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Title: Genetics
Description: Notes on chromosomes, genes, meiosis, non-disjunction, and karyotyping and more. Suitable for Higher, A-level, and IB students.
Description: Notes on chromosomes, genes, meiosis, non-disjunction, and karyotyping and more. Suitable for Higher, A-level, and IB students.
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Genetics
Chromosome Structure
Eukaryotic cells contain chromosomes surrounded by a nuclear envelope
...
Each chromosome
contains a single molecule of DNA along with three associated proteins
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Chromosomes, genes and mutations
A DNA molecule comprises a pair of strands, each strand consisting of a linear
sequence of nucleotides, held together by weak bonds between the bases
...
A gene is a particular section of a gene strand that, when transcribed and
translated, forms a specific polypeptide
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The process of DNA replication is complex and mistakes sometimes occur e
...
a
nucleotide may be left out, an extra one may be added or the wrong one inserted
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The insertion of an incorrect
nucleotide is called a base substitution mutation
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Most amino acids are coded for by more than one codon
and so many substitution mutations have no affect on the final polypeptide that
is produced
...
Some substitution mutations however have serious affects on important human
condition that results form a single base substitution, such as sickle cell anaemia
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Sickle cell anaemia
is a blood disorder in which red blood cells become sickle shaped and cannot
carry oxygen properly
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Haemoglobin is made up of four sub units there are two alpha chains and two
beta chains
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The CTC
in the coding strand (mRNA strand) of the DNA is transcribed into the mRNA
triplet GAG, which in turn is translated to give glutamic acid
...
CAC on the coding strand (mRNA strand) of the DNA is now
transcribed onto the mRNA triplet as GUG, which in turn is translated to the
amino acid valine
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Valine has
different properties from glutamic acid and so this single change in the amino
acid sequence has very serious affects
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Sickle cells carry less
oxygen, which results in anaemia
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Homologous chromosomes are a pair of chromosomes with the same genes but
not necessarily the same alleles of those genes
...
g
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In sexual reproduction, two gametes fuse together, so in order to keep the
chromosome number correct in the offspring, each gamete must contain only
one of each chromosome pair, which is called the haploid number
...
At
the moment of fertilisataion, the normal diploid number is restored as gametes
fuse together
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(2) Crossing over
of chromatids may occur (the point where crossing over occurs is called
chiasmata)
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(4) At the end of prophase 1 spindle fibres are formed
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(2) Spindle formed as of mitosis
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(3) Anaphase 1 -‐ (1) centromeres do not divide unlike mitosis
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(2) The centromeres
attach to the spindles and then are pulled by microtubules
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Cytokinesis follows and the cell splits into two cells
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Meiosis 2:
The second division of meiosis follows the two sister chromatids in each of the
two cells resulting form meiosis 1
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(2) The chromosomes recoil
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(2) Metaphase 2 -‐ (1) the nuclear envelope fully disintegrates and individual
chromosomes line up on the equator of each cell
...
(3) Anaphase 2 -‐ (1) sister chromatids are separated as the centromeres split (2)
Spindle fibres pull the chromatids to opposite ends of the cell
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A second cytokinesis occurs resulting in four cells
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Occurs in gamete formation
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pairs on the spindle microtubules at
metaphase 1
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number of chromosomes as the parent
cell (the diploid number)
...
genetically different
...
It results in gametes that contain either one too few or
one too many chromosomes
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This is called trisomy
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The gamete, usually the female one, receives 24 chromosomes rather than 23
...
Downs syndrome is a non-‐
disjunction and results in the failure of the chromosome to split up
...
Each chromosome is a characteristic length
and has its centromere at a fixed place and each one has a homologous partner
...
The image is
then manipulated to arrange the chromosomes in order of their size
...
Definitions:
Genotype -‐ is represented by a pair of letters
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Chromosomes come in pairs and so alleles
come in pairs (e
...
TT or Tt)
...
A
characteristic may be an external feature (e
...
colour of flower petals) or internal
features such as sickle cell anaemia
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The dominant allele is always written
with a capital letter
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A recessive allele is always given the lower case of the
same letter given to the dominant allele
...
These alleles are represented in a different
way in genetics
...
For example in human blood grouping, A
and B are co-‐dominant alleles and are represented as IA and IB as superscripts
...
A gene
locus is fixed for a species
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Title: Genetics
Description: Notes on chromosomes, genes, meiosis, non-disjunction, and karyotyping and more. Suitable for Higher, A-level, and IB students.
Description: Notes on chromosomes, genes, meiosis, non-disjunction, and karyotyping and more. Suitable for Higher, A-level, and IB students.