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Title: Genetics
Description: Notes on chromosomes, genes, meiosis, non-disjunction, and karyotyping and more. Suitable for Higher, A-level, and IB students.

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Genetics  
 

Chromosome  Structure  
 
Eukaryotic  cells  contain  chromosomes  surrounded  by  a  nuclear  envelope
...
 Each  chromosome  
contains  a  single  molecule  of  DNA  along  with  three  associated  proteins
...
 
 
 

Chromosomes,  genes  and  mutations  

 
A  DNA  molecule  comprises  a  pair  of  strands,  each  strand  consisting  of  a  linear  
sequence  of  nucleotides,  held  together  by  weak  bonds  between  the  bases
...
 
 
A  gene  is  a  particular  section  of  a  gene  strand  that,  when  transcribed  and  
translated,  forms  a  specific  polypeptide
...
   
 
The  process  of  DNA  replication  is  complex  and  mistakes  sometimes  occur  e
...
 a  
nucleotide  may  be  left  out,  an  extra  one  may  be  added  or  the  wrong  one  inserted
...
 The  insertion  of  an  incorrect  
nucleotide  is  called  a  base  substitution  mutation
...
 Most  amino  acids  are  coded  for  by  more  than  one  codon  
and  so  many  substitution  mutations  have  no  affect  on  the  final  polypeptide  that  
is  produced
...
   
 
Some  substitution  mutations  however  have  serious  affects  on  important  human  
condition  that  results  form  a  single  base  substitution,  such  as  sickle  cell  anaemia
...
 Sickle  cell  anaemia  
is  a  blood  disorder  in  which  red  blood  cells  become  sickle  shaped  and  cannot  
carry  oxygen  properly
...
   
 
Haemoglobin  is  made  up  of  four  sub  units  there  are  two  alpha  chains  and  two  
beta  chains
...
 The  CTC  
in  the  coding  strand  (mRNA  strand)  of  the  DNA  is  transcribed  into  the  mRNA  
triplet  GAG,  which  in  turn  is  translated  to  give  glutamic  acid
...
 CAC  on  the  coding  strand  (mRNA  strand)  of  the  DNA  is  now  
transcribed  onto  the  mRNA  triplet  as  GUG,  which  in  turn  is  translated  to  the  
amino  acid  valine
...
 Valine  has  
different  properties  from  glutamic  acid  and  so  this  single  change  in  the  amino  
acid  sequence  has  very  serious  affects
...
 Sickle  cells  carry  less  
oxygen,  which  results  in  anaemia
...
     
 
 
Homologous  chromosomes  are  a  pair  of  chromosomes  with  the  same  genes  but  
not  necessarily  the  same  alleles  of  those  genes
...
g
...
 
 
In  sexual  reproduction,  two  gametes  fuse  together,  so  in  order  to  keep  the  
chromosome  number  correct  in  the  offspring,  each  gamete  must  contain  only  
one  of  each  chromosome  pair,  which  is  called  the  haploid  number
...
 At  
the  moment  of  fertilisataion,  the  normal  diploid  number  is  restored  as  gametes  
fuse  together
...
 (2)  Crossing  over  
of  chromatids  may  occur  (the  point  where  crossing  over  occurs  is  called  
chiasmata)
...
 (4)  At  the  end  of  prophase  1  spindle  fibres  are  formed
...
 (2)  Spindle  formed  as  of  mitosis
...
 
 
(3)  Anaphase  1  -­‐  (1)  centromeres  do  not  divide  unlike  mitosis
...
 (2)  The  centromeres  
attach  to  the  spindles  and  then  are  pulled  by  microtubules
...
     
 

Cytokinesis  follows  and  the  cell  splits  into  two  cells
...
 
 
 
Meiosis  2:  
 
The  second  division  of  meiosis  follows  the  two  sister  chromatids  in  each  of  the  
two  cells  resulting  form  meiosis  1
...
 (2)  The  chromosomes  recoil
...
 
 
(2)  Metaphase  2  -­‐  (1)  the  nuclear  envelope  fully  disintegrates  and  individual  
chromosomes  line  up  on  the  equator  of  each  cell
...
   
 
(3)  Anaphase  2  -­‐  (1)  sister  chromatids  are  separated  as  the  centromeres  split  (2)  
Spindle  fibres  pull  the  chromatids  to  opposite  ends  of  the  cell
...
 
 
A  second  cytokinesis  occurs  resulting  in  four  cells
...
 
Occurs  in  gamete  formation
...
 
pairs  on  the  spindle  microtubules  at  
metaphase  1
...
 
number  of  chromosomes  as  the  parent      
cell  (the  diploid  number)
...
 
genetically  different
...
 It  results  in  gametes  that  contain  either  one  too  few  or  
one  too  many  chromosomes
...
 This  is  called  trisomy
...
 
 

The  gamete,  usually  the  female  one,  receives  24  chromosomes  rather  than  23
...
 Downs  syndrome  is  a  non-­‐
disjunction  and  results  in  the  failure  of  the  chromosome  to  split  up
...
 Each  chromosome  is  a  characteristic  length  
and  has  its  centromere  at  a  fixed  place  and  each  one  has  a  homologous  partner
...
 The  image  is  
then  manipulated  to  arrange  the  chromosomes  in  order  of  their  size
...
 
 
 
Definitions:  
 
Genotype  -­‐  is  represented  by  a  pair  of  letters
...
 Chromosomes  come  in  pairs  and  so  alleles  
come  in  pairs  (e
...
 TT  or  Tt)
...
 A  
characteristic  may  be  an  external  feature  (e
...
 colour  of  flower  petals)  or  internal  
features  such  as  sickle  cell  anaemia
...
 The  dominant  allele  is  always  written  
with  a  capital  letter
...
 A  recessive  allele  is  always  given  the  lower  case  of  the  
same  letter  given  to  the  dominant  allele
...
 These  alleles  are  represented  in  a  different  
way  in  genetics
...
 For  example  in  human  blood  grouping,  A  
and  B  are  co-­‐dominant  alleles  and  are  represented  as  IA  and  IB  as  superscripts
...
 A  gene  
locus  is  fixed  for  a  species
...
 


Title: Genetics
Description: Notes on chromosomes, genes, meiosis, non-disjunction, and karyotyping and more. Suitable for Higher, A-level, and IB students.