate of increase in their biomass
can be calculated to determine their rate of photosynthesis
...
g
...
More oxygen will be produced
and more carbon dioxide used
...
A factor of light, temperature and carbon dioxide in the air can be
measured experimentally in the air, varying one factor while keeping the others
the same
...
However, at a certain light intensity, enzymes will
be working at the maximum level limited by the temperature and the availability
of carbon dioxide
...
Increasing temperature also increases the rate of photosynthesis as the
frequency and energy of molecular collisions increases
...
An increase in the concentration of carbon dioxide also causes the rate of
photosynthesis to increase, as carbon dioxide is a vital raw material for the
process
...
The effects of temperature, light and carbon dioxide concentration are well
known to farmers that grow crops in glass houses, commercial producers of
cucumbers and tomatoes keep their glass houses warm and well light
...
Title: The Chemistry of Life 2
Description: Notes on transcription and translation, enzymes, cell respiration and photosynthesis. Suitable for Higher, A-level and IB students. Previous set of notes titled "The Chemistry of Life".
Description: Notes on transcription and translation, enzymes, cell respiration and photosynthesis. Suitable for Higher, A-level and IB students. Previous set of notes titled "The Chemistry of Life".