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Geography Notes

Globalisation

IB Geography — HL Extension: Globalisation
Definition:
Term

Definition

Civil society

Any organization or movement that works in the area between the household, the private
sector and the state to negotiate matters of public concern
...


Core and periphery

The concept of a developed core surrounded by an undeveloped periphery
...


Cultural imperialism

The practice of promoting the culture/language of one nation in another
...


Food miles

A measure of the distance food travels from its source to the consumer
...


Globalization

“The growing interdependence of countries worldwide through the increasing volume
and variety of cross‑border transactions in goods and services and of international
capital flows, and through the more rapid and widespread diffusion of
technology” (source: IMF)
...
Nations are ranked according to a calculated globalization
index
...
It is designed by the Swiss Federal
Institute of Technology on a yearly basis
...
The increasing presence of McDonald’s restaurants worldwide is
an example of globalization, while changes made to the menus of the restaurant chain,
in an attempt to appeal to local tastes, are an example of glocalization
...
The
total value of goods and services produced within a country together with the balance of
income and payments from or to other countries
...
Outsourcing is done to save money, improve quality or free company resources
for other activities
...


Transnational corporation
(TNC)

A firm that owns or controls productive operations in more than one country through
foreign direct investment

1

Geography Notes

Globalisation

1
...
Describe how the globalization index may be represented spatially
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g
...
g
...
T
...
g
...
T
...
T
...


2
...


- Friction of Distance:
- This is the reduced likelihood of people using a service the greater the distance that they live from it
...
e
...
reduction in commuting to IST with
increasing distance from Colomiers
...

Time-Space Convergence:
- This is when travel time between places decreases and distance declines in terms of its significance
...
g
...

the time taken to circumnavigate the globe
- 1700s: 2 years (by three-mast frigate)
- 1930s: 8 days (by propeller aircraft)
- 1990s: 31 hours (by jet aircraft)

3

Geography Notes

Globalisation

Examine the relative changes in the speed and capacity of two types of transport (air, ocean, road, rail, pipeline)
responsible for the flow of goods, materials and people
...
g
...
1% in 2009 (usually around 5%
yearly growth rate)
- deregulation
- e
...
China’s deregulation and economic reforms 2008, 1068 domestic routes (1957 only 27 domestic
routes)
- budget airlines (Ryanair)
- continued expansion of airports (Heathrow: 5th terminal built, Dubai International)
- transport costs go down due to development in infrastructure, may possible by improvement in technology or
structure —> overall efficiency for travel is higher

Extension and density of networks
Examine the changes in a transport, internet or telecommunications network in terms of the extension of
links and nodes and the intensity of use at a national or global scale
...

- in 2010:
- biggest exporter: China (31
...
6 20-foot-long containers)
- air travel
- e
...
India is currently experiencing a transformation in terms of its internal connectivity
- the Indian government recently ring-fenced US$12 billion for the building of new airports
- estimated rising demand for internal air flights from India’s new middle classes will require the number of
planes in service rise from 200 in 1991 to 2000 by 2020
- high-speed rail
- e
...
railways are the chief conduit linking rural and urban parts of China
- migrant workers travel in both directions along the route of the 1500km China-Tibet ‘sky train’ , whose hitech specifications mean it can operate effectively even in the conditions on the Tibetan plateau where
temperatures drop to -35’C
- emails
- e
...
one recent estimate suggested around 60 billion non-spam emails were sent daily by the 1
...
3 billion mobile subscriptions worldwide: roughly six in ten people alive
today
- e
...
market penetration across the African continent soared from just 2% in 2000 to 28% by 2007
...
g
...
g
...
By the beginning of 2008, it had more than 50 000
km of motorways, second in terms of length only to America’s Interstate Highway system (75 600 km)
...

- role of ICT
- ICT enables global movements of corporate and personal data, while increasing serving as the medium of
choice for people to consume music and film (instead of purchasing manufactured CDs and DVDs)
...
3% of world population are connected to the Internet
- speed of internet connection increasingly important
- Developments in ICT vital to expansion of civil society within and between countries
- Allows cheap, reliable and almost instantaneous communications around most of the world, permitting
sharing of information on unprecedented scale

- Civil society organizations apply ICT to promotion of improved human development
- E
...
Policy documents available online, virtual communities Anonymous, reddit
- Advances in ICT have provided significant contribution to development activities
- Quality of life of communities, especially isolated ones, much more improved when ICT part of livelihood
system

- Local skills in these sector develop people more quipped to find employment and develop small business
opportunities

- Greater communication within communities themselves, and with the outside world

- Political participation
- Arab Spring youths use mobile networks to communicate with each other to meet/ organize
- Voting can be done via online in Estonia; online petitions like Avaaz
...
8 million daily visitors in UK in 2009
- Growth of twitter
- Fan clubs: Nike has 1
...

- Response to natural disasters
- Indian Ocean tsunami 61% of people who gave online did so for the first time
- Helped maintain awareness
- Establish websites for specific emergencies
- Finance
- Increasing number of people manage bank account online and no longer receive paper bank statements
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(HSBC HK encourages online statements)
Money is taken out at cash machines rather than face to face inside bank
Bills and taxes can be paid online (HK)
Many large businesses require payment by cash transfer
Money can be transferred by mobile phone (See Africa, also remittances)
Online shopping: 913 million on 15 December 2009

Examine the contrasting rates, levels and patterns of adoption of an element of ICT in two countries
...
For seven major countries for 2002, 2004, 2006 and 2008,
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Internet traffic is expanding by about 50% a year, with video and music streaming increasing at the fastest rate
...

Comparing the USA, China and India
- in 2002
- USA: 167 million users
- China: 46 million users
- India: 7 million users
- in 2008
- USA: 220 million users
- China: 253 million users
- India: 60 million users
- percentage of the world’s internet users
- USA: 15%
- China: 17%
- per capita usage (much higher in developed countries)
- USA: 72
...
g
...
youngest)
- e
...
Chile, 74% of internet users are under 35 years
- Males and females
- e
...
Ethiopia, 86% of internet users are male
- Language can be a hindrance
- Reasonable disposable income is important though computers and Internet packages are falling in cost of
real terms

- Inability to undertake financial transactions on the web may reduce incentive to become connected
- Proportion of silver surfers (age over 80) rising but still has a significant number resistant to internet
Comparing China and UK: Internet
- China
- In 2000 only 1
...
7%
- June 2009: number of mobile Internet users reached 155 million, up 32
...
7%
- Gender: 55
...
2% were female
- Male/female internet gap more pronounced in rural areas than in urban environments
- Recent growth has been fastest in more remote western provinces (lowest absolute rates of connections
tough)
- In rural areas, Internet cafes are important

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Geography Notes
Globalisation
- Still significant disparity between urban and rural areas, Internet users in rural areas reached 106
...
Economic interactions and flows
Financial flows
Examine the importance of loans, debt repayment, development aid, remittances, foreign direct investment and
repatriation of profits in the transfer of capital between the developed core areas and the peripheries
...
g
...
g
...
g
...
g
...


- The United States is the number one sender of international remittances(23
...

- India is the number one receiver of remittances, with $69 billion in 2012
...

- Cons
- it entails taking away the money earned in one country and injecting it not another country’s economy,
thus boosting their local demand
Examine the influence of governments, world trading organizations and financial institutions (such as the World
Trade Organization, International Monetary Fund and World Bank) in the transfer of capital
...

- Voting power on the IMF is in proportion to quotas of IMF funds (USA holds 17% of total votes, hence can
block IMF policy which requires 85% backing)

- Forces structural adjustment programs on tied loans
Labour flows
Explain the causes and effects of one major flow of labour between two countries
...
4% Indonesia, 1
...

- The concept of taking internal company functions and paying an outside firm to handle them
...

- A little different form offshoring and subcontracting
- Enabled by revolution in ICT and reduced transportation costs
- Globally outsourcing market worth about 500 billion dollars (2008)
- Philippines increased outsourcing revenues by 25% from 4
...


- Not just core-to-periphery
- Periphery to periphery outsourcing
- Egypt supplies skilled migrant labour to the oil-rich nations of the Persian Gulf
...

Mauritius as a service exporter to Europe, particularly France
...
Environmental change
Degradation through raw material production
Identify the effects of agro‑industrialization and changes in international production and consumption on the
physical environment
...

- large-scale
- capital-intensive
- very large farms
- concentration on one (monoculture) or a small number of farm products
- heavy usage of fertilisers, pesticides and herbicides
- sophisticated ICT management systems
- highly qualified managers
- often owned by large agribusiness companies
- often vertically integrated with food processing and retailing
- originally developed in Europe and North American and then spread to other parts of the developed world
- has been spreading rapidly in many developing countries since the beginning of the Green Revolution
- it is heavily dependent on oil for every stage of its operation
- e
...
fuelling farm machinery, transporting produce, and producing fertilizers and other farm inputs

- effects
- the profit ambitions of large agribusiness companies and the drive for cheap food production
- over the last half-century every stage in the food industry has changed in the attempt to make it more
efficient (in an economic scale)

- vertical integration has become an increasingly important process with growing linkages between the
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different stages of the food industry
global trade in food commodities is dominated by a small number of companies
the top ten seed firms control 30% of the global market
the top ten agrochemical corporations control 84% of the global market
a dozen supermarket chains dominate food sales in the USA and Europe
over 80% of the world’s biotech patents are held by five companies - Monsanto, DuPont, Syngenta, Dow
Chemicals and Avents
in the USA, only 8% of farms account for 72% of agricultural sales

- environmental impact
- deforestation
- land degradation and desertification
- salinisation and contamination of water supplies
- air pollution
- increasing concerns about the long-term health of farmworkers
- landscape change
- declines in biodiversity
- it has been estimated that food production and consumption accounts for up to twice as many greenhouse
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gas emissions as those from road vehicles
methane and nitrous oxide emissions due to meat and dairy product
emissions of transporting produce to wholesalers and then on to retailers
refrigeration of produce at the wholesale, retail and home consumption stages
consumers driving to and from food stores
cooking food which in developed countries required the burning of fossil fuels; in the world’s poorest
countries burning fuelwood causes deforestation and indoor air pollution

Discuss the environmental consequences of increasing international demand for one raw material
...
)
- 20% is used to extract oil for cooking
- 70% is used as meal for livestock and poultry
- global meat consumption rose from 44 million tonnes in 1995 to 280 million tonnes in 2009 (a six-fold increase)
- soybean production:17 million tonnes (1950); 250 million tonnes (2009)

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Geography Notes
Globalisation
- increasing demand from countries such as China pushes up prices which in turn increases pressure for greater

-

production
- soybean consumption in China reached 55 million tonnes in 2009, of which almost 75% was imported
- about half of all global soybean exports are destined from China
environmental impacts:
- due to rapid expansion of soybean production, the Greenpeace published a report entitled ‘Eating up the
Amazon’ which led to a moratorium on cutting rainforest for new soybean cultivation
- it also blamed Archer Daniels Midland, Bunge, and Cargill (three large US commodities firms) for supplying
the seeds, pesticides, mills and port facilities to make soybean production possible on such a large scale in
the Amazon forest
- soybean farmers thus buy up ranchland and converting it to soybean production

Examine the concept of food miles and the environmental consequences of increasing volumes of air freight
...
g
...

- chemical waste
- costing $2
...

- heavily affect countries:
- Somalia (lack of effective government)
- Ivory Coast
- health problem arises
- nosebleeds
- nausea and vomiting
- headaches
- skin and eye irritation
- respiratory symptoms
- dehydration
- intestinal bleeding
- nuclear waste
- ‘high-level waste’
- cause death within a few days to anyone directly exposed to it
- in UK, nuclear waste is about 0
...

- no long-term solution to the nuclear waste problem

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Geography Notes

Globalisation

Transboundary pollution
Describe one major pollution event affecting more than one country and examine the consequences of and
responses to this event
...


Examine the growth of environmental awareness as a consequence of these global interactions
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0 earthquake
- substantial amount of radioactive material began to be released —> largest nuclear accident since 1986
- significant amount of radioactive water: expected to take decades to clean up; there have been continued spills
of contaminated water at the plant, some into the sea
- 2013 WHO report: 70% higher risk of developing thyroid cancer for girls exposed as infants
- health effects of ionizing radiation may result from:
- cell killing, which may cause functional impairment of the exposed tissue or organ, if a sufficient number of
cells are affected;
- non-lethal changes in molecules of a single cell, most commonly in the DNA molecule, which may result in
an increased risk of disease long after exposure
...

Greenpeace International
- 2
...


- overall objectives
- address climate change, the main threat facing the plant
- against fossil fuels and the use of coal
- renewable energy
- challenge wasteful and destructive fishing and create a global network of marine reserves
- build on a system to manage land-based over-exploitation
- against industrial fishing, by-catch and unfair fisheries
- protect the world’s ancient forests and the animal, plants and people that depend on them
- forest destruction —> 1/5 global GHG emission
- timber certification and moratorium on soya crops that are growing in deforested areas in the Brazilian
Amazon

- protect the Canadian Great Bear rainforest in 2009

- work for disarmament and peace
- tackle the causes of conflict
- elimination of all nuclear weapons
- toxic-free future with safer alternatives to hazardous chemicals in today’s products
- sustainable agriculture
- reject genetically engineered organisms
- protect biodiversity
- encourage socially responsible farming

- Greenpeace has achieved much more success in Europe(more members and generates most of its funds)
- critics: Some former members left to join more radical organisations, viewing Greenpeace’s non-violent
approach as too timid
...

- impact
- agro-industrialisation: farming landscapes as capital-intensive agriculture
- transportation landscapes: increasing uniformity
- major tourist destinations: more and more alike as international tourists have increasingly expected similar
standards from hotels and other tourism infrastructure
...

- urban landscape
- CBD
- outer retail areas
- transport and other urban infrastructure
- residential areas
- industrial areas and business parks

5
...

- language
- not always restricted by geographical borders
- culture is transmitted through a range of activities involving language
- speech
- literature
- song
- Mandarin Chinese has more than 1051 million speakers over the globe
- English has 510 million speakers
- Papua New Guinea has the greatest variety of languages (820 languages) with only 5 million population

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Geography Notes
Globalisation
- India has 427 languages among its 1 billion population
- UN official languages include: Arabic, Chinese, English, French, Russian and Spanish
- bilingual country (e
...
Canada, both English and French)
- English: language of the ‘global village’
- significant number of people around the world speaking English as a second language
- to gain access to the world of information
- providing greater employment opportunities
- provides the greatest degree of access to global consumer culture
- customs
- the established patterns of behavior that are commonplace within a particular country, region or social
setting —> a long-standing practice handed down from one generation to the next

- e
...
Japan
- bowing
- no tipping
- thresholds
- conformity

- beliefs/religions
- large sections of populations either have no religious beliefs at all or simply practice the traditional family

-

-

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religion but without great faith —> secularism
conflict between Muslims and Christians (e
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Mindanao, the Philippines)
conflict between Islamic Sunni and Shia sects in Iraq
conflict between Christian Protestants and Catholics in Northern Ireland
conflict between capitalism and communism
dress
- dress can mark out a person’s job and their position in a community; in national terms, dress may in part be
a response to climate
- business dress (global norm)
- traditional dress (usually the older age group/special occasions)
- mark economic and social change, also important political watersheds (e
...
the communist revolution in
China in 1947 brought a strict uniformity in terms of dress —> the opening up of the economy to the outside
world from the late 1970s saw the norms on dress relaxed)
- stricter for women than men (e
...
the traditional Islam the burka is seen as essential for women to wear in
public)
images
- cultural images may be: political, economic, social, environmental or historic
- UK: bowler hats, Buckingham Palace, London’s red buses and the black London taxis
- Germany: concentration camps of the WWII and other aspects of the Nazi era
- images that people of a certain culture have of themselves are often quite different from the images that
other people have of that particular culture
- stereotypes —> little relation to reality —> cause offense and can become the cause of friction
music
- doesn’t depend on written or spoken communication explicitly for its major impact
- can diffuse easily from one culture to many others
- however, since the global music industry is dominated by a small number of extremely large TNCs with their
origins in the West, rock and pop music transcended cultures more than any genre
- national anthem and maybe a few other particular pieces of music will be especially important in asserting
national identity
- involve pride
- e
...
Russia boasts a large number of internationally appreciated composers of classical music including:
Tchaikovsky, Shostakovich and Rachmaninoff
- e
...
US has a worldwide reputation for its pop and rock stars including: Aerosmith, Madonna and Michael
Jackson
- new forms have emerged that combine African and Western elements
- e
...
West African highlife (showing certain Caribbean traits)
- e
...
Congolese population music (reflecting Latin American influence)
- e
...
Southern Africa sabasaba and kwela (akin to American swing and jive music)

-

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Geography Notes
Globalisation
- food
- some countries and cultures are internationally known for their food (e
...
Italian, French, Mexican, Chinese
Indian and Thai)

- food is an important part of religious observance and spiritual ritual for many faiths
- e
...
Judaism ‘kosher’: animals that provide meat must be slaughtered correctly; food such as pork and
shellfish are strictly forbidden

- e
...
Islam ‘halal’: ‘halal’ means ‘lawful or permitted’, all foods are allowed except for those that are

-

considered harmful, including pork, alcohol and any products that contain emulsifiers made from animal
fats, particularly margarines
- e
...
some Catholic and Orthodox Christians: fast or avoid meat on Fridays and during Lent
technology
- the development of new technology can result in cultural change
- e
...
the Industrial Revolution in the UK and many of its most important inventions are still associated with
the country
- e
...
modern times Japan and Germany: particularly noted for their excellence in technology
- cultures can differ significantly in their attitudes to different technologies (where moral and ethical norms
come into play), for example
- nuclear electricity and power
- medical procedures such as abortion
- the use of contraception
- GM crops

Examine the diffusion of cultural traits resulting from the international movement of workers, tourists and
commodities
...
rapid economic expansion in the
region 2
...
improved transportation infrastructure; China is
a major factor in strong tourism growth across the entire Asia-Pacific region)
- Africa (6%) (led by the adventure tourism sector)
- Latin America and the Caribbean (-3%, negative three percentage) (however, there’s strong growth in many
South and Central American countries contrasted with lower figures in the more mature destinations of the
Caribbean and Mexico)
- developed regions of the world remain the largest tourism destinations: Europe accounted more than 50% of
total international arrivals
- Hollywood films have been viewed by large overseas audiences since the early 1900s
- internet chatrooms and virtual communities foster personalized contact between people living in different
countries
- TNC stores, especially fast-food and clothing chains, influence tastes in emerging world markets through the
introduction of new products
- TNC factories and offices can bring behavioral and linguistic change to local people working there

Consumerism and culture
Describe the role of TNCs and the media in spreading consumer culture
...

- role of media
- encourage consumers to ‘want’ more than they ‘need’
- create successful product images and to identify target consumer groups
- global advertising industry generated revenues of more than $100 billion annually (contributes about 1% of
global GDP)
- creating brand identity and brand image (consumer perceptions about the brand)
- role of TNCs

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Geography Notes
Globalisation
- TNCs’ market penetration and economic expansion depend upon the mass media for the dissemination of
consumer culture

- in 2014, the top 5 most valuable global brands are: Google, Apple, IBM, Microsoft and McDonald’s
Sociocultural integration
Examine the role of diasporas in preserving culture in one country and the adoption of minority traits by host
societies
...

- Xingu people in Brazil
Examine the ways in which international interactions may result in the homogenization and dilution of culture
...

- cultural imperialism is defined as the practice of promoting the culture or language of one nation to another
- large, powerful nation —> smaller and less affluent one
- can take the form of an active, formal policy, or a general attitude
- e
...
The British Empire was the largest in territorial extent and reached its maximum before the WWI
- supporting cultural imperialism
- language
- concerns that half of the world’s 6000 languages will be extinct by 2100
- about 60% of current languages have fewer than 10000 speakers
- tourism
- landscape of mass tourism are similar in most parts of the world
- global brands
- major brands and the images they project are of Western consumer culture
- e
...
Coca-cola, Nike and McDonald’s
- media
- around 20-30 large TNCs dominate the global entertainment and media industry
- the great majority have their headquarters in Western countries
- e
...
Google, Microsoft, Disney and Time Warner
- democracy
- most people see this as a good thing, but some will argue that it has reduced the diversity of governance
methods that other cultures exhibit, which in some cases have strong historical roots

6
...
Discuss the shift of power from nation state to TNCs as a result of their
economic size and dominance
...

- flow of ideas
- the development of Internet and other social media —> phenomenal increase in the flow of ideas and
images around the world
- This has created enormous benefits, but also considerable tensions in some countries
...

- The flow of ideas has allowed many more individual connections to be made as more people see similarities
between themselves and people in other countries
...
2 trillion (eightfold increase since 1990)
- for example
- US companies building factories in China
- European citizens buying Latin American stocks
- Middle East investors buying equity stakes in UK banks
- Chinese companies taking stakes in African commodity producers
...
g
...
g
...
g
...


- in 1994 NAFTA had 390 million consumers, with a combined GDP of over $7
...


- the impact on the USA
- a lot of people against the idea
- reduction in wage and benefit when US firms are to remain competitive against cheap Mexican labour
- US companies moving to Mexico (lower wage, less environmental legislation) —> reaped high profits
- American workers are less well off now than before the advent of NAFTA
- the impact on Canada
- most organizations and individuals hold favorable views about NAFTA
- significantly increase in Canadian exports to NAFTA and the two-way flows of FDI
- One in five jobs in Canada is linked to international trade
...

- critics: too tightly bound economically with the USA, may lose its sovereignty (huge difference in economic
and political power)

- the impact on Mexico
- adopt higher foreign standard and business practice, gradually improving their competitiveness
- manufactory industry has diversified
- critics:
- majority of exports go to the US (high dependency)
- ‘When the USA catches a cold, Mexico gets pneumonia’
- the government did too little to prepare the country for such a drastic change
- Mexican small-scale farmers now have to compete with large-scale high-technology American and
Canadian agribusiness

- achieved significant market penetration in food and live animals, beverages and tobacco, machinery and
transport equipment, and miscellaneous manufactured articles

- An ever-increasing number of Asian and European companies have established plants in Mexico in order to
gain access to Mexico’s NAFTA trade partners

20

Geography Notes

Globalisation

shift of power national state to TNCs
- the top TNCs’ revenue is more than $400 billion a year (more than the GDP of 90% countries in the world)

Responses
Examine the resurgence of nationalism in one country as it attempts to retain control of its resources and culture
...
7 trillion cubic feet) in Latin America —> after privatization—>
take control of 82% of the oil and gas in the country
privatization in the following sector:
- oil and gas
- land
- water

Discuss anti‑globalization movements
...

- large number of organizations against globalization (e
...
People Global Action, Grassroots Global Justice)
- demonstrate against the WTO (1999 in Seattle, 2005 in HK)
Discuss the attempts to control migration into one country
...
This trend is still
in progress
- The big ‘immigrant states’ are California, New York, Florida, Texas and Illinois
...
Global interactions at the local level
Defining glocalization
Distinguish between the terms globalization and glocalization
...
g
...
g
...
It aimed at local audiences
and uses home-grown animation put together by Tata Elxsi’s VTC unit
...
Examine the reasons
why the level and rate of adoption varies from place to place
...


- reasons why the level and rate of adoption varies from place to place
- the size of market in terms of population
- contrast between urban and rural areas
- level of infrastructure
- cultural acceptance of global business
- government support/object
- economic activity at the local level
Local responses to globalization
Discuss civil society responses to globalization; the adoption, adaptation (glocalization) or rejection of globalized
goods, services and cultural traits
...


Alternatives
Describe the role of civil societies in raising awareness of local and global environmental, social and cultural
issues
...
Discuss the position held by anti‑globalization groups
...

alternative paths
- business-as-usual with the current model of capitalism
- a restructured capitalism with much stronger objectives in terms of both equity and the environment
- abandoning capitalism and introducing a new world order
...

rural Mongolia
- Mongolia is three times the size of France in land area, the country has a population of only 2
...

- program to reduce vulnerability of rural Mongolia
- funded by the World Bank, the European Commission, the Japanese PHRD Grant and the Government of
Mongolia
...


24



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