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Title: Human Health and Physiology 2
Description: Notes on defence against infectious diseases (more advanced notes), muscle movement, the kidney, and reproduction. Suitable for Advanced Higher, A-level, and IB students.
Description: Notes on defence against infectious diseases (more advanced notes), muscle movement, the kidney, and reproduction. Suitable for Advanced Higher, A-level, and IB students.
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Human Health and Physiology 2
Defence against Infectious disease
Blood Clotting
Arteries, veins, and capillaries form a closed system of blood vessels
...
To prevent blood loss and the entry of pathogens
...
Platelets, erythrocytes (red blood cells) and leucocytes (a type of white blood
cell) are all important in the clotting process
...
Also
important are two plasma proteins, which are present in the blood in their
inactive form until they are activated when needed
...
If a small blood vessel is damaged, injured cells or platelets release clotting
factors, which cause platelets to stick to the area, these factors activate
prothrombin, which is converted to its active form thrombin
...
This cascade of reactions insures that a speedy
response to any damage takes place
...
If a clot is
exposed to air, it dries and forms a scab, which will protect the area until the
tissue beneath has been repaired
...
We become able to distinguish cells that belong to our body and those that are
foreign, and are therefore likely to be pathogens or cause harm
...
Certain leucocytes are able to recognise foreign proteins or antigens
...
Antigens are also likely to be present on the cell surface of transplanted
tissues or organs
...
As it
is challenged by the pathogen, it responds by setting in motion the processes that
destroy it
...
These are non-‐
specific and consume bacteria, viruses and other pathogens, as well as dead cells
and cell fragments that might accumulate, for example in a wound
...
These proteins are the key to the body's immune response and producing them
effectively requires interaction between three types of cells:
(1) Macrophages, (2) B cells, (3) Helper T cells
...
Sometimes symptoms are mild such as with the common
cold, but sometimes they are severe, leading to permanent disability or death
...
Since the antibody antigen response is highly
specific, there must be many types of B cells in order to be able to respond to all
the possible types of antigens
...
When a pathogen enters the bloodstream, it's surface antigen molecules are
exposed to the antibodies attached to different B cells in the blood
...
The selected B cell is stimulated to divide and produces a clone of antibody
secreting cells in a process known as clonal selection
...
Each of these will
result in a clone of antigen secreting B cells
...
Antibody Production
In reality the response to pathogens is more complex than clonal selection, and it
involves two types of lymphocytes, B cells and T cells
...
This
is called antigen presentation because the proteins are being presented to other
cells
...
(3) Activated Helper T cells then start dividing into two clones of
cells, one clones is of active Helper T cells, which are required for the next step in
the process; and the other clone is of memory cells, which will be used if the
same pathogen ever invades the body again
...
(5) Active Helper T cells bind to these B cells, and in turn
activate them
...
One made up of active B cells or plasma cells, which secrete huge quantities
of antibodies into the blood stream
...
The second clone is made
up of memory cells, which allow the body to make a large and rapid response
should the same pathogen invade again
...
Active Immunity
Active immunity develops when an individual is exposed to an antigen and
produces antibodies after their immunes system has been stimulated
...
In both cases the body produces antibodies and
specialised lymphocytes
...
The antibodies will have been produced as a result f active immunity
...
Some antibodies can be
ejected into a person in the form of a serum, e
...
to treat a snakebite
...
It lasts as long as the antibodies are in the
blood and the recipient do not produce many antibodies of there own
...
A monoclonal antibody is artificially produced to target one specific antigen
...
B
cells are short lived, and therefore of little value for commercial antibody
production
...
Monoclonal antibodies are produced by clones so they are all identical, they are
highly specific and they can reproduce in very large quantities
...
They are also used in pregnancy testing
...
Monoclonal antibodies may also prove in be invaluable in the treatment of
cancer
...
It is hoped that these treatments,
which have ben called magic bullet could reduce the amount of drugs that need
to be taken during chemotherapy treatment
...
Mental Cell Lymphoma is a cancer of B cells (B lymphocytes) and accounts
for about one in twenty of all cases of the group of cancers
...
The antibodies are used in
conjunction with chemotherapy and stick to particular surface proteins on
cancer cells, which they stimulate the body's immune system to destroy
...
For most
mild illnesses, such as the common cold, this happens naturally as the person
come into contact with the viruses or bacteria that cause them
...
For these diseases, which include tetanus, cholera, and measles,
vaccines have been developed to provide a safe first exposure so that a
vaccinated person will develop immunity but not the disease
...
A vaccine may
contain either weakened or dead pathogens, or their toxins
...
Most vaccines are injected into a person's body, although some vaccines, such as
the polio vaccine, can be taken orally
...
The first vaccination produces a primary response but many vaccinations are
followed up sometimes later
...
The time that
antibodies and memory cells persist depends on the disease, e
...
the rubella
vaccination can provide protection for up to twenty years, while vaccinations for
tetanus should be repeated every ten years
...
Benefits and Dangers of Vaccines
The first vaccine against small pox was discovered in 1796
...
Small pox
was eradicated in 1977 as a direct result of the WHO (World Health
Organisation) programme
...
(2) Economic benefits (it is much cheaper to vaccinate a large numbers of people
and prevent illness rather than bear the costs of treatment)
...
(4) Prevention of disability by vaccination (before vaccinations were available,
polio left many people paralysed after they had been infected, while the rubella
virus caused blindness and deafness in the babies of mothers who had the
disease during their pregnancy)
...
(2) Perceived risk of overloading of immune system (vaccinations for some
childhood illnesses such as measles, mumps and rubella (MMR) are given
together in a multiple vaccine and some parents feel that such multiple
vaccinations may cause the immune system to overreact, thereby posing a
possible danger to their child)
...
(4) Breach of civil liberties (in some countries children have to have certain
vaccinations before they can start school, and there are parents who feel that
vaccinations should be a matter of personal choice, rather than compulsory)
...
Joints between bones in the
human body together with the muscles that are attached to them enable us to
move and also support the body
...
Bones
Bones provide a framework that supports the body
...
Blood cells are formed within bones, which
contain bone marrow
...
Ligaments
Ligaments attach bones to one another at a joint
...
They are tough and
fibrous, and provide strength and support so that joints are not dislocated
...
They are made of tough bands of connective
tissue, made of collagen fibres and are capable of withstanding tension as
muscles contract
...
They are able to contract in
length, and as they do so they move the joint into new positions
...
Motor Neurons
Motor neurons stimulate muscle contraction
...
The Elbow Joint
The elbow is a hinge joint because it moves in a manner resembling to the
opening and closing of a door hinge
...
The
capsule that seals the joint is lined by a membrane that secretes lubricating
synovial fluid so that bones move smoothly against one another and friction is
reduced
...
The elbow joint is made up of three bones the radius and ulna in the lower arm,
and the humerus in the upper arm
...
The biceps are attached to the radius and the shoulder blade
...
The triceps are attached to the ulna, humerus, and shoulder
blade, and it contracts to straighten the arm
...
The Knee and Hip Joints
The knee joint is another example of a hinge joint, and it moves in a similar way
to the elbow, allowing movement in only one direction
...
Ball and socket joints allow movement in more than one direction and also
permits rotational movement
...
Viewed under the light microscope, it has a stripped appearance made of
multi-‐nucleate cells known as muscle fibres
...
Each fibre is made up of many
myofibrils running parallel to one another
...
Myofibrils are made up of repeating sub units called sarcomeres, which produce
the striped appearance of the muscle fibre and are responsible for muscle
contractions
...
There are two types of
filament that form the striped pattern of a muscle
...
The narrow filaments of actin are attached to the z lines and extend into the
sarcomere
...
Where myosin is
present, the myofibril has a dark appearance, and a light band is seen where
actin is present
...
Muscle Contraction
Muscle contraction is explained by the sliding filament theory, which describes
how actin and myosin filaments slide over each other
...
The steps are
given below:
(1) Nerve impulses (action potentials) travel along the muscle fibre membrane
or sarcolemma, and are carried down into the fibre through infoldings called T -‐
tubules
...
(2) Before contraction binding sites form myosin heads on the actin filaments
are covered by two molecules, troponin and tropomyosin
...
(3) Now Ca2+ ions bind to the actin filaments, causing troponin and tropomyosin
to change shape and expose the myosin binding sites, forming cross bridges
...
The myosin heads bend towards the centre of the
sarcomere, pulling the actin filaments inward passed the myosin filament by
about ten nanometres
...
(5) New ATP molecules bind to the myosin heads breaking the cross bridges and
detaching them from the actin filaments
...
If the muscle receives further stimulation the process
is repeated and the myosin heads attach further along actin filaments
...
The light bends become reduced and as the overall length of the sarcomere
decreases, the dark bands take up a greater proportion of the length
...
For example, urea is produced as a waste product from the
metabolism of amino acids
...
One of the main functions of the kidneys is to act as filters, removing waste
molecules from the blood passing through them
...
The kidneys are also vital in osmoregulation
...
To maintain a constant internal environment in the
blood, tissue fluid and cytoplasm, which is essential to ensure that all cell
processes occur effectively
...
Excretion is the removal from the body of the waste products of metabolic
pathways whereas osmoregulation is the control of the water potential of body
fluids by the regulation of water and salt
...
Each
kidney receives a blood supply from a renal artery, which is a branch of the main
aorta
...
Three regions are visible in the kidney:
(1) The outer cortex
(2) The central medulla
(3) Inner renal pelvis
Urine produced by the kidney collects in the renal pelvis, and is carried down
into the bladder in the ureter
...
Nephrons are the functional units of the kidney, selectively filtering and
reabsorbing substances from the blood
...
How the kidneys work
The kidney's complex structure allows it to carry out its functions amazingly
efficiently
...
Approximately ninety nine per cent of this blood goes to the
cortex
...
Because the incoming afferent arteriole has a wider diameter than the
outgoing afferent arteriole, blood pressure in the glomerulus capillaries is very
high (so high that about twenty per cent of the blood plasma leaves the
capillaries in the glomerulus and passes into the Bowman's capsule)
...
It leaves the capillaries through small holes, which the high blood pressure
causes to open in the capillary walls
...
But filtration occurs at the basement membrane, which is made of
glycoprotein
...
The blood plasma that has passed through the basement membrane is now
known as filtrate
...
Blood cells and large molecules remain in the blood in the glomerulus capillaries
and flow on into the afferent arteriole
...
These must be reabsorbed into the bloodstream
...
The wall of the tubule is a single layer of cells, and each one has a border of
microvilli to increase the surface area
...
All the glucose in the filtrate is actively reabsorbed together with almost eighty
per cent sodium, potassium, magnesium and calcium ions
...
The remaining filtrate now moves on to the loop of Henle
...
The wall of the descending lymph of the loop is
permeable to water but relatively impermeable to salts, whereas the ascending
lymph is impermeable to water but allows salts to be passed through its walls
...
A high salt concentration in this
area of the kidney is essential for fine-‐tuning of the water content of the blood by
the collecting duct at a slightly later stage
...
The water enters blood capillaries that surrounds the loop of Henle
...
The Distal Convoluted Tubule and the Collecting Duct
Ions are exchanged between the filtrate and the blood in the distal convoluted
tubule
...
The final portion of the nephron is the collecting duct, where the final
adjustment of water is made
...
If ADH is present, the duct
develops a membrane channels called aquaporins so that it becomes more
permeable and water is taken back into the blood
...
The urine now flows from the collecting ducts into the renal pelvis and down the
ureter to the bladder
...
Osmoreceptors in the hypothalamus
monitor water levels in the blood and control the release of ADH
...
Stress and nicotine increase the ADH
production, producing the opposite effect
...
Reproduction
Spermatogenesis
Spermatogenesis is the production of mature sperm cells (spermata) in the
testes
...
Sperm production and development takes place from the outer part of the
seminiferous tubules towards central lumen where sperm cells are eventually
released
...
These diploid cells divide regularly by mitosis to
produce more diploid cells, which enlarge and are known as primary
spermatocytes
...
The second division of these two cells results in four spermatids (n
-‐ which means its haploid)
...
These large cells assist the differentiation of immature
spermatids into spermatozoa and provide nourishment for them
...
Hormones and Sperm production
Sperm production is controlled by three hormones: follicle stimulating hormone
(FSH -‐ it stimulates meiosis in spermatocytes to produce haploid cells),
testosterone (stimulates the maturation of secondary spermatocytes into mature
sperm cells), luteinising hormone (LH -‐ it stimulates the secretion of
testosterone by the testes)
...
Sperm cells are released ate the ejaculation in a nutrient rich fluid known as
semen
...
It is mixed
with the sperm cells as they leave the epididymis and move along the vas
difference (sperm duct)
...
It is rich in fructose, which provides energy for the sperm cells
to swim, and it also contains protective mucus
...
Oogenesis
Oogenesis produces female gametes, the ova
...
Oogonia, the germinal epithelial cells within the ovaries of the female foetus,
divide by mitosis to produce more diploid cells
...
Primary oocytes undergo the first stages of meiosis, but this stops during
prophase 1 leaving the primary oocyte surrounded by a layer of follicle cells
known as the primary follicle
...
At puberty, development of the primary follicles continues
...
Two haploid cells are produced, but the cytoplasm divides unequally so that one
cell is much larger than the other
...
The polar body degenerates and
does not develop further
...
At the same time the follicle cells divide and produces a fluid that
causes the follicle to swell
...
Although ovulation is also described as the release of the ovum, the cell that is
released is still in fact a secondary oocyte
...
The empty follicle in
the ovary develops to become the corpus luteum or yellow body, which produces
the hormone progesterone
...
Both involve the division of cells in
germinal epithelium by mitosis, the growth of cells before they undergo meiosis,
and two divisions of meiosis produce the haploid gametes
...
In oogenesis,
one large gamete is produce per meiosis; in spermatogenesis, four large gametes
are produced per meiosis
...
In oogenesis, early stages occur during
foetal development
...
In oogenesis, an ovum is
released at ovulation during the menstrual cycle
...
Ovulation ceases at menopause
...
Fertilisation
During sexual intercourse, million of sperm cells are ejaculated into the vagina
and some of them make their way to the cervix and uterus towards the ovary
ducts
...
Which is
a considerable distance for the tiny cells
...
Only one sperm cell will break through and reach the plasma membrane at enter
it
...
Pregnancy
Approximately twenty-‐four hours after fertilisation, the zygote begins to divide
by mitosis
...
As these divisions are occurring, the ball of cells is moved down the oviduct
towards the uterus and settles in the endometrium lining, where it plants itself
and continues to divide and develops into an embryo
...
HCG travels in the bloodstream t the ovary where its
role is to maintain the corpus luteum, the mass of cells that have developed from
the empty follicle
...
During pregnancy, it is important that the lining remains in place
...
Thereafter, the placenta is fully formed and
produces placental progesterone and oestrogen, so the corpus luteum
degenerates
...
After about one month it is only five
millimetres long, but has a beating heart and the beginnings of a nervous system
...
The foetus at this stage is
thirty to forty millimetres long, and has recognisable limbs with developing
bones
...
The foetus is connected to the placenta by the umbilical chord and is filled with a
fluid sack called the amnion, which contains amniotic fluid
...
Amniotic fluid also
enables the growing foetus to move and develop its muscle and skeleton
...
The placenta allows these materials to be exchanged between
the mother and the foetus and it also acts an endocrine gland, producing
oestrogen, progesterone, and other hormones that maintain the pregnancy
...
It is made up of the maternal endometrium and small projections known as villi
from the outer layers of the chorion, which surrounds the embryo
...
Foetal blood remains inside these capillaries, which penetrate the endometrium
tissue until they are surrounded by the maternal blood around them
...
Title: Human Health and Physiology 2
Description: Notes on defence against infectious diseases (more advanced notes), muscle movement, the kidney, and reproduction. Suitable for Advanced Higher, A-level, and IB students.
Description: Notes on defence against infectious diseases (more advanced notes), muscle movement, the kidney, and reproduction. Suitable for Advanced Higher, A-level, and IB students.