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ANIMAL HUSBANDRY
Keeley Orrin

2016/2017
ROYAL VETERINARY COLLEGE
Gateway to BVetMed1

Table of Contents
Domestication
...
3
Dog Husbandry
...
11
Stockmanship
...
17
Pig Husbandry
...
22
Sheep Nutrition
...
26
Sheep Reproduction
...
30
Lambing 2
...
33
Dairy Production Systems 2
...
36
Farm Management
...
39
Care & Housing 2
...
48

DOMESTICATION
What is domestication?

Development of Breeds

The progression from tame, or the process of
modifying the animal to suit human requirements
...


The ‘landrace’ is the precursor of a breed
...
Birds also have been
domesticated
...


Selective Breeding
The Shire Horse
The shire horse was produced from native horse
breeds to increase the work capacity and docility
...


Beef & Dairy
Selective breeding has allowed us to create cattle
breeds that are more fit for their function such as
certain dairy and beef breeds
...

In this sense selective breeding can go beyond
usefulness towards extremes, resulting in poor
health or behaviour problems
...
Sheep are capable of
recognising ‘their’ dog, and moving with minimal
upset as the dogs show natural wolf-like behaviour
by circling and moving the sheep
...

It is thought that the relationship between man
and dog goes back almost 100,000 years and that
we may have learned about o-operative hunting
patterns from wolves
...

2
...

4
...

A change of environment or addition of new
individuals may unsettle a hierarchy and lead to
2|Page

increased antagonism until a new pecking order is
achieved, results of this may be weight loss or gain
by certain individuals
...
In farm production units where
there is no clear difference in status there will be
more testing
...
Large groups may be stressful
and split into small groups if space allows
...
For pigs the optimal group size is 12,
increasing to 60 for cattle
...

Controlled feeding order (use of transponder
collars) and individual penning in intensive systems
can help lower ranks by removing bullying and
competition, consequently, their productivity is
higher than it would otherwise be
...


Importance of Good husbandry
Domesticated animal need to express a
behavioural repertoire just as their wild
counterparts do:
•
•
•
•
•
•
•

Ingestion
Kinesis (movement in response to
stimulus)
Social interaction
Body care
Reproduction & maternal behaviour
Exploration
Territoriality

Thwarting or reducing these activities can lead
to abnormal behaviours and stereotypes (eg
...
Enriching the environment or
giving the animal some control over it can help
to improve matters

Importance of stockowners to understand the
behaviour of their animals
1
...
To increase productivity
3
...
To make use of advances in farm
management
5
...

Welfare should be seen as being on a continuum
...
Need for a suitable environment
2
...
Need to be able to exhibit normal
behaviour patterns
4
...
Need to be protected from pain, suffering,
injury and disease

Welfare vs Heath vs Production
Often in veterinary medicine the focus has been on
physical health and in livestock the focus has been
on physical health and its impact on production
outputs
...


Welfare Guidelines
•
•
•
•
•

Animal Welfare
Animal Rights
Animal Liberation – not having animals
under the domain of humans
Ethics
Professional Standards

Requirements for suffering
•
•
•
3|Page

Alive
Sentient
Capacity to suffer

Forms of Animal Suffering
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•

Pain
Social isolation
Fear and anxiety
Depression
Frustration
Starvation and hunger
Dehydration and thirst
Excessive cold or heat
Sickness and Disease
Breathlessness
Nausea
Fatigue
Anhedonia
Discomfort

Examining the Patient for Pain
On Going Pain: back arching, grunting, groaning,
teeth grinding, limb guarding, tail flicking, head
pressing
In Normal Activity: limping, difficulty standing,
awkwardness in climbing the stairs, straining whilst
voiding stool
Primary/Secondary Hyperalgesia: response to
pressure, an exaggerated response to pain
...

Animals may be less active, recumbent or sleeping
more than usual
...
g
...
)
Cytokines coordinate the immune response and
can cause: Fever, Reduced gut
motility/inappetance, Joint pain, Sleep and
Behavioural modification (social isolation?)
...
Loss of interest in:
food rewards, play, social interactions or sexual
interactions
...


DOG HUSBANDRY
Origin of the Dog
The domestic dog: (Canis lupus familiaris)
Order: Carnivora
Family: Canidae
There are 36 members of the canidae family
including many examples of wild or feral dogs;
these include the Australian Dingo, the African
Wild Dog and the New Guinea Singing Dog
...
It is also possible for domestic
breeds to mate with wolves as they are genetically
the closest relative to the dog
...

Domestication of the dog is thought to have
occurred approximately 15,000 years ago (CluttonBrock 1999)
...
These ‘tamer’ wolves
became useful to man: clearing rubbish from the
camp (scavenging) hunting companion (predatory
skills), protection by guarding (pack instinct) and
providing warmth
...

Through selection for particular traits, specialist
breeds developed - changing the head shape and
the position of the ears
...
along with this,
many behaviours can be explained
...
If we
identify the different types of breeds (hound,
terrier, retriever etc) and recognise their particular
5|Page

normal behavioural traits, it can sometimes give us
a clue to the route of the behaviour problem
...


Behaviour
The wolf in our living room actually equates more
to an 11-year old child with similar behaviour
patterns! The domestic dog of today is not an adult
wolf – it has been arrested in its juvenile phase and
evolved into a different species
...
One such
theory is the Rank Reduction Theory, adopted from
looking at wold hierarchy, whereby the owner is
supposed to show very dominant behaviours to
make the dog submissive to them
...


Behavioural Development
Neonatal 0-14 days
Period
Transitional 14-21 days
Period

Total dependence on
mother

Increasing
dependence (eyes,
ears open, weaning)
Socialisation 3-14 weeks
Critical learning
Period
period shaping the
neonate for life so
must socialise with 4
or more humans
...
At this
stage they are able to learn to cope with problems
without fear
...
Dogs are naturally social
animals and so are reasonably keen to interact and
learn social skills
...
3-38
...
Some owners have started to feed
dogs the ‘raw meat diet’

Behaviour
Dogs tend to hunt in packs or occasionally on their
own
...


Communication
Visual – posture, facial expression, eye contact, tail
Olfactory – Scent, presence of signals in urine,
faeces and glandular secretions
Vocal/Auditory – wide range of signals from
whining to barking

Clinical Signs of Oestrus
Pro-Oestrus (Av
...
Vulval swelling becomes apparent,
vulval lips become hard and turgid
...
Bitch becomes restless,
irritable
...

Oestrus (Av
...

Ovulation occurs on average 10 - 14 days after
onset of pro-oestrus & lasts 72hrs
...
Bitch
may adopt an arched back position, with tail
elevated to one side
...
This happens 1-2 times per year
...
55 Days)
Onset is when the bitch refuses to mate
...
False (phantom)
pregnancies occur during this stage of the cycle,
with some dogs more prone than others
...
3 - 4 Months)
Stage of sexual inactivity
...
Most bitches will not come into season until
they have reached adult height and weight
...
The oestrus periods are
non-seasonal with an average of 6-month cycles
...
The interval between may vary between 5
and 13 months
...

Gestation period 57-69 days, usually 63 days
Average litter size 3-8+ (breed dependant)

6|Page

The fertile period is when the spermatozoa are
able to penetrate the egg and achieve conception
...

However, the sperm can live for up to 7 days in the
bitches’ reproductive tract which would mean
mating could occur before ovulation and result in
conception
...


Mating
In planned pregnancies a stud dog will be used
...


stimulates the liver to produce app’s
...
APP’s can rise in pyometra
...
By 10% each week)
after 6th week (last 1/3) of pregnancy and into
lactation
...

Do Not add calcium or other vitamin/mineral
supplements
...


Studs need to be at least 12-18months before
being worked and cannot be worked more than
every 2-3 weeks
...


Worming

Diagnosis
•
•

•

•

•

•
•

Abdominal Swelling - unreliable – could be
other reasons
Mammary Gland Enlargement & Milk
Production - unreliable - non pregnant
bitches may have swollen mammary
glands and produce milk
(pseudopregnancy)
Abdominal Palpation - not before 3 weeks
or after 5 weeks
...

Ultrasound - useful, safe
...

Radiography - not before day 45 - foetal
skeletons have not calcified
...

Foetal Heartbeat - in late pregnancy foetal heartbeat may be detected
...
the
uterus signals this as an attack and

7|Page

Gentle but normal exercise throughout pregnancy
...


Vaccination
Before mating to ensure adequate levels of
maternal antibodies and subsequent colostrum
levels
...
(Including
reabsorption of foetuses)
...
Various
causes include; hormonal, nutritional, traumatic,
or infectious
...

The onset of parturition is indicated by a drop in
rectal temperature to approx
...
Colostrum is present in
the mammary glands
...
The dam becomes restless, bitches
may pant
...
The foetus entering the birth canal
stimulates oxytocin release which increases the
uterine contractions
...
It may be up to 4 hrs
between arrivals

Stage 3
15-20mins
Associated with the passage of allantochorion
(placenta), expulsion of foetal membranes and
involution of the uterus
...


Stage 4
Known as the puerperium
...
It includes the period of
uterine involution - may take up to 4 - 6 weeks
...
Reabsorption of foetuses
2
...
Maternal Dystocia
b
...

•
•
•

Exceeded 70 days since mating – no signs
of parturition
Unsettled with forceful but infrequent
contractions
Straining stops with no sign of a foetus
appearing

8|Page

•
•
•

Black/ green vulval discharge but no signs
of parturition
Parturition has not started 48hrs after a
decrease in rectal temperature
...

More than 2 hours since last foetus when
more are expected

Neonatal Care
During the first few weeks the bitch will provide all
care required for the pups or kittens – food,
warmth and protection
...

The mother will stimulate urination & defecation in
the young and will consume all faeces until the
young are about 20 days old
...

Neonates should be examined carefully and
defects noted
...


Physical Examination
Vital Signs
Body Temp
Heart Rate
Resp Rate
Av Body weight

Neonate 0-4 weeks
34
...
1oC
220/min
15-35/min
Double birth weight in
8 days
A physical examination at birth is necessary – look
for congenital and inherited defects such as cleft
palate, or umbilical hernia, is the abdomen
enlarged due to worm burden? Normal number of
limbs?

Feeding and Weaning
Puppies and kittens should feed from their mother
as soon after birth as possible
...


It is essential they receive the colostrum because
of it properties:
•
•
•
•

Antibodies
Laxative to aid expulsion of meconium
Nutrients to prevent hypoglycaemia
Warm drink to prevent hypothermia
...
They will continue to feed
from the mother approximately every 2 hours
during the first week
...

From this age onwards the young should be
encouraged to eat semi-solid food (mixture of
tinned and commercial puppy/kitten milk)
...
The weaning
process should be complete by 5 – 6 weeks of age
...

Puppies are usually born with Toxocara canis
worms passed from their mother
...
Ensure the equipment
used is sterilised and cooled boiled water is used to
make up the milk
...
During the first week feed
every 2 hours during day & night
...
Ensure that the neonate
is suckling and swallowing
...
The neonate should be putting on
weight and increasing in size gradually
...


Toileting
As the mother would normally toilet the
puppy/kitten after feeding it is important to
simulate this using damp pieces of cotton wool
...
Clean away
the urine and faeces with separate pieces of cotton
wool
...

Weaning can be carried out as before
...


When advising owners about what type of pet to
get or what breed, you must be able to give them
information regarding:

Causes of illness:
1
...
After Birth: parasitic, bacterial, viral,
malnutrition

•
•
•
•
•

Care of the Orphan Neonate

Exercise requirements
Behavioural types of certain breeds
How much space do they have?
How much time do they have?
How much can they afford (not just to buy
in the first instance, but feeding, possible
veterinary costs, insurance?)
Long or short haired breed?
Where to find their selected breed of
animal (breeder, rescue society, pet shop?)
Hereditary diseases and defects

It may be necessary to hand rear neonates if the
mother dies or is unable to feed the litter
...
A foster mother
can be used to rear the young also
...
Cows’ milk should NEVER be
used as it is inadequate in protein and fat and may
cause diarrhoea which would quickly lead to

Owners can be advised that under the Sale of
Goods Act, breeders of animals should ensure that
offspring are clinically healthy and have a good
temperament
...

The British Veterinary Association (BVA) and
Kennel Club (KC) have several schemes available
for KC registered dogs to screen them for
hereditary diseases and potential owners can be
advised to take advice before buying any animal
...
The crate should signify the dogs
‘den’ a safe place to sleep escape from noisy
children and somewhere to go when anxious
...
It is
essential that the puppy is then allowed outside as
often as necessary to eliminate
...
Basic training is essential; sit, down, stay, come
etc
...


Other schemes are used by some breed societies
to monitor the level of certain disease
...
g
...


Usually well adapted to the home environment
already
...
Again do not change the diet rapidly but
gradually transfer to different diet if required
...
Most dog breeds will have an
associated Breed Club, which will have a code of
ethics and certain recommendations
...
These are often run by the Kennel Club
and Governing Council of Cat Fancy
...
No dogs with docked tails may be shown
in dog shows
...


Adult Dogs

Protect from disease by regular vaccinations and
worming
...


Neutering
Unless required for breeding it is usually advisable
that they are neutered at an early age, this
prevents unwanted litters and prevents disease in
later life
...


Dental Care

Settling the New Dog at Home

Some breeds are more prone to dental disease,
however diet can play a big part in prevention as
well as dental chews, tooth brushing or oral dental
gel
...
Using radios, ticking clocks etc
...

Maintain previous routine initially and feed same
food at first, gradually weaning onto the diet of
choice
...
Pets are required to
have health checks and blood tests to confirm
antibody levels for rabies
...
The animal must be in
quarantine for 6 calendar months
...
Ancestors in
northern climates were more solidly built with
thicker fur
...

The domestic ‘moggy’ of today was thought to
have derived from the friendliest of wild cats – the
African wild cat, with some lines from the African
and Arabian wild cat
...

The first known domestication was by the
Egyptians from around 3000BC
...
It is thought that the
Romans were responsible for introducing cats to
northern Europe, with records in Cyprus 9,500
years ago and in the UK around the mid-14th
century
...
Most of these cats tended to be semiferal, living in barns, feeding themselves and
independent of human contact
...


11 | P a g e

Behavioural Development
Neonatal 0-14 days
Period
Transitional 14-21 days
Period

Total dependence on
mother
Increasing
dependence (eyes,
ears open, weaning)
Socialisation 3-14 weeks
Predatory behaviour
Period
develops initially as
play
...

It is equally important to socialise cats from an
early age otherwise they will never adapt to
others
...

Socialising the kittens with their littermates is also
better than alone
...
Kittens
with a genetic predisposition to being timid and
shy improve with early handling but are not usually
as friendly as ‘genetically friendly’ kittens
...
This often resembles amusing
play behaviour but it is in fact preparing them to
carry out their innate predatory behaviour, which
will help them survive
...
5oC
Heart Rate
110-180/min
Resp Rate
20-30/min
Average Body 3-6kg
Weight
Average life expectancy 12+ years

Natural Diet
Cats are obligate carnivores – they need to eat
meat
...


Behaviour
Many of the behavioural characteristics of wild
cats still remain although pet cats tend to retain
12 | P a g e

their juvenile characteristics relying on us for food
and protection
...

Ferals can live in social groups of females and their
young if there is a good supply of food
...
Cats are considered more
independent, solitary and less social than dogs
...

It has been possible to ‘train’ cats to perform
various ‘tricks’ but training usually extends to
housetraining and no further
...
Cats have good night vision,
useful as they mainly hunt alone at night
...

It is important to learn how animals communicate
as problems occur when we misinterpret the
signals given
...
Oriental pedigrees may mature at 5
months whilst longhaird pedigrees could take up to
1 year
...
Cats may be very vocal
during their first cycle
...
This period is not as distinct as in
the bitch
...
Adopts
unusual crouching position
...
Becomes over friendly
...
Cats are induced ovulators and only ovulate
24 hrs after they have been vaginally stimulated
i
...
has mated
...
The cat
then returns to proestrus & oestrus
...


Parturition
Preparation
The same as with bitches, with longhaired breeds
the clipping of fur around the perineum is
essential
...


Problems Associated with
Parturition

Di-Oestrus / Metoestrus
Dioestrus occurs 24 - 48 hrs post ovulation leading
into pregnancy
...
If ovulation occurs, the corpus lutea
forms producing progesterone for about 40 days
...


Anoestrus
Period of sexual inactivity
...

Several mating’s will occur to ensure conception as
ovulation occurs 24hours post mating
...


Diagnosis
Diagnosis of the pregnant queen is the same as
diagnosing a pregnant bitch
...
The only difference is that the
pregnant queen is to keep exercising normally to
13 | P a g e

Neonatal Care
Again, refer to neonatal care of the bitch and
puppies
...
4-36
...


Worming
Worm kittens for roundworms from 2 weeks old
then every 2 weeks until they are 12 weeks old
...


Illness in Neonates
Refer to Illness in Neonates in Dog Husbandry
...


Settling the New Cat at Home
Kittens
Maintain previous routine initially and feed same
food at first, gradually weaning onto the diet of
choice
...
Crates can be
used if the house is open plan and areas not kitten
proof! Letting the kitten outside for the first time
should be done when the kitten is hungry and
owner should accompany the kitten on the first
visits outside
...
Cats should be initially confined to one
room until settled then allowed into the rest of the
house allowing the cat to become familiar to the
home before going outside
...


Keeping the Cat Healthy
Protect from disease by regular vaccinations and
worming
...

Cats will exercise themselves but playing with
them encourages bonding and reduces the risk of
obesity
...
Neutering can be done at 5-6months
...
Hills TD is one of the top dental care
foods available
...
Pets are required to
have health checks and blood tests to confirm
antibody levels for rabies
...
The animal must be in
quarantine for 6 calendar months
...


Cows eyes are positioned at the sides of their head
and give good sight to the side, and along the
length of their body
...


A positive, confident manner, subdued coloured
outdoor clothing and protective footwear are
required at all times, although there are different
levels of stockmanship
...
As they are all prey species any signs
of danger or fear inside their flight distance cause
them to flee
...

In all groups of animals there is a hierarchy
...
Groups
of similar ages, weights and sex are more likely to
fight, although males can be peacefully grouped
together outside of the mating season
...
Pigs have also retained the typical
feature of prey animals to be able to see
monocular vision at each side although they have a
much bigger blind spot than cows
...

Social interaction between individuals is through
sight, smell, hearing and body language
...


Handling Large Animals in Livestock
Systems
It is very important with large animals to be aware
of their vision fields and blind spots
...

Beef cattle only tend to get handled a few times in
their life and can be much more difficult, acting
like huge sheep
...


15 | P a g e

Sheep

Preventing Injury

In most cases sheep will only needs handling a
couple of times per year
...
On some farms they may only
handle for shearing and lambing
...

Large animals don’t bite but can kick and crush to
cause injury
...
They are often
moved using pig or forcing boards droving them in
a particular direction
...
Firstly, they
need to be caught into a spacious pen, where you
can then restrain them using long lead rein
...


Equipment and Handling Facilities
Handling of livestock begins by penning up the
group of animals and running them through a race
to get them into single file
...

When handling animals, it is important to be aware
of any environmental obstructions such as chains
or foreign objects lying across the floor that may
spook the animals causing them to not want to
progress into the race or crush
...


Crushes are designed to be able to give you access
to all parts of the animal whilst keeping both of
you in a safe position
...


16 | P a g e

INTRODUCTION TO
PRODUCTION SYSTEMS
UK Production Systems
In the UK the major farm species are cattle, sheep,
pig and poultry
...


different levels of waste meaning that their
environmental impact is different
...

Different management systems vary in
importance, for example a comparison of dairy vs
sheep farming would consist of:
•
•
•
•
•

Numbers of employees
Quantities of their product
Amount of money generated
Type and quality of resources used
Balance of how their costs are structured

The different species and production systems have
varying animal health status and problems, such as
different animal health risks, and different
amounts of money spent on animal health
...

It can be argued that in the UK we can intensively
manage sheep outdoors, by closely monitoring the
animals and the land use for pathogens and other
factors
...


Classification Systems
Different animals have different values; a cow is
not the same weight as a sheep or a hen because
their biomass is different
...
In both cases they
consume different levels of feed and excrete

Intensive (landless) Production
This system is mainly used for pigs and poultry, but
in some cases for dairy and feedlot beef too
...
Much of the feed is
produced and processed off the farm and bought
in
...


Grassland Production
There are three ways of producing on grassland,
using both intensive and extensive:
1
...
Permanent grasslands
3
...

The majority of their forage is grown on farm, and
the stocking rate/density is much lower than
intensive systems
...

2
...

4
...
Ovulation rate, breading season, gestation
length and the time from parturition to conception
all play a role in the number of offspring per year
...
25
litters/sow/year
AIM FOR ~24 PIGLETS/SOW/YEAR
Sheep Production:
Ovulation rate ~ 1-3 (breed dependant)
Gestation period ~ 147 days
BUT most UK breeds are seasonal breeders – only
breed in autumn — 1 litter/ewe/year
AIM FOR 1
...
2 LAMBS/EWE/YEAR
Flushing is when you give extra nutrition 2-3weeks
before tupping to induce ovulation and increase
reproductive success
...

When talking about grass growth it is measured in
kilos of dry mass per hectare per day
(KgDM/hectare/day)
...

There are times when the supply exceeds the
demand of grass so it can be cut and stored for
times when demand exceeds supply
...


PIG HUSBANDRY
The UK pig industry currently consists of about
420,000 sows, most of which are intensively
managed although 40% are outdoor reared
...

Sows are exported to Germany, whilst at slaughter
a live weight of <100kg is preferable with AHD Pork
as the UK levy board
...

The parity number is the number of litters a sow
has had
...

The genetic nucleus is the unit which holds the
grandparents, terminal sire being the one that
sires the slaughter generation
...
The herd size dropped
after foot and mouth outbreak around 2000 from
which the UK has never recovered, the size has
settles at around 400,000
...

Feed costs make up around 70% of the farm costs
with wheat prices being the main factor in this
cost
...


Conserving surplus forage — Hay — Silage

Indoor or Outdoor

Market Demand / Prices

There is almost and even split between the
number of outdoor and indoor units
...
Outdoor
pigs may be sunburnt, and they cannot sweat
except from their noses and have difficulty
maintaining their body temperature especially in
cold weather
...


Lamb prices influenced by time of lambing — ‘out
of season’ lambing
Seasonal variation in lamb demand and price —
Supply and demand — Other factors

Other Factors
Other factors may include, but are not limited to:
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•

Farm assurance schemes
Subsidies (basic payment scheme)
Consumer preference (fashion)
Product quality
Type of production system
Welfare issues
Land use and use of pharmaceuticals
Opportunity cost?

19 | P a g e

The UK Pig Industry
Two generations of AI before the slaughter
population in a pyramid structure
...


Mega Farms
Welfare on mega farms is often of a very high
standard
...


Normal Husbandry
Animal husbandry is the agricultural practice of
breeding and raising livestock; a husbandman in
mediaeval times was a free tenant farmer or small
landowner (below yeoman)
...


Welfare Codes
Contain all the legislation and guidelines on pig
keeping and husbandry
...


trimmed there may be incidences of facial necrosis
too
...


Tail Biting/Docking
The undocked tail is rather insensitive so other pigs
will often chew each other’s tails which can be
prevented by docking
...
Docking causes sensitive tissue to form on
the end of the tail so that pig’s don’t allow another
to bite their tail
...
25KG
Often piglets born under 1
...
Both of these cause
the skull to be broken and almost immediate death
of the animal
...
Ensure
sufficient working teats on the foster mother
...
If disease, do not foster

Adequate colostrum is needed for the animal to
become viable as there are no maternal transplacental antibodies in the young
...


Pig Teeth

Castrations

Trimming teeth can help with mastitis and needs
to be done under veterinary guidance
...


Mating or Artificial Insemination

Castration is illegal on red tractor farms
...


Tips are corkscrews

Weaning

Gestation and Farrowing

Moved from pen Moved from mum – warmth,
milk, stable small group in to larger pen –
transport, mixing Vaccinations Legal requirement
28 days (legislation) Vs 21 days (if you have the
correct systems in place)
...


Induction of Farrowing

Slaughter or Replacement
Slaughter
Transport
Stress
Mixing
Lairage

Replacement
Transport
Stress
Vaccination
Disease Status
Mixing of disease
status

Breeding Sows
Oestrus at 120kg, 210 days of life but mated at
2nd/3rd oestrus
...


Procedures
Vaccination
Ear tags required for all pigs
...


21 | P a g e

AI
Mating
Oestrus lasts 24h – 5 days Insemination once,
twice or more 12 or 24h intervals

Done to assist management Prostaglandin and
oxytocin given Need to know gestation date
EXACTLY
Cannot keep sows in stalls in the UK although it is
permitted elsewhere in the UK
...


The Vets Role
Farming is TOUGH, its a business in which farmers
want to do a good job and make money
...


The sheep first evolved in Eurasia about ¼ million
years ago and domestication is thought to have
occured about 9,000 BC
...

About 5,000 years about the sheep arrived in the
UK
...
This may be due to the fact that sheep
were the source of British wealth and the primary
source of tax revenue
...
In North America, sheep are not
considered an important animal to the economy
...

2
...

4
...


Wool / Fibre
Meat (lamb or mutton)
Milk
Hides / Pelts
Offal’s (organs)

Sheep Breeds
There are about 1,000 million sheep in the world,
of which about 30 million are in the UK
...

In the UK only 86 breeds are registered, and can
be split into different categories:
•
•
•
•

Hill Breeds
Long-Wool Breeds
Cross Breeds/Half Breeds
Down Breeds

Recognition of the Breeds
It is important for a vet to recognise particular
breeds, firstly because clients expect it! But also
different breeds have different associated
22 | P a g e

Hill Breeds
Examples: Welsh mountain, Scottish Blackface,
Swaledale, Hill Cheviot
Hill breeds are very hardy, they have the ability to
lay down and mobilise fat stores
...
Due to
the inadequacy of nutrition in the hill environment
they have a low reproductive performance with
low litter size and high mortality
...
75 to 4
...


Production
Hill and upland farms constitute 1/3 of UK
farmland
...

100% of hill farms have breeding ewes, making up
43% of all ewes in the UK
...
This is a good example of easy care
management although there is no performance
recording
...
8-2
...
They produce milk well and
grow quickly
...
They are moderately sized with a ewe
weighing in at 606-80kg and have good mothering
instincts
...


Down Breeds
Examples: Texel, Suffolk, Charollais
The down breeds are the terminal sires or meat
breeds, they can be crossed with half-bred ewes to
produce lots of meaty, fast growing lambs
...


Stratification
Stratification is the integration of 3 sectors
characterised by a stratifies three-tier breeding
structure
...

Hill Sheep Production - >500m
Upland Sheep Production – 300-500m
Lowland Sheep Production - <300m

Features of Stratification
Farmers get the choice of different breeds and
crosses matched to their area or production
system
...
It
exploits the complementarity of breeds, with near
optimal use of heterosis (getting the best
characteristics of both breeds)
...


Disadvantages
•
•
•
•

Transportation
Welfare
Disease Spread
Movement Restrictions

SHEEP NUTRITION

Slow lamb growth rates are often due to a mixture
of disease and poor nutrition
...


Sheep are ruminants, and so can be fed a range of
different feedstuffs
...
Farmers must take into
consideration what they are feeding their sheep as
it can have an impact on the performance
...


Finished Lamb Production
Returns from the lamb depend on the marketing
and the carcase
...

Britain produces an average deadweight carcase of
16-22kg compared to 16-19kg on the European
markets and 8-12kg in Spain and Italy
...

Farmers are paid depending on the weigh and
conformation of the carcase
...
The longer a lamb takes to put on
the weight the longer the farmer has to keep it
before slaughtering
...

24 | P a g e

Carcase Assessment & Valuation
There are 4 main points on a lamb to assess its
fatness status, with A and B being the best
indicators
...
Price varies from the baseline
depending on the conformation and fat class by
pence per kilo
...

The aim should be for consistent BCS’s throughout
the year rather than constant weight changes,
especially during post weaning and early
pregnancy
...


Consequences of Poor Ewe Nutrition

Breeds and Conformation
Carcase Improvement of Hill Sheep
There is genetic variation for live-weight, lion
muscle, fat depths and conformation
...


Genetic Improvement of Long-wool Breeds
Lack of genetic information
Lack of performance recording
Average flock size = 11
Sire Referencing Schemes Multi-trait selection
index: to balance maternal and carcase traits

UK Sheep Products
Store lambs
Lambs not ready for slaughter, sold to other farms
for finishing
Usually SLOW-GROWING on farm of origin
Source: hill, upland farms
Buyer needs to grow rapidly to make profit

Feeding Ewes
When calculating the nutrition for ewes the focus
is on lamb production
...
Flushing will have less of an effect if any
and in extreme cases there will be reduced
pregnancy and ovulation rates
...
If the
foetus does survive there may be poor placental
development leading to a small lamb birth weight,
reduced viability and higher mortality rates
...
Metabolic diseases can
cause death of the ewe, small lamb birth weight
and reduced viability, whilst reduced colostrum
production results in the lamb under-feeding or
starving
...

In the lactation period poor nutrition can result in
smaller lambs at weaning which means less profit
...


SHEEP FARM YEAR
Spring
Lambing over 2-3 cycle period (34-51 days)
...
A lambing bag is also necessary for
outdoor systems with any useful tools that may be
needed
...
Farmers need to consider whether it is
necessary and ensure that the stump is long
enough to cover the anus and the vulva
...
If over three
months it must be done by a vet with anaesthetic
...
It is usually done
around 12-16 weeks old once the rumen has
developed
...
Weaning allows ewes 4-6 weeks to recover
before mating again
...
Normally it can be done in
52 strokes with a top shearer reaching a rate of 1
sheep/min
...

The benefits of shearing include preventing the
wool from forming a ‘cast’ which can restrict the
sheep and cause health problems, but it is also
good for external parasite control (psoroptes ovis,
ticks, flies, lice, keds)
Shearing also has its dangers: skin cuts/grazes,
accidental damage to appendages, exposure to
26 | P a g e

cold weather and the sheep eat more so more
food and shelter needs to be provided
...
Most ewes have
productive life up to 5-7years and this gives an
opportunity to improve the flock
...

2
...

4
...

6
...

Lambs grow 100-300g/day and are sold anywhere
between 14-44weeks of age
...


Autumn
Most mating occurs – Oestrus cycle is 17 days and
most farmers make for 2-3 cycles (34-51days) as
sheep are short-day breeders
...
This is
done by inserting a sponge loaded with
progesterone into the vagina of the ewe and
removing it after 10-12days
...

The gestation period is 147 (+/-3) days taking the
ewes through till spring
...
This can detect from 90days
of gestation
...

Another importance of pregnancy testing is to find
out the number of foetus’ each ewe is carrying
...


In – Wintering Housing
Housing sheep for varying periods of time, usually
during winter and in some cases for lambing too
...

Advantages
Less poaching of fields
Protection from
weather
Control of nutrition
Assistance in lambing
Control of worms

Disadvantages
Expensive
Increased disease risk
Un-natural for sheep?

Expenses come from the capital loss of sheds, feed
ad bedding and the cost of cleaning and emptying
out
...
The timing of vaccination
varies according to which disease you are
vaccinating against
...

Abortion vaccines – pre-mating or early pregnancy
Vaccines against lamb diseases (Clostridial):
vaccinate ewe ~4 weeks pre-lambing
Foot Rot vaccine – prior to period of disease risk

Worming
Also termed dosing or drenching on farms, young
animals are the most susceptible to worms
...


27 | P a g e

Dipping
Dipping is essential for external parasite control of
mites (scab), ticks, flies, lice and keds
...

Fly strike normally occurs in summer, whilst spring
and autumn are risk period for sheep scab and
ticks
...
There
are issues currently surrounding the chemical
residues that may be found in wool, meat, the
environment and in human health
...

This can vary depending on the breed and we can
manipulate out of season breeding
Oestrous cycle ~ 17 days

ovulation rates decrease, lamb birthweight,
colostrum and milk yield decrease, and the chance
of embryonic loss increases
...
The fingers can be pushed easily below
the transverse and each process can be felt
...


Oestrus duration ~ 24- 36h

Puberty
Females tend to reach puberty between 58months at around 38kg, meaning they can have
their first lamb at 1 year-old, although more often
farmers wait until they are 2
...


Mating

Score 2
The vertical processes are prominent but smooth;
individual processes being felt only as
corrugations
...
The loin muscle is a moderate depth but
with little fat cover
...
This may include: the
season, age, stress, BCS and ram fertility
...

The optimum score is between 2
...
5
...
The horizontal
processes are also smooth and well covered; hard
pressure is required with the fingers to find the
ends
...


Score 4
The vertical processes are only detectable as a line
...
The loin muscles are full and rounded, and
have a thick covering of fat
...
In lowland systems
farmers generally aim for >150% laming
...
The
loin muscles are very full and covered with very
thick fat
...

Normally the ratio of rams to ewes is 1:30-1:100
but this may depend on the farm and length of
mating season
...
This increases
ovulation rate and the chance of conception
...
Zoonoses and other species specific
infections such as toxoplasma and chlamydophila
abortus cause the ewe to abort
...


Ewe Problems Around the Lambing
Period

Prevention

1
...

3
...

5
...

7
...


2 – Abortion
Occurs in >2% of the flock

Causes

In some cases indoor lambing ewes may not
recognise their own lambs
...


Personal care, zoonotic PPE, isolation, samples for
diagnosis, disposal of aborted material
...
Also quarantine replacements
or allow to lamb separately
...


Of the vagina and cervix

Foetal Growth Rate During Pregnancy

Over-fatness
Lack of Exercise
Carrying triplets
Type of diet – only feeding hay/straw means
nutritional requirements are not met so animal
eats increasing intra-abdominal pressure
...


1 – Nutritional or Metabolic
Diseases
1
...
Hypocalcaemia (milk fever)

Pre-Disposing Factors
Multiple foetuses, prolonged under-nutrition,
sudden check in nutrition and a sudden change in
diet
...


Treatment
Calcium Borogluconate (Hypocalcaemia)
Dextrose, Propylene Glycol (pregnancy toxaemia)
...


Open Cervix
Induce lambing if close to term
...


Care until lambing
1
...

3
...


Exercise
Small meals
Loosening the harness at signs of lambing
Identification and culling

4 – Dystocia
Simply difficulty in lambing due to multiple lambs
coming at once, extra-large lambs, abnormal
presentations, prolapse or ringwomb
...


5 – Ringwomb
Ringwomb is the lack of cervical dilation at the
time of lambing
...
It needs to be differentiated
from early stages of lambing, and it may result in a
dead lamb
...


7 – Mastitis
Inflammation of the udder and is the reason for
46% of cullings
...

Environmental: poor hygiene, cold/windy/wet
weather
...


Causes of Lamb Mortality
Hypothermia is the main cause of lamb mortality
...


Protection, control of restraining (epidural),
cleaning, warming, raising hind quarters,
lubrication with antiseptic cream, ask assistant to
make funnel around vulva, work back with palms
of hands, apply harness or stitch
...


Problems of the New-born Lamb
Temperature regulation, higher heat loss and
lower heat production
...

The new-born lamb has lower energy reserves
which are therefore a limited supply, despite there
being a higher demand due to more heat loss
...


LAMBING 2

Hypothermic lambs require warmth and an energy
source
...

Resistance to Infectious Diseases: Exposure to
disease or vaccination causes antibody production
+ Priming of immune system

Normal Lambing
1
...

3
...


Separation
Discomfort
Star-Gazing
Contracting/Straining

Physical Changes:
1
...
Only Fluid
3
...


Hygiene and colostrum

When to Examine, Intervene or Assist
There is variation in the length of time taken for a
ewe to lamb, and interfering too soon can be as
harmful as leaving it too long to help
...
The ewes milk may also be used if
no other lubricant is available
Gentleness – force may often cause internal
damage to the ewe or the lamb
Ewe Position – offending limb or head uppermost,
raise hind quarters
Retopulsion – pushing the lamb back into the
uterus to create more space for correcting the
position
...
Dressing of navel
...


DAIRY PRODUCTION
SYSTEMS 1

Watery Mouth/Rattle Belly

Productivity

Disease of intensive husbandry
Endotoxaemia: E
...

2
...

4
...

6
...

It costs around £2000 to get a cow past puberty so
you can breed from it, after 2 lactations the cow
starts returning a profit
...
Antibiotics (oral and parenteral)
2
...
No Milk Feeding

Prevention
1
...

3
...


Improve ewe nutrition
Supplement colostrum feeding
Clean lambing pens
No castration / tail-docking (<24h)

7500-8000 litres per year per cow
...
This increases the
number of high yielding days
...

When there is a problem at calving, other
complications are more likely to occur
...

It may be required to train farm staff for them to
assist with more routine calving’s
...
5 hours for a heifer
...


Management
Farming is a business where size and succession
planning are essential
...

Lactating cows will drink about 40 litres of water
per day and eat about 25kg of dry matter
...


Measures of Reproduction
•
•
•
•
•

Calving interval (Calving to conception
interval)
Conception rate (Pregnancy rate, Services
to conception)
Non-return rate (# days)
Oestrus interval (Insemination interval)
Cull rate

Records
In dairy farming, it is important to make lots of
observations and put them into a permanent
record to be analysed so that you can act on the
outcome
...


Factors Affecting Reproductive Status
•
•

Management
Nutrition

34 | P a g e

•
•
•
•
•
•

Disease Status
Heat Detection
Fertile Bull
Semen Handling
Poor Record Keeping
Poor Communication

DAIRY PRODUCTION
SYSTEMS 2
Infectious Diseases
Viral, bacterial, protozoal and parasitic diseases all
undermine the conversion of nutrients into animal
derived foods
...

BVDv, leptospirosis, bTB, coccidiosis, and fluke are
just some common diseases
...
It could also express as an
increased incidence of an infectious disease such
as mastitis
...

Milk fever, LDA, RFA, mastitis and lameness are a
few examples
...

In the UK farmers average around 35% prevalence
of lameness, but we should be aiming for 17% over
the whole year
...


Common Feeds

Heifers

Grass, silage, hay, haylage, maize, maize silage,
molasses, concentrates

At First Service

Calf Care
Rearing
Mortality rates of calves in the UK is around 8%,
although this will vary greatly on farms
...

2 litres of colostrum should be consumed in the
first hour, 4 total in the first 6 hours and 6 in the
first 12 hours for a calf to be viable
...


Milk Feeding
A calf milk replacer/powder is preferred over fresh
milk which contains pathogens and residues
...
6-10 litres should be
fed per day
...

Fresh feed should be given twice daily and calves
monitored for diarrhoea or respiratory disease
...

Johnes disease is a hot topic at the moment, as it is
thought to be linked to causing crohns in people
...

35 | P a g e

Should be aiming for calving at 24 months of age,
at 375kg and 132cm high
...


AGRIBUSINESS
What is it?
A generic term referring to various businesses
involved in food and fibre, this can incorporate:
-

Mass production
Input sector
Production sector
Processing-manufacturing sector
Food and fibre production

Agribusinesses deal in low-margin commodities
where competitive market forces typically result in
the cost of production being close to the value
created (thus leaving thin profit margins)

Agri-Chains
It is important to understand agri-chains so points
of competitive advantage can be identified
(especially when margins are so small!)
...

Agribusinesses facilitate domestic and/or
international relationships to maximise
competitive advantage and agri-chains can be
classified as supply chains or value chains
...
There are issues in the supply
chain regarding food safety, security, fluctuations
in supply and consumer demand
...

Creating and sustaining value

36 | P a g e

Core Drivers of Doing Business
•

•
•
•
•
•
•

The Theory of the Firm (existence,
boundaries, organisational structure,
heterogeneity of firm actions)
Maximising profitability & minimising costs
Value propositions and customer
satisfaction
Resource allocation
Supply chain optimisation
Cost management
Commercial relationships

Agribusiness in the UK*
The agri-food sector contributed £109 billion, or
7
...

Total consumer expenditure on food, drink and
catering in 2014 was £198 billion with an average
of around 11% of all household spending on food
...
Food prices fell by 1
...
There are 3
...

(*Data extracted from Food Statistics Pocketbook 2015)

Hot Issues in UK Agribusiness:
1
...
Biosecurity and food security
3
...
Optimising land use
5
...
Waste management
7
...
Farmer work/life balance – technology
9
...
Climate change

FARM MANAGEMENT
Economics
Economics helps in understanding why people
have made animal health decisions in the past,
predicting how people will make animal health
decisions in the future and guiding people on how
to improve future animal health decisions for the
benefit of individuals and society in general – this
is the most important aspect for agribusiness
...
g
...
g
...
g
...

The analysis of animal health and livestock
production systems require:
• Technical assessment of the system
• Epidemiological analysis of a change
• Herd/flock modelling

Commonly Used Enterprise Tools
1
...

3
...

5
...


Gross Margin Analysis
Partial Budgets
Investment Appraisal
Financial Feasibility
Decision Tree Analysis
Cost-effectiveness Analysis

Many vets are now offering these services to their
farm clients!

Gross Margin Analysis
Gross margin analysis is used to assess and
compare different enterprises
...
It also does
not take into account a change in an enterprise
...
Animals and products that move OUT
2
...
Change in herd or flock VALUE
Animals and Products
Moving OUT
Sale of products (milk,
wool, fibre, draught
power)
Sale of animals

Animals and Products
Moving IN
Purchased animals

Animals received as
gifts or loans

Value of livestock
products consumed in
the household
Value of products and
animals given to
workers as a form of
payment
Value of animals that
are gifted or loaned
Calculating Output:
Productivity is defined as a measure of the
efficiency of the conversion of inputs into outputs
...
At the beginning of the year a farmer has 7
young bullocks each worth £120
2
...
At the end of the year the animals are
worth: Bullocks – £230/head and Calves –
£120/head

Output = Change in Herd Value – Animals and
products IN + Animals and products OUT

Variable Costs
Variable costs are those that vary in the short-term
according to the scale of production
...

Fixed costs are those that vary in the long-term
...

In a farm with a mixture of enterprises, the fixed
costs will be shared between the enterprises
...


Results
(+) value of the herd or flock at the end of the
analysis period

Crop Systems
Gross Margin = Enterprise Output – Variable costs

Variable Costs
•
•
•
•
•
•

Seed (including homegrown)
Fertiliser
Sprays & Chemicals
Contracts (Specific)
Casual Labour
Miscellaneous

Plus (mainly for horticulture)
•
•
•
•

Marketing expenses
Commission
Containers
Glasshouse fuel

Non-Grazing Livestock
Gross Margin = Enterprise Output – Variable costs

Variable Costs
•
•
•
•

Concentrates (including homegrown)
Purchased roughages (specific)
Veterinary & medicines
Miscellaneous

(-) Value of the herd or flock at the beginning of
the analysis period

Grazing Livestock

Price Discovery

Enterprise Output – Variable costs – Gross Margin
(excluding forage variable costs)

Prices are influenced by consumer demand,
production supply, government policy, taxes,
facilitation of transactions in the market, media
and brand image
...

• Type of production process
• Type of animals produced
• Destination of animals (i
...
local vs
domestic vs international markets)
• Threat of disease transmission during
transport (i
...
FMD, HPIA, African Horse
Sickness)
Sources of pricing information: farming press
(Farmers Weekly, Farmers Guardian, Scottish
Farmer, Farmer Week, Irish Farmers Journal),
DEFRA “Commodities and farm-gate prices”, USDA
and ERS in the USA
...
Building Location, Design & Construction
2
...
Floors & Bedding
b
...
Space Requirements
d
...
Feeders & Troughs
f
...
Species Specific Requirements
4
...

Position the sheds to minimise damage from
prevailing winds
...

With high stocking densities animals will be
producing a lot of heat and through flow of wind
allows the heat to be removed along with dust and
pathogens
...
Avoid
the entry of run-off water from sloping grounds
and avoid conurbations (housing developments)
because of odour
...
Floors
Avoiding cold floors is an important factor,
underfloor heating is used in piggeries whilst other
housing systems may just use underfloor insulation
(loose brick rubble, drain tiles, polythene coated
polystyrene slabs laid before the concrete) and an
adequate depth of bedding
...

39 | P a g e

Slatted floors are useful for letting faeces and urine
fall through and keep the floor relatively clean and
easy to maintain
...
This prevents trapped claws and
claw separation
...


A
...
Straw stems need to be broken to take up
moisture – big bale straw has more split stems and
better water absorption
...

Sawdust: used for poultry, horses and cow
cubicles
...

Capping can trap moisture and high concentrations
of ammonia, increasing the risk of hock burn
...

Wood shavings: less absorbent than sawdust but
can be screened to remove dust
...

Floor & Bedding Issues
Wet floors and bedding encourage:
• Slips and falls
• Flies
• Foot disorder
• Ammonia release
• Air humidity
• Dirt adhesion to animals
Ammonia can cause the breakdown of keratin,
softening the hooves of animals
...
Ventilation
The best way to control temperature, humidity,
transfer of air borne pathogens and air quality is to
use a good ventilation system
...
Ammonia, dust,

hydrogen sulphide and carbon dioxide are all
harmful to livestock if in high concentrations so
ventilation is vital in the removal of these from the
environment
...

Positive pressure ventilation: forcing air into a
building usually with a fan
...

Ducted Ventilation: duct through which air is
delivered within a building
...


Natural
ventilation

Negative
Pressure

40 | P a g e

Ventilation Conclusions
1
...
For sheds with low roofs, fan assisted
ventilation gives more reliable
temperature control than natural
ventilation
3
...
Shed temperature can be regulated
automatically through thermostatically
controlled fan speed or inlet/outlet
aperture size
5
...
Reversed ventilation gives a more even
flow of fresh air through the shed,
compared to conventional direction
7
...
Space Requirements
Overcrowding increases the risk of:
1
...

3
...

5
...


D
...
Lighting can be used to
control alarm behaviour, aggression and
cannibalism; to influence the activity and help
prevent leg disorders; influence feeding frequency;
influence the age at the onset of laying and raised
lighting intensity makes inspection of the birds
easier
...
In addition, the lighting
pattern can be expressed in this way eg
...
Switching lights on frequently
is sometimes used to stimulate the birds to
exercise and feed
...

Lighting and Egg Production
An increasing day length is used to bring pullets
into lay at an early age, for example:

correctly designed
...

The delivery method is also species specific, for
example pigs do not always need troughs and
sometimes trickle feeders are a better option
...
Size selective divisions can be used to
control the intake in a group of individuals such as
larger male animals
...
Water Intake
In poultry monitoring water intake from a meter
can be a useful early indication of ill health in the
flock, and the water system is a very convenient
way of administering drugs and vaccines in ill
flocks
...

Water pipes and troughs can harbour biofilms
however, pathogens are protected and can survive
in biofilms
...

Cup and trough drinkers reed regular cleaning,
nipple drinkers are prone to leaking and
recognising clogged valves can be difficult
...

Under normal conditions, the optimum drinking
water temperature is 16-18oC
...
Feeders & Troughs
Here are many things to consider when thinking
about the design of feeders or troughs
...

Other animals such as pigs like to shovel feed and
may end up wasting it, other animals may cause
wastage in different ways if the feeder is not
41 | P a g e

Make sure you know which species lap water,
which suck water and which fill their mouth and
then raise the head to swallow
...


Some species drink during particular activities or at
particular times, and this will determine the best
location of the drinker
...


Under very wet conditions, the straw inside the
hut can get damp
...
This can be controlled by:
1
...
Using plyboard under the straw to prevent
the damp rising
3
...
They also pose
problems for removing dead sows which are rigor
and floor repair is an ongoing requirement
...
At
0% porosity the zone of protection in the field is
small, whereas at high porosity the wind is
funnelled downwards and provides only very
limited protection
...
On the other hand, slightly
raised bedding improves the exposure to the lower
row of teats to the piglets
...

Outside the hut a stepped entrance may be
necessary to allow the piglets back into the hut,
whilst fenders tend to keep the piglets close to the
hut and stops them wandering off
...
, covering the source of the smell
Dust: adding oil to the feed, using dust-free
bedding, air filtration or misting
Ammonia Emissions: reducing protein content of
the feed, storing manure in tanks, lagoons, or
clamps that have a small surface area, prompt
separation and disposal of urine
...
Live-weight related space allowances
2
...


Stocking Densities
Broiler Chickens

Inappropriate Floor Surfaces:
•
•
•
•

White Line Separation (cattle)
Torn Claws (poultry)
Sole bruising (piglets)
Slips and falls (horses, cattle)

White line separation

Poor Ventilation:
•
•
•
•

Respiratory Disease (all)
Damp Bedding (poultry)
Excessive Dust (pig, poultry)
Ammonia (all)

Feeders & Toughs:
•
•
•
•

Leaking Drinkers (poultry)
Fighting at Feeders (pigs)
Fouled Water (cattle)
Drinker Height (broilers)

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In the UK if a farm has >500 conventionally reared
meat chickens the maximum stocking rate is 33kg
per square meter
...
A plan that shows the dimensions of the
surfaces the chickens occupy
2
...
The location and nature of feeding and
watering systems (eg automatic or manual,
how many feeders, how each is operated)
4
...
Floor type and litter normally used
6
...

Broiler chicks need warm conditions including litter
to provide insulation from cold floors
...


Layer Hens
All systems must be equipped in such a way that all
laying hens have: either linear feeders providing at
least 10cm per hen or circular feeders providing at

least 4cm per hen; and either continuous drinking
troughs providing 2
...


To enable all rabbits to drink satisfactorily the
nipple drinker should be about 25 cm from the
bottom of the cage
...


Turkeys

In conventional caged hens must have at least
550cm2 of cage area, whilst hens in enriched cages
need at least 750cm2
...

All systems must be equipped in such a way that all
laying hens have at least 250 cm2 of littered area
per hen, the litter occupying at least one third of
the ground surface
...


Rabbits
In open-sided buildings or other enclosures which
are exposed to the weather, rabbits in cages
should be provided with adequate protection from
the elements
...
Square mesh should not exceed 19
mm x 19 mm and rectangular mesh should not
exceed 75 mm x 12
...
Wire of not less than
2
...
032 mm
...

The adults of some strains, particularly of the
larger breeds, may need to be kept on solid floors
...
Likewise, in other systems, the use of
straw or similar material in the lying area is
strongly recommended
...

In hutches the minimum floor space required by
does and bucks is 0
...

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Ventilation rates and house conditions should at all
times be adequate to provide sufficient fresh air
for the birds
...

Provision should be made for a period of darkness
in each 24-hour cycle, but where birds do not have
access to daylight they should be given at least 8
hours lighting per day
...
Poults should always be killed
humanely by a skilled operator
...
This is the most
humane method and detailed advice on its use is
given in ADAS advisory publication P568
...
Whatever method is used
the poults should be thoroughly inspected
afterwards to ensure that all are dead
...

The accommodation used for pigs shall be
constructed in such a way as to allow each pig to –
(a) stand up, lie down and rest without
difficulty;
(b) have a clean, comfortable and
adequately drained place in which it can
rest;
(c) see other pigs, unless the pig is isolated
for veterinary reasons;
(d) maintain a comfortable temperature
(e) have enough space to allow all the
animals to lie down at the same time
...
When boar pens are also used
for natural service the floor area must be at least
10 m2 and must be free of any obstacles
...


Where pigs are kept in an artificially lit building
then lighting with an intensity of at least 40 lux
shall be provided for a minimum period of 8 hours
per day

Sheep
When an animal is slaughtered or killed on-farm,
this must be done using a permitted method
...
If the animal is stunned
and bled, the operation must be carried out by a
slaughterman licensed for these operations, unless
the owner is slaughtering an animal for his own
consumption; or - killed by a free bullet; the animal
should be killed with a single shot to the head
...

Category of Sheep
Lowland ewes (6090kg)
Lowland ewes with
lambs up to 6 weeks
Hill ewes (45-65kg)
Hill ewes with lambs
up to 6 weeks
Lambs up to 12 weeks
Lambs and sheep
12weeks – 1 year
Rams

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Space Requirement
1
...
4m2 per ewe
during pregnancy
2
...
2 m2 per ewe
and lambs
1
...
2 m2 per ewe
during pregnancy
1
...
0 m2 per ewe
and lambs
0
...
6 m2 per lamb
0
...
9 m2 per sheep
1
...
0 m2 per ram

Cattle
They shall be kept on, or have access at all times
to, a lying area which either has well maintained
dry bedding or is well-drained
...

For calves kept in groups, the unobstructed space
allowance available to each calf shall be at least 1
...
At least 2 square metres for each
calf with a live weight of 150 kg - 200 kg, and at
least 3 square metres for a calf of 200kg or more
...
The
animal could be: - stunned using a captive bolt
pistol, concussion stunner or electrical stunner
after which it must be followed by bleeding – or
pithed – without delay
...


Equine Requirements
Briefly describe some of the species specific
requirements for feeder and drinker location
and design for housed horses and ponies
In the Code of Practice for the welfare of horses,
ponies, donkeys and their hybrids (DEFRA 2009), it
states:
1
...
“If horses are on a
weight management diet, there are ways
to reduce the volume of food consumed in
a given time whilst still allowing natural
eating patterns (e
...
using haynets with
small holes)
...
15, page 9)
...
“Fixtures and fittings such as tie rings, hay
racks and water bowls should be free of
sharp edges and positioned so as to avoid
injury, particularly to the eyes
...
” (paragraph 1
...

3
...
” (paragraph 2
...

4
...
”
(paragraph 2
...


Common Problems with Housing
Location, design & construction
Slope of the floor – where floors are not made of
concrete (e
...
chalk chippings), they develop
depressions allowing ponding of water and urine
...

Excessive humidity – buildings with sidewall fans
set near the ground can be prone to drawing in
moist air if the surrounding area is in grass
...

Uneven floor surfaces – common in old buildings;
can lead to balking, slow movement or stumbling
...

Standing in wet manure – chemical injury (from
ammonia and water) to feet and legs
...

Dusty bedding – bedding is a source of dust and
(under damp conditions) air-borne moulds
...

Ammonia – wet patches encourage ammonia
release into the atmosphere and ventilation does
not adequately compensate
...

Excessive dust – infrequent removal of dust
leading to unpleasant atmosphere from dust,
which can also be a vehicle for respiratory
pathogens
...

Darkness – making it difficult to inspect the
animals
...


The lighting needs to be brighter inside the
building, as cattle will tend to move better from a
dark area to a brighter area
...
Instead lighting
could be installed which shines downwards onto
the floor of the entrance area or towards the
lairage from the entrance way
...


Describe The Ventilation Systems Used in The
Building Shown Below

Environmental Considerations
The picture below shows the entrance to the
lairage of a small abattoir
...
Cattle balk at the entrance
and refuse to enter
...

Firstly, there is side wall natural entry, plus ridge
outlet natural ventilation – hot air escapes from
the gap in the ridge of the roof, and cooler air is
drawn through the side walls which are open-sided
to replace the air that has escaped
...


Briefly Describe Improvements That Could Be
Made to This Area
The unfamiliarity of the area cannot be managed
other than giving the cattle time to adjust to the
new situation
...


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Secondly, there are electrically operated fans
which blow slightly downwards onto the cows
...
Ideally the fans should point
slightly inwards to the centre of the building, as
this will help cool the cows’ heads as they feed,
without interfering with air entry through the side
walls
...
The transmission
pathways are also very diverse, so they can be very
hard to control
...

People who keep livestock and those who live in
less developed countries where animals are more
integrated into the community are much more at
risk to zoonotic diseases
...


New Emerging Infections
New agents such as the new avian influenza strain
are targeted by the media and public health
efforts
...

Previously known agents may also spread to either
new geographical areas or to different species of
animals
...
Alpacas on hobby farms
also have much closer contact with their owners
and due to this pose a bigger risk to transmitting to
the human population
...


Middle East Respiratory Syndrome (MERS-CoV)

Neglected Zoonotic Diseases
A disease the mostly affects the poor and
undeserved population where access to health and
veterinary services are very limited so the disease
is under-diagnosed and under-reported
...
95% of human rabies deaths occur
in Africa and Asia
...
If 70% of the dogs
are vaccinated the disease transmission is limited
...

Many programmes are run abroad to vaccinate
dogs and wildlife to prevent the disease, often
charity run
...
350,000 human infections
annually in the UK despite only 10-20% of cases
being symptomatic
...
5% occurring in sheep
...
Most people were
found to have severe respiratory problems,
causing up to 50% mortality
...


Endemic Zoonoses

Risk Groups – immunosuppressed people and
pregnant women
...


Constantly present in certain populations, mainly
in developing countries where people are living in
extremely close contact with the animal
...

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