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Title: IB Standard Level Biology, Chapter One, Cell Biology
Description: Incredible notes that clearly summarise Chapter One, "Cell Biology", including all points of the IB Standard Level Biology syllabus PLUS the best diagrams to make learning the course easier. (14 pages) (International Baccalaureate, Standard Level Biology)
Description: Incredible notes that clearly summarise Chapter One, "Cell Biology", including all points of the IB Standard Level Biology syllabus PLUS the best diagrams to make learning the course easier. (14 pages) (International Baccalaureate, Standard Level Biology)
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IB Standard Level Biology
Chapter 1 – Cell Biology
Characteristics of Living Things (summary)
1
...
•
Heterotrophs consume other organisms or their products
•
Autotrophs convert sunlight to food
2
...
Homeostasis
•
E
...
body temperature, water balance
3
...
4
...
The Cell Theory was originally proposed by Matthias Schleiden & Theodor Schwann (~1840) The cell
theory states:
1
...
2
...
3
...
Note: Some biologists consider unicellular organisms to be a cellular
...
Evidence for the Cell Theory
Cells had been observed as early as the 1600’s (by Robert Hooke in 1662 and Anthony van
Leeuwenhoek in 1680) by using simple microscopes
...
Cells are the smallest units of life Viruses may only reproduce themselves by infecting a cell and taking
over its metabolic processes
...
Organelles are sub-‐structures found in cells
...
g
...
Cells come from pre-‐existing cells Louis Pasteur -‐ spontaneous generation (life from non-‐living
substances) does not occur
...
Some microorganisms have a dormant spore phase as part of their
lifecycles – this allows for survival during unfavourable conditions,
and could account for living things “magically” appearing when
conditions are favourable again
...
IB Standard Level Biology
Chapter 1 – Cell Biology
Cells contain a blueprint for Behaviour of chromosomes observations provided insight into the
growth, development and
nature of genes (DNA) and both day-‐to-‐day activity and heredity
...
Biochemical synthesis of macromolecules such as proteins (from
amino acids) and complex carbohydrates (from sugars)
...
Certain biochemical processes are restricted to particular
regions or organelles within the cell
...
Multicellular Organisms have cells that are organized into tissues and organs
...
All body cells of a multicellular organism still have the same DNA, but
a skin cell doesn't need to have the insulin gene turned on
...
Tissues are groups of cells that develop in the same way, with the same structure and function
...
g
...
Organs are groups of tissues that have combined to form a single structure
...
(E
...
the heart)
7
...
(Cardiovascular system)
Multicellular organisms show emergent properties, which is a result of the interactions between
component parts -‐ whole is greater than the sum of its parts
...
g
...
g
...
g
...
Stem cells are unspecialised cells that may continue to divide throughout the life of the organisms
...
( This is how blood cells are produced in the bone marrow)
...
These researchers hope that stem cell therapy will be used to treat diseases such as
Parkinson’s, Alzheimer’s and Type I diabetes
...
Ethnic concerns: Embryos are denied a chance at life
IB Standard Level Biology
Chapter 1 – Cell Biology
Prokaryotic and Eukaryotic Cells
• All cells can be classified as either prokaryotic or eukaryotic
...
Instead they have a loop of naked DNA (nucleoid)
...
Eukaryotic
chromosomes are linear, not loops
...
Eukaryotic cells have more, and they are more
complex – membrane bound organelles
...
Prokaryotic Cells
These cells do not have a membrane-‐bound nucleus, just a simple loop of DNA
...
Functions of Prokaryotic Cell Structures:
• Cell wall: protective outer layer that prevents damage from outside and bursting if internal
pressure is too high
• Plasma membrane: controls exchange of substances (nutrients and waste)
• Cytoplasm: contains enzymes that catalyze the chemical reactions of metabolism and DNA
• Ribosomes: synthesize proteins by translating messenger RNA; stay in the cell or secreted
• Naked DNA: stores the genetic information that controls the cell -‐ is passed onto the daughter cells
• Pili: hair-‐like structures that enable attachment to surfaces and to other bacteria Prokaryotes
(bacteria) may be classified according to their metabolism:
IB Standard Level Biology
Chapter 1 – Cell Biology
• Photosynthesis: Blue-‐green bacteria make their own food by photosynthesis – making them
photoautotrophs
...
• Fermentation: Many bacteria absorb organic substances, convert them into other organic
substances and release them
...
g
...
All prokaryote cells are capable of extremely rapid growth when conditions are favourable to them
– this occurs by binary fission and can result in doubling every 20 minutes
...
DNA is enclosed within the nucleus
...
Functions of Eukaryotic Cell Structures
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
Ribosomes: free-‐floating in the cytoplasm, or attached to the endoplasmic reticulum; they
perform protein synthesis by translating information on mRNA
Golgi apparatus: modifies proteins which are being exported from the cell; produces
lysosomes
Lysosomes: contain digestive enzymes; used to digest food particles brought in to the cell
or may break open to digest the cell when it becomes damaged (“suicide sac”)
Rough endoplasmic reticulum (RER): is the site of protein synthesis for any proteins
which are being exported from the cell (free-‐floating ribosomes make proteins for use
within the cell)
Mitochondrion: is the site of aerobic cellular respiration
Nucleus: contains the cell's genetic material (chromosomes) within the nuclear membrane
Nucleolus: makes ribosomes for the cell
IB Standard Level Biology
Chapter 1 – Cell Biology
Comparing Plant & Animal Cells
Feature
Cell wall
Animal
Not present
...
Chloroplasts
Not present
...
Cell wall is composed of
cellulose (polysaccharide) fibres
...
e
...
Carbohydrates are stored as glycogen
...
Small and temporary
...
Large and permanent – the fluid-‐
filled vacuole helps support the plant
...
Usually square, and does not change
shape
...
Cleavage furrow forms during
cytokinesis and cells pinch apart
...
New cell wall forms
between daughter cells
...
Location of
genetic material
In the cytoplasm, in a region called
the nucleoid
...
Four or more
chromosomes present
...
Cell wall
Generally present, made of
peptidoglycan
Mitochondria
Not present
...
Smaller (70S)
Larger (80S)
Ribosomes
Present only in plants (cellulose)
and fungi (chitin)
Organelles
bounded by a
single membrane
Few or none are present
...
Electron microscopes: narrow beams of electrons instead of light -‐ produce highly magnified
images
...
• Scanning Electron Microscope (SEM): beam of electrons is scanned in a series of lines
across the surface of the specimen –results in a three-‐dimensional image of the specimen
...
If a cell is too large, problems arise related to its surface area-‐to-‐volume ratio: as the size of the
cell increases, surface area-‐to-‐volume ratio decreases
...
The linear magnification is one way to indicate
the size of an object:
1
...
2
...
3
...
4
...
A scale bar (
) may also be used to indicate size – similar to the scale on a map, it
represents a specific distance on the diagram or photograph
...
They are composed of phospholipids in a bilayer and various proteins embedded within the bilayer
...
Phospholipids are amphiphilic: hydrophobic (the fatty acids) and hydrophilic (the phosphate)
• It is because of this unique structure, that the phospholipid molecules arrange themselves in
a bilayer –hydrophilic “heads” facing the watery extracellular fluid & cytoplasm, hydrophobic
“tails” in the middle, away from water
Membrane proteins may be peripheral (attached to the surface) or integral (embedded within
the bilayer) – some integral proteins, called transmembrane proteins, pass all the way through the
membrane
• Hormone receptor sites: hormone binds on the surface of the cell, and transmit a signal to the
inside of the cell
• Enzymes: catalyse reactions inside or outside the cell, depending on the active site location
• Electron carriers: arranged in chains and pass electrons from one to the next in a series of
redox reactions (chemiosmosis)
• Cell adhesion: proteins allow cells to stick together (cell-‐cell recognition sites)
• Pumps: used for active transport, using energy to move substances across the membrane
• Channels: usually gated (to motion, binding of a ligand, or changes in voltage) and allow
facilitated diffusion through the membrane
IB Standard Level Biology
Chapter 1 – Cell Biology
Membrane Transport
Passive Transport: movement of particles across a membrane with no additional input of energy
• Diffusion: passive movement -‐ from a region of higher concentration to lower concentration
...
* Plasma membranes are permeable to oxygen gas, carbon dioxide, and water
...
* Oxygen and carbon dioxide move across the cell membrane by dialysis
...
o
Occurs in response to a high concentration of a substance that cannot cross the membrane
freely -‐ water moves to that side of the membrane in an attempt to achieve equilibrium
...
• Facilitated diffusion: transmembrane channel proteins allow ions and small hydrophilic
molecules to pass through
...
g
...
Opening the channel may require some energy, due to changing the
protein's shape, but transport through occurs passively, by diffusion
...
Active transport can move substances against the concentration gradient (low to high concentration)
...
Each pump only transports a specific
substance or substances
E
...
The sodium/potassium ion (Na+/K+) pump
IB Standard Level Biology
Chapter 1 – Cell Biology
Substances are transported across the membrane, or within the cell, in vesicles
...
•
Endocytosis: transport of materials from the ECF (extracellular fluid) to the cytoplasm by wrapping
a portion of the plasma membrane around it, and bringing it inside the cell
...
Some white blood cells (e
...
macrophages), and Amoeba use phagocytosis
...
•
Exocytosis: reverse of endocytosis
...
Substances also transported within the cell inside vesicles -‐ proteins made on the rough
endoplasmic reticulum bud off inside a vesicle and move to the Golgi apparatus
...
Then, another vesicle buds
off the Golgi apparatus and moves to the plasma membrane
...
Protein synthesis, metabolism of food, and other biochemical processes occur during this time
...
It is
divided into three stages:
o G1-‐ period of growth and normal metabolic functions, which occurs directly after cytokinesis
...
o G2 -‐ period of further growth and preparation for mitosis
...
It is during this time that
chromosomes become visible with a light microscope
...
• Cytokinesis: splitting of the original (parent) cell into two new (daughter) cells
...
o
In animal cells, the plasma membrane begins to pull inwards at the equatorial plate after
anaphase
...
o
In plant cells, a new cell wall begins to form after anaphase, at the equatorial plate
...
g
...
g
...
The sister chromatids remain attached to each other by their centromeres during metaphase,
when each gets attached to a spindle fibre
...
The chromosomes at the poles become the nuclei of the daughter cells, each with
identical sets of chromosomes
...
IB Standard Level Biology
Chapter 1 – Cell Biology
When Mitosis Fails
Normally, cells only undergo mitosis when new cells are needed (e
...
for growth or repair)
...
Repeated
divisions cause the number of cells to quickly increase, forming a mass of cells called a tumour
...
Tumours grow to a large size -‐ if cells break off from the tumour, they can spread to other parts of
the body and form more Tumours (this is called metastasis)
...
Tumours are harmful to the body because
they use up nutrients and oxygen required by healthy cells, killing healthy cells as they take over
...
This condition is called diploidy – cells with two copies of each chromosome
are diploid (2n)
...
Gametes (sex cells) combine with other gametes during fertilization
...
When two haploid (n)
gametes combine, the resulting cell is diploid
...
How does it work?
Meiosis involves two divisions of the nucleus, known as meiosis I and meiosis II
...
IB Standard Level Biology
Chapter 1 – Cell Biology
IB Standard Level Biology
Chapter 1 – Cell Biology
Two processes ensure that the four daughter cells produced by meiosis are genetically different:
• Independent assortment of maternal and paternal homologous chromosomes
o Bivalents line up randomly at the cell’s equator in metaphase I
o Separation of homologous chromosomes is independent – the new cells will have a
mixture of maternal and paternal chromosomes
• Crossing over of segments of non-‐sister chromatids (between maternal & paternal chromosomes)
o This results in new combinations of genes on the chromosomes of the gametes produced
Title: IB Standard Level Biology, Chapter One, Cell Biology
Description: Incredible notes that clearly summarise Chapter One, "Cell Biology", including all points of the IB Standard Level Biology syllabus PLUS the best diagrams to make learning the course easier. (14 pages) (International Baccalaureate, Standard Level Biology)
Description: Incredible notes that clearly summarise Chapter One, "Cell Biology", including all points of the IB Standard Level Biology syllabus PLUS the best diagrams to make learning the course easier. (14 pages) (International Baccalaureate, Standard Level Biology)