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Title: Human Health and Physiology 2
Description: Notes on defence against infectious diseases (more advanced notes), muscle movement, the kidney, and reproduction. Suitable for Advanced Higher, A-level, and IB students.

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Human  Health  and  Physiology  2  
 
Defence  against  Infectious  disease  
 

Blood  Clotting  

 
Arteries,  veins,  and  capillaries  form  a  closed  system  of  blood  vessels
...
 To  prevent  blood  loss  and  the  entry  of  pathogens
...
 
Platelets,  erythrocytes  (red  blood  cells)  and  leucocytes  (a  type  of  white  blood  
cell)  are  all  important  in  the  clotting  process
...
 Also  
important  are  two  plasma  proteins,  which  are  present  in  the  blood  in  their  
inactive  form  until  they  are  activated  when  needed
...
 
 
If  a  small  blood  vessel  is  damaged,  injured  cells  or  platelets  release  clotting  
factors,  which  cause  platelets  to  stick  to  the  area,  these  factors  activate  
prothrombin,  which  is  converted  to  its  active  form  thrombin
...
 This  cascade  of  reactions  insures  that  a  speedy  
response  to  any  damage  takes  place
...
 If  a  clot  is  
exposed  to  air,  it  dries  and  forms  a  scab,  which  will  protect  the  area  until  the  
tissue  beneath  has  been  repaired
...
   
 
We  become  able  to  distinguish  cells  that  belong  to  our  body  and  those  that  are  
foreign,  and  are  therefore  likely  to  be  pathogens  or  cause  harm
...
 
 
Certain  leucocytes  are  able  to  recognise  foreign  proteins  or  antigens
...
 Antigens  are  also  likely  to  be  present  on  the  cell  surface  of  transplanted  
tissues  or  organs
...
 As  it  
is  challenged  by  the  pathogen,  it  responds  by  setting  in  motion  the  processes  that  
destroy  it
...
 These  are  non-­‐

specific  and  consume  bacteria,  viruses  and  other  pathogens,  as  well  as  dead  cells  
and  cell  fragments  that  might  accumulate,  for  example  in  a  wound
...
 
These  proteins  are  the  key  to  the  body's  immune  response  and  producing  them  
effectively  requires  interaction  between  three  types  of  cells:  
 
(1)  Macrophages,  (2)  B  cells,  (3)  Helper  T  cells
...
 Sometimes  symptoms  are  mild  such  as  with  the  common  
cold,  but  sometimes  they  are  severe,  leading  to  permanent  disability  or  death
...
 Since  the  antibody  antigen  response  is  highly  
specific,  there  must  be  many  types  of  B  cells  in  order  to  be  able  to  respond  to  all  
the  possible  types  of  antigens
...
   
 
When  a  pathogen  enters  the  bloodstream,  it's  surface  antigen  molecules  are  
exposed  to  the  antibodies  attached  to  different  B  cells  in  the  blood
...
   
 
The  selected  B  cell  is  stimulated  to  divide  and  produces  a  clone  of  antibody  
secreting  cells  in  a  process  known  as  clonal  selection
...
 Each  of  these  will  
result  in  a  clone  of  antigen  secreting  B  cells
...
 
 
 

Antibody  Production  

 
In  reality  the  response  to  pathogens  is  more  complex  than  clonal  selection,  and  it  
involves  two  types  of  lymphocytes,  B  cells  and  T  cells
...
 This  
is  called  antigen  presentation  because  the  proteins  are  being  presented  to  other  
cells
...
 (3)  Activated  Helper  T  cells  then  start  dividing  into  two  clones  of  

cells,  one  clones  is  of  active  Helper  T  cells,  which  are  required  for  the  next  step  in  
the  process;  and  the  other  clone  is  of  memory  cells,  which  will  be  used  if  the  
same  pathogen  ever  invades  the  body  again
...
 (5)  Active  Helper  T  cells  bind  to  these  B  cells,  and  in  turn  
activate  them
...
 One  made  up  of  active  B  cells  or  plasma  cells,  which  secrete  huge  quantities  
of  antibodies  into  the  blood  stream
...
 The  second  clone  is  made  
up  of  memory  cells,  which  allow  the  body  to  make  a  large  and  rapid  response  
should  the  same  pathogen  invade  again
...
   
 

Active  Immunity  

 
Active  immunity  develops  when  an  individual  is  exposed  to  an  antigen  and  
produces  antibodies  after  their  immunes  system  has  been  stimulated
...
 In  both  cases  the  body  produces  antibodies  and  
specialised  lymphocytes
...
 The  antibodies  will  have  been  produced  as  a  result  f  active  immunity
...
 Some  antibodies  can  be  
ejected  into  a  person  in  the  form  of  a  serum,  e
...
 to  treat  a  snakebite
...
 It  lasts  as  long  as  the  antibodies  are  in  the  
blood  and  the  recipient  do  not  produce  many  antibodies  of  there  own
...
   
 
A  monoclonal  antibody  is  artificially  produced  to  target  one  specific  antigen
...
 B  
cells  are  short  lived,  and  therefore  of  little  value  for  commercial  antibody  
production
...
 
 
Monoclonal  antibodies  are  produced  by  clones  so  they  are  all  identical,  they  are  
highly  specific  and  they  can  reproduce  in  very  large  quantities
...
 They  are  also  used  in  pregnancy  testing
...
 
 
Monoclonal  antibodies  may  also  prove  in  be  invaluable  in  the  treatment  of  
cancer
...
 It  is  hoped  that  these  treatments,  
which  have  ben  called  magic  bullet  could  reduce  the  amount  of  drugs  that  need  
to  be  taken  during  chemotherapy  treatment
...
 Mental  Cell  Lymphoma  is  a  cancer  of  B  cells  (B  lymphocytes)  and  accounts  
for  about  one  in  twenty  of  all  cases  of  the  group  of  cancers
...
 The  antibodies  are  used  in  
conjunction  with  chemotherapy  and  stick  to  particular  surface  proteins  on  
cancer  cells,  which  they  stimulate  the  body's  immune  system  to  destroy
...
 For  most  
mild  illnesses,  such  as  the  common  cold,  this  happens  naturally  as  the  person  
come  into  contact  with  the  viruses  or  bacteria  that  cause  them
...
 For  these  diseases,  which  include  tetanus,  cholera,  and  measles,  
vaccines  have  been  developed  to  provide  a  safe  first  exposure  so  that  a  
vaccinated  person  will  develop  immunity  but  not  the  disease
...
 A  vaccine  may  
contain  either  weakened  or  dead  pathogens,  or  their  toxins
...
 
 
Most  vaccines  are  injected  into  a  person's  body,  although  some  vaccines,  such  as  
the  polio  vaccine,  can  be  taken  orally
...

 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
The  first  vaccination  produces  a  primary  response  but  many  vaccinations  are  
followed  up  sometimes  later
...
 The  time  that  
antibodies  and  memory  cells  persist  depends  on  the  disease,  e
...
 the  rubella  
vaccination  can  provide  protection  for  up  to  twenty  years,  while  vaccinations  for  
tetanus  should  be  repeated  every  ten  years
...
   
 

 
Benefits  and  Dangers  of  Vaccines  

 
The  first  vaccine  against  small  pox  was  discovered  in  1796
...
 Small  pox  
was  eradicated  in  1977  as  a  direct  result  of  the  WHO  (World  Health  
Organisation)  programme
...
   
 
(2)  Economic  benefits  (it  is  much  cheaper  to  vaccinate  a  large  numbers  of  people  
and  prevent  illness  rather  than  bear  the  costs  of  treatment)
...
 
 
(4)  Prevention  of  disability  by  vaccination  (before  vaccinations  were  available,  
polio  left  many  people  paralysed  after  they  had  been  infected,  while  the  rubella  
virus  caused  blindness  and  deafness  in  the  babies  of  mothers  who  had  the  
disease  during  their  pregnancy)
...
 
 
(2)  Perceived  risk  of  overloading  of  immune  system  (vaccinations  for  some  
childhood  illnesses  such  as  measles,  mumps  and  rubella  (MMR)  are  given  
together  in  a  multiple  vaccine  and  some  parents  feel  that  such  multiple  
vaccinations  may  cause  the  immune  system  to  overreact,  thereby  posing  a  
possible  danger  to  their  child)
...
 

 
(4)  Breach  of  civil  liberties  (in  some  countries  children  have  to  have  certain  
vaccinations  before  they  can  start  school,  and  there  are  parents  who  feel  that  
vaccinations  should  be  a  matter  of  personal  choice,  rather  than  compulsory)
...
 Joints  between  bones  in  the  
human  body  together  with  the  muscles  that  are  attached  to  them  enable  us  to  
move  and  also  support  the  body
...
 
 
 

Bones  

 
Bones  provide  a  framework  that  supports  the  body
...
 Blood  cells  are  formed  within  bones,  which  
contain  bone  marrow
...
   
 
 

Ligaments  

 
Ligaments  attach  bones  to  one  another  at  a  joint
...
 They  are  tough  and  
fibrous,  and  provide  strength  and  support  so  that  joints  are  not  dislocated
...
 They  are  made  of  tough  bands  of  connective  
tissue,  made  of  collagen  fibres  and  are  capable  of  withstanding  tension  as  
muscles  contract
...
 They  are  able  to  contract  in  
length,  and  as  they  do  so  they  move  the  joint  into  new  positions
...
 
 
 

Motor  Neurons  

 
Motor  neurons  stimulate  muscle  contraction
...
   
 
 

The  Elbow  Joint  

 
The  elbow  is  a  hinge  joint  because  it  moves  in  a  manner  resembling  to  the  
opening  and  closing  of  a  door  hinge
...
 The  
capsule  that  seals  the  joint  is  lined  by  a  membrane  that  secretes  lubricating  
synovial  fluid  so  that  bones  move  smoothly  against  one  another  and  friction  is  
reduced
...
   
 
The  elbow  joint  is  made  up  of  three  bones  the  radius  and  ulna  in  the  lower  arm,  
and  the  humerus  in  the  upper  arm
...
   
 
The  biceps  are  attached  to  the  radius  and  the  shoulder  blade
...
 The  triceps  are  attached  to  the  ulna,  humerus,  and  shoulder  
blade,  and  it  contracts  to  straighten  the  arm
...
   
 
 

The  Knee  and  Hip  Joints  

 
The  knee  joint  is  another  example  of  a  hinge  joint,  and  it  moves  in  a  similar  way  
to  the  elbow,  allowing  movement  in  only  one  direction
...
   
 
Ball  and  socket  joints  allow  movement  in  more  than  one  direction  and  also  
permits  rotational  movement
...
 Viewed  under  the  light  microscope,  it  has  a  stripped  appearance  made  of  
multi-­‐nucleate  cells  known  as  muscle  fibres
...
 Each  fibre  is  made  up  of  many  
myofibrils  running  parallel  to  one  another
...
 
 
Myofibrils  are  made  up  of  repeating  sub  units  called  sarcomeres,  which  produce  
the  striped  appearance  of  the  muscle  fibre  and  are  responsible  for  muscle  
contractions
...
 There  are  two  types  of  
filament  that  form  the  striped  pattern  of  a  muscle
...
     
 
The  narrow  filaments  of  actin  are  attached  to  the  z  lines  and  extend  into  the  
sarcomere
...
 Where  myosin  is  
present,  the  myofibril  has  a  dark  appearance,  and  a  light  band  is  seen  where  
actin  is  present
...
 
 
 

Muscle  Contraction  

 
Muscle   contraction   is   explained   by   the   sliding   filament   theory,   which   describes  
how   actin   and   myosin   filaments   slide   over   each   other
...
  The   steps   are  
given  below:  
 
(1)   Nerve   impulses   (action   potentials)   travel   along   the   muscle   fibre   membrane  
or  sarcolemma,  and  are  carried  down  into  the  fibre  through  infoldings  called  T  -­‐
tubules
...
 
 
(2)   Before   contraction   binding   sites   form   myosin   heads   on   the   actin   filaments  
are   covered   by   two   molecules,   troponin   and   tropomyosin
...
 
 
(3)   Now   Ca2+   ions   bind   to   the   actin   filaments,   causing   troponin   and   tropomyosin  
to  change  shape  and  expose  the  myosin  binding  sites,  forming  cross  bridges
...
  The   myosin   heads   bend   towards   the   centre   of   the  
sarcomere,   pulling   the   actin   filaments   inward   passed   the   myosin   filament   by  
about  ten  nanometres
...
   
 
(5)  New  ATP  molecules  bind  to  the  myosin  heads  breaking  the  cross  bridges  and  
detaching   them   from   the   actin   filaments
...
 If  the  muscle  receives  further  stimulation  the  process  
is  repeated  and  the  myosin  heads  attach  further  along  actin  filaments
...
 
The   light   bends   become   reduced   and   as   the   overall   length   of   the   sarcomere  
decreases,  the  dark  bands  take  up  a  greater  proportion  of  the  length
...
 For  example,  urea  is  produced  as  a  waste  product  from  the  
metabolism  of  amino  acids
...
   
 
One  of  the  main  functions  of  the  kidneys  is  to  act  as  filters,  removing  waste  
molecules  from  the  blood  passing  through  them
...
 
The  kidneys  are  also  vital  in  osmoregulation
...
 To  maintain  a  constant  internal  environment  in  the  
blood,  tissue  fluid  and  cytoplasm,  which  is  essential  to  ensure  that  all  cell  
processes  occur  effectively
...
 
 
Excretion  is  the  removal  from  the  body  of  the  waste  products  of  metabolic  
pathways  whereas  osmoregulation  is  the  control  of  the  water  potential  of  body  
fluids  by  the  regulation  of  water  and  salt
...
 Each  
kidney  receives  a  blood  supply  from  a  renal  artery,  which  is  a  branch  of  the  main  
aorta
...
   
 
Three  regions  are  visible  in  the  kidney:  
 
(1)  The  outer  cortex  
 
(2)  The  central  medulla    
 
(3)  Inner  renal  pelvis  
 
Urine  produced  by  the  kidney  collects  in  the  renal  pelvis,  and  is  carried  down  
into  the  bladder  in  the  ureter
...
 
Nephrons  are  the  functional  units  of  the  kidney,  selectively  filtering  and  
reabsorbing  substances  from  the  blood
...
   
 

How  the  kidneys  work  

 
The  kidney's  complex  structure  allows  it  to  carry  out  its  functions  amazingly  
efficiently
...
 Approximately  ninety  nine  per  cent  of  this  blood  goes  to  the  
cortex
...
 Because  the  incoming  afferent  arteriole  has  a  wider  diameter  than  the  
outgoing  afferent  arteriole,  blood  pressure  in  the  glomerulus  capillaries  is  very  
high  (so  high  that  about  twenty  per  cent  of  the  blood  plasma  leaves  the  
capillaries  in  the  glomerulus  and  passes  into  the  Bowman's  capsule)
...
 
 
It  leaves  the  capillaries  through  small  holes,  which  the  high  blood  pressure  
causes  to  open  in  the  capillary  walls
...
 But  filtration  occurs  at  the  basement  membrane,  which  is  made  of  
glycoprotein
...
   
 

The  blood  plasma  that  has  passed  through  the  basement  membrane  is  now  
known  as  filtrate
...
 
 
Blood  cells  and  large  molecules  remain  in  the  blood  in  the  glomerulus  capillaries  
and  flow  on  into  the  afferent  arteriole
...
 
These  must  be  reabsorbed  into  the  bloodstream
...
   
 
The  wall  of  the  tubule  is  a  single  layer  of  cells,  and  each  one  has  a  border  of  
microvilli  to  increase  the  surface  area
...
   
 
All  the  glucose  in  the  filtrate  is  actively  reabsorbed  together  with  almost  eighty  
per  cent  sodium,  potassium,  magnesium  and  calcium  ions
...
   
 
The  remaining  filtrate  now  moves  on  to  the  loop  of  Henle
...
 The  wall  of  the  descending  lymph  of  the  loop  is  
permeable  to  water  but  relatively  impermeable  to  salts,  whereas  the  ascending  
lymph  is  impermeable  to  water  but  allows  salts  to  be  passed  through  its  walls
...
 A  high  salt  concentration  in  this  
area  of  the  kidney  is  essential  for  fine-­‐tuning  of  the  water  content  of  the  blood  by  
the  collecting  duct  at  a  slightly  later  stage
...
   
 
The  water  enters  blood  capillaries  that  surrounds  the  loop  of  Henle
...
   
 

The  Distal  Convoluted  Tubule  and  the  Collecting  Duct  

Ions  are  exchanged  between  the  filtrate  and  the  blood  in  the  distal  convoluted  
tubule
...
   
 
The  final  portion  of  the  nephron  is  the  collecting  duct,  where  the  final  
adjustment  of  water  is  made
...
 If  ADH  is  present,  the  duct  
develops  a  membrane  channels  called  aquaporins  so  that  it  becomes  more  
permeable  and  water  is  taken  back  into  the  blood
...
 
 
The  urine  now  flows  from  the  collecting  ducts  into  the  renal  pelvis  and  down  the  
ureter  to  the  bladder
...
 Osmoreceptors  in  the  hypothalamus  
monitor  water  levels  in  the  blood  and  control  the  release  of  ADH
...
 Stress  and  nicotine  increase  the  ADH  
production,  producing  the  opposite  effect
...
 
 
 

Reproduction  
 
Spermatogenesis  

 
Spermatogenesis  is  the  production  of  mature  sperm  cells  (spermata)  in  the  
testes
...
   
 
Sperm  production  and  development  takes  place  from  the  outer  part  of  the  
seminiferous  tubules  towards  central  lumen  where  sperm  cells  are  eventually  
released
...
 These  diploid  cells  divide  regularly  by  mitosis  to  
produce  more  diploid  cells,  which  enlarge  and  are  known  as  primary  
spermatocytes
...
 The  second  division  of  these  two  cells  results  in  four  spermatids  (n  
-­‐  which  means  its  haploid)
...
 These  large  cells  assist  the  differentiation  of  immature  
spermatids  into  spermatozoa  and  provide  nourishment  for  them
...
   
 
 

Hormones  and  Sperm  production  

 
Sperm  production  is  controlled  by  three  hormones:  follicle  stimulating  hormone  
(FSH  -­‐  it  stimulates  meiosis  in  spermatocytes  to  produce  haploid  cells),  
testosterone  (stimulates  the  maturation  of  secondary  spermatocytes  into  mature  
sperm  cells),  luteinising  hormone  (LH  -­‐  it  stimulates  the  secretion  of  
testosterone  by  the  testes)
...
 
 
Sperm  cells  are  released  ate  the  ejaculation  in  a  nutrient  rich  fluid  known  as  
semen
...
 It  is  mixed  
with  the  sperm  cells  as  they  leave  the  epididymis  and  move  along  the  vas  
difference  (sperm  duct)
...
 It  is  rich  in  fructose,  which  provides  energy  for  the  sperm  cells  
to  swim,  and  it  also  contains  protective  mucus
...
   
 

Oogenesis  

 
Oogenesis  produces  female  gametes,  the  ova
...
   
 
Oogonia,  the  germinal  epithelial  cells  within  the  ovaries  of  the  female  foetus,  
divide  by  mitosis  to  produce  more  diploid  cells
...
   
 
Primary  oocytes  undergo  the  first  stages  of  meiosis,  but  this  stops  during  
prophase  1  leaving  the  primary  oocyte  surrounded  by  a  layer  of  follicle  cells  
known  as  the  primary  follicle
...
   
 

At  puberty,  development  of  the  primary  follicles  continues
...
 
 
Two  haploid  cells  are  produced,  but  the  cytoplasm  divides  unequally  so  that  one  
cell  is  much  larger  than  the  other
...
 The  polar  body  degenerates  and  
does  not  develop  further
...
 At  the  same  time  the  follicle  cells  divide  and  produces  a  fluid  that  
causes  the  follicle  to  swell
...
   
 
Although  ovulation  is  also  described  as  the  release  of  the  ovum,  the  cell  that  is  
released  is  still  in  fact  a  secondary  oocyte
...
 The  empty  follicle  in  
the  ovary  develops  to  become  the  corpus  luteum  or  yellow  body,  which  produces  
the  hormone  progesterone
...
 Both  involve  the  division  of  cells  in  
germinal  epithelium  by  mitosis,  the  growth  of  cells  before  they  undergo  meiosis,  
and  two  divisions  of  meiosis  produce  the  haploid  gametes
...
 In  oogenesis,  
one  large  gamete  is  produce  per  meiosis;  in  spermatogenesis,  four  large  gametes  
are  produced  per  meiosis
...
 In  oogenesis,  early  stages  occur  during  
foetal  development
...
 In  oogenesis,  an  ovum  is  
released  at  ovulation  during  the  menstrual  cycle
...
 Ovulation  ceases  at  menopause
...
   
 

 
Fertilisation  

 
During  sexual  intercourse,  million  of  sperm  cells  are  ejaculated  into  the  vagina  
and  some  of  them  make  their  way  to  the  cervix  and  uterus  towards  the  ovary  
ducts
...
 Which  is  
a  considerable  distance  for  the  tiny  cells
...
   
 
Only  one  sperm  cell  will  break  through  and  reach  the  plasma  membrane  at  enter  
it
...
 
 
 

Pregnancy  

 
Approximately  twenty-­‐four  hours  after  fertilisation,  the  zygote  begins  to  divide  
by  mitosis
...
 
 
As  these  divisions  are  occurring,  the  ball  of  cells  is  moved  down  the  oviduct  
towards  the  uterus  and  settles  in  the  endometrium  lining,  where  it  plants  itself  
and  continues  to  divide  and  develops  into  an  embryo
...
 HCG  travels  in  the  bloodstream  t  the  ovary  where  its  
role  is  to  maintain  the  corpus  luteum,  the  mass  of  cells  that  have  developed  from  
the  empty  follicle
...
 
 
During  pregnancy,  it  is  important  that  the  lining  remains  in  place
...
 Thereafter,  the  placenta  is  fully  formed  and  
produces  placental  progesterone  and  oestrogen,  so  the  corpus  luteum  
degenerates
...
 After  about  one  month  it  is  only  five  
millimetres  long,  but  has  a  beating  heart  and  the  beginnings  of  a  nervous  system
...
 The  foetus  at  this  stage  is  
thirty  to  forty  millimetres  long,  and  has  recognisable  limbs  with  developing  
bones
...
   
 
The  foetus  is  connected  to  the  placenta  by  the  umbilical  chord  and  is  filled  with  a  
fluid  sack  called  the  amnion,  which  contains  amniotic  fluid
...
 Amniotic  fluid  also  
enables  the  growing  foetus  to  move  and  develop  its  muscle  and  skeleton
...
 The  placenta  allows  these  materials  to  be  exchanged  between  
the  mother  and  the  foetus  and  it  also  acts  an  endocrine  gland,  producing  
oestrogen,  progesterone,  and  other  hormones  that  maintain  the  pregnancy
...
   
 
It  is  made  up  of  the  maternal  endometrium  and  small  projections  known  as  villi  
from  the  outer  layers  of  the  chorion,  which  surrounds  the  embryo
...
   
 
Foetal  blood  remains  inside  these  capillaries,  which  penetrate  the  endometrium  
tissue  until  they  are  surrounded  by  the  maternal  blood  around  them
...
 
 
 
 
 


Title: Human Health and Physiology 2
Description: Notes on defence against infectious diseases (more advanced notes), muscle movement, the kidney, and reproduction. Suitable for Advanced Higher, A-level, and IB students.