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Title: IB Standard Level Biology, Chapter One, Cell Biology
Description: Incredible notes that clearly summarise Chapter One, "Cell Biology", including all points of the IB Standard Level Biology syllabus PLUS the best diagrams to make learning the course easier. (14 pages) (International Baccalaureate, Standard Level Biology)

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IB  Standard  Level  Biology    
Chapter  1  –  Cell  Biology  
 

Characteristics  of  Living  Things  (summary)  
 
1
...
 

Heterotrophs  consume  other  organisms  or  their  products  

Autotrophs  convert  sunlight  to  food  
2
...
 Homeostasis  

E
...
 body  temperature,  water  balance  
3
...
 
4
...
 
 
 
The  Cell  Theory  was  originally  proposed  by  Matthias  Schleiden  &  Theodor  Schwann  (~1840)  The  cell  
theory  states:  
1
...
 
2
...
 
3
...
 
 
 
Note:  Some  biologists  consider  unicellular  organisms  to  be  a  cellular
...
 
 
Evidence  for  the  Cell  Theory  
 
Cells  had  been  observed  as  early  as  the  1600’s  (by  Robert  Hooke  in  1662  and  Anthony  van  
Leeuwenhoek  in  1680)  by  using  simple  microscopes
...
 
Cells  are  the  smallest  units  of  life   Viruses  may  only  reproduce  themselves  by  infecting  a  cell  and  taking  
over  its  metabolic  processes
...
 
 
Organelles  are  sub-­‐structures  found  in  cells
...
g
...
 
Cells  come  from  pre-­‐existing  cells   Louis  Pasteur  -­‐  spontaneous  generation  (life  from  non-­‐living  
substances)  does  not  occur
...
   
Some  microorganisms  have  a  dormant  spore  phase  as  part  of  their  
lifecycles  –  this  allows  for  survival  during  unfavourable  conditions,  
and  could  account  for  living  things  “magically”  appearing  when  
conditions  are  favourable  again
...
 
 

IB  Standard  Level  Biology    
Chapter  1  –  Cell  Biology  

 

 
 

Cells  contain  a  blueprint  for   Behaviour  of  chromosomes  observations  provided  insight  into  the  
growth,  development  and  
nature  of  genes  (DNA)  and  both  day-­‐to-­‐day  activity  and  heredity
...
 
 
Biochemical  synthesis  of  macromolecules  such  as  proteins  (from  
amino  acids)  and  complex  carbohydrates  (from  sugars)
...
  Certain  biochemical  processes  are  restricted  to  particular  
regions  or  organelles  within  the  cell
...
 
 
Multicellular  Organisms  have  cells  that  are  organized  into  tissues  and  organs
...
 All  body  cells  of  a  multicellular  organism  still  have  the  same  DNA,  but  
a  skin  cell  doesn't  need  to  have  the  insulin  gene   turned   on
...
Tissues  are  groups  of  cells  that  develop  in  the  same  way,  with  the  same  structure  and  function
...
g
...
Organs  are  groups  of  tissues  that  have  combined  to  form  a  single  structure
...
 (E
...
 the  heart)  
 
7
...
 
(Cardiovascular  system)  
 
 
 
Multicellular  organisms  show  emergent  properties,  which  is  a  result  of  the  interactions  between  
component  parts  -­‐  whole  is  greater  than  the  sum  of  its  parts
...
g
...
g
...
g
...
   
 
Stem  cells  are  unspecialised  cells  that  may  continue  to  divide  throughout  the  life  of  the  organisms
...
  ( This  is  how  blood  cells  are  produced  in  the  bone  marrow)
...
  These  researchers  hope  that  stem  cell  therapy  will  be  used  to  treat  diseases  such  as  
Parkinson’s,  Alzheimer’s  and  Type  I  diabetes
...
 
 
Ethnic  concerns:  Embryos  are  denied  a  chance  at  life

 

IB  Standard  Level  Biology    

 

Chapter  1  –  Cell  Biology  

Prokaryotic  and  Eukaryotic  Cells  
 

• All  cells  can  be  classified  as  either  prokaryotic  or  eukaryotic
...
  Instead  they  have  a  loop  of  naked  DNA  (nucleoid)
...
  Eukaryotic  
chromosomes  are  linear,  not  loops
...
 Eukaryotic  cells  have  more,  and  they  are  more  
complex  –  membrane  bound  organelles
...
 
 

Prokaryotic  Cells  

 
These  cells  do  not  have  a  membrane-­‐bound  nucleus,  just  a  simple  loop  of  DNA
...
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
Functions  of  Prokaryotic  Cell  Structures:  
 
• Cell  wall:   protective  outer  layer  that  prevents  damage  from  outside  and  bursting  if  internal  
pressure  is  too  high  
• Plasma  membrane:  controls  exchange  of  substances  (nutrients  and  waste)    
• Cytoplasm:   contains  enzymes  that  catalyze  the  chemical  reactions  of  metabolism  and  DNA    
• Ribosomes:   synthesize  proteins  by  translating  messenger  RNA;  stay  in  the  cell  or  secreted  
• Naked  DNA:   stores  the  genetic  information  that  controls  the  cell  -­‐  is  passed  onto  the  daughter  cells  
• Pili:  hair-­‐like  structures  that  enable  attachment  to  surfaces  and  to  other  bacteria  Prokaryotes  
(bacteria)  may  be  classified  according  to  their  metabolism:  
 
 
 

IB  Standard  Level  Biology    

 

 
 
 

Chapter  1  –  Cell  Biology  

• Photosynthesis:   Blue-­‐green  bacteria  make  their  own  food  by  photosynthesis  –  making  them  
photoautotrophs
...
 
 
• Fermentation:   Many  bacteria  absorb  organic  substances,  convert  them  into  other  organic  
substances  and  release  them
...
g
...
 
All  prokaryote  cells  are  capable  of  extremely  rapid  growth  when  conditions  are  favourable  to  them  
–  this  occurs  by  binary  fission  and  can  result  in  doubling  every  20  minutes
...
  DNA  is  enclosed  within  the  nucleus
...
 

Functions  of  Eukaryotic  Cell  Structures  








 

Ribosomes:  free-­‐floating  in  the  cytoplasm,  or  attached  to  the  endoplasmic  reticulum;  they  
perform  protein  synthesis  by  translating  information  on  mRNA  
Golgi  apparatus:  modifies  proteins  which  are  being  exported  from  the  cell;  produces  
lysosomes  
Lysosomes:  contain  digestive  enzymes;  used  to  digest  food  particles  brought  in  to  the  cell  
or  may  break  open  to  digest  the  cell  when  it  becomes  damaged  (“suicide  sac”)  
Rough  endoplasmic  reticulum  (RER):  is  the  site  of  protein  synthesis  for  any  proteins  
which  are  being  exported  from  the  cell  (free-­‐floating  ribosomes  make  proteins  for  use  
within  the  cell)  
Mitochondrion:   is  the  site  of  aerobic  cellular  respiration  
Nucleus:   contains  the  cell's  genetic  material  (chromosomes)  within  the  nuclear  membrane  
Nucleolus:  makes  ribosomes  for  the  cell  

IB  Standard  Level  Biology    

   
 

Chapter  1  –  Cell  Biology  

Comparing  Plant  &  Animal  Cells  
Feature  
Cell  wall  

Animal  
Not  present
...
 

Chloroplasts  

Not  present
...
  Cell  wall  is  composed  of  
cellulose  (polysaccharide)  fibres
...
e
...
 
Carbohydrates  are  stored  as  glycogen
...
 
Small  and  temporary
...
 

Large  and  permanent  –  the  fluid-­‐
filled  vacuole  helps  support  the  plant
...
 

Usually  square,  and  does  not  change  
shape
...
 
Cleavage  furrow  forms  during  
cytokinesis  and  cells  pinch  apart
...
  New  cell  wall  forms  
between  daughter  cells
...
 

Location  of  
genetic  material  

In  the  cytoplasm,  in  a  region  called  
the  nucleoid
...
  Four  or  more  
chromosomes  present
...
 

Cell  wall  

Generally  present,  made  of  
peptidoglycan  

Mitochondria  

Not  present
...
 
Smaller  (70S)  
Larger  (80S)  

Ribosomes  

 

Present  only  in  plants  (cellulose)  
and  fungi  (chitin)  

Organelles  
bounded  by  a  
single  membrane  

Few  or  none  are  present
...
 
Electron  microscopes:  narrow  beams  of  electrons  instead  of  light  -­‐  produce  highly  magnified  
images
...
 
• Scanning  Electron  Microscope  (SEM):   beam  of  electrons  is  scanned  in  a  series  of  lines  
across  the  surface  of  the  specimen  –results  in  a  three-­‐dimensional  image  of  the  specimen
...
   
If  a  cell  is  too  large,  problems  arise  related  to  its  surface  area-­‐to-­‐volume  ratio:   as  the  size  of  the  
cell  increases,  surface  area-­‐to-­‐volume  ratio  decreases
...
  The  linear  magnification  is  one  way  to  indicate  
the  size  of  an  object:  
1
...
 

2
...
 

3
...
 

4
...
 

 

 
A  scale  bar  (
 )  may  also  be  used  to  indicate  size  –  similar  to  the  scale  on  a  map,  it  
represents  a  specific  distance  on  the  diagram  or  photograph
...
   
They  are  composed  of  phospholipids  in  a  bilayer  and  various  proteins  embedded  within  the  bilayer
...
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
Phospholipids  are  amphiphilic:  hydrophobic  (the  fatty  acids)  and  hydrophilic  (the  phosphate)  
• It  is  because  of  this  unique  structure,  that  the  phospholipid  molecules  arrange  themselves  in  
a  bilayer  –hydrophilic  “heads”  facing  the  watery  extracellular  fluid  &  cytoplasm,  hydrophobic  
“tails”  in  the  middle,  away  from  water  
Membrane  proteins  may  be  peripheral  (attached  to  the  surface)  or  integral  (embedded  within  
the  bilayer)  –  some  integral  proteins,  called  transmembrane  proteins,  pass  all  the  way  through  the  
membrane  
• Hormone  receptor  sites:  hormone  binds  on  the  surface  of  the  cell,  and  transmit  a  signal  to  the  
inside  of  the  cell  
• Enzymes:  catalyse  reactions  inside  or  outside  the  cell,  depending  on  the  active  site  location  
• Electron  carriers:  arranged  in  chains  and  pass  electrons  from  one  to  the  next  in  a  series  of  
redox  reactions  (chemiosmosis)  
• Cell  adhesion:  proteins  allow  cells  to  stick  together  (cell-­‐cell  recognition  sites)  
• Pumps:  used  for  active  transport,  using  energy  to  move  substances  across  the  membrane  
• Channels:  usually  gated  (to  motion,  binding  of  a  ligand,  or  changes  in  voltage)  and  allow  
facilitated  diffusion  through  the  membrane  
 

IB  Standard  Level  Biology    
Chapter  1  –  Cell  Biology  

Membrane  Transport  
Passive  Transport:  movement  of  particles  across  a  membrane  with  no  additional  input  of  energy  
• Diffusion:  passive  movement  -­‐  from  a  region  of  higher  concentration  to  lower  concentration
...
   
* Plasma  membranes  are  permeable  to  oxygen  gas,  carbon  dioxide,  and  water
...
   
*  Oxygen  and  carbon  dioxide  move  across  the  cell  membrane  by  dialysis
...
   
o

Occurs  in  response  to  a  high  concentration  of  a  substance  that  cannot  cross  the  membrane  
freely  -­‐  water  moves  to  that  side  of  the  membrane  in  an  attempt  to  achieve  equilibrium
...
 

• Facilitated  diffusion:  transmembrane  channel  proteins  allow  ions  and  small  hydrophilic  
molecules  to  pass  through
...
g
...
  Opening  the  channel  may  require  some  energy,  due  to  changing  the  
protein's  shape,  but  transport  through  occurs  passively,  by  diffusion
...
   
Active  transport  can  move  substances  against  the  concentration  gradient  (low  to  high  concentration)
...
  Each  pump  only  transports  a  specific  
substance  or  substances    
 

E
...
 The  sodium/potassium  ion  (Na+/K+)  pump  

 

IB  Standard  Level  Biology    
Chapter  1  –  Cell  Biology  
 

 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
Substances  are  transported  across  the  membrane,  or  within  the  cell,  in  vesicles
...
 


Endocytosis:  transport  of  materials  from  the  ECF  (extracellular  fluid)  to  the  cytoplasm  by  wrapping  
a  portion  of  the  plasma  membrane  around  it,  and  bringing  it  inside  the  cell
...
   
Some  white  blood  cells  (e
...
 macrophages),  and  Amoeba  use  phagocytosis
...
   



 

 

Exocytosis:  reverse  of  endocytosis
...
 

Substances  also  transported  within  the  cell  inside  vesicles  -­‐   proteins  made  on  the  rough  
endoplasmic  reticulum  bud  off  inside  a  vesicle  and  move  to  the  Golgi  apparatus
...
  Then,  another  vesicle  buds  
off  the  Golgi  apparatus  and  moves  to  the  plasma  membrane
...
 
Protein  synthesis,  metabolism  of  food,  and  other  biochemical  processes  occur  during  this  time
...
  It  is  
divided  into  three  stages:  
o G1-­‐   period  of  growth  and  normal  metabolic  functions,  which  occurs  directly  after  cytokinesis
...
 
o G2   -­‐  period  of  further  growth  and  preparation  for  mitosis
...
 It  is  during  this  time  that  
chromosomes  become  visible  with  a  light  microscope
...
   

 
 
 
 
• Cytokinesis:  splitting  of  the  original  (parent)  cell  into  two  new  (daughter)  cells
...
 

 

o

In  animal  cells,  the  plasma  membrane  begins  to  pull  inwards  at  the  equatorial  plate  after  
anaphase
...
 

o

In  plant  cells,  a  new  cell  wall  begins  to  form  after  anaphase,  at  the  equatorial  plate
...
g
...
g
...
 
The  sister  chromatids  remain  attached  to  each  other  by  their  centromeres  during  metaphase,  
when  each  gets  attached  to  a  spindle  fibre
...
 
The  chromosomes  at  the  poles  become  the  nuclei  of  the  daughter  cells,  each  with  
identical  sets  of  chromosomes
...
 

IB  Standard  Level  Biology    
Chapter  1  –  Cell  Biology  

 
When  Mitosis  Fails  
Normally,  cells  only  undergo  mitosis  when  new  cells  are  needed  (e
...
 for  growth  or  repair)
...
  Repeated  
divisions  cause  the  number  of  cells  to  quickly  increase,  forming  a  mass  of  cells  called  a  tumour
...
 
Tumours  grow  to  a  large  size  -­‐  if  cells  break  off  from  the  tumour,  they  can  spread  to  other  parts  of  
the  body  and  form  more  Tumours  (this  is  called  metastasis)
...
  Tumours  are  harmful  to  the  body  because  
they  use  up  nutrients  and  oxygen  required  by  healthy  cells,  killing  healthy  cells  as  they  take  over
...
  This  condition  is  called  diploidy  –  cells  with  two  copies  of  each  chromosome  
are  diploid  (2n)
...
 
 
Gametes  (sex  cells)  combine  with  other  gametes  during  fertilization
...
 When  two  haploid  (n)  
gametes  combine,  the  resulting  cell  is  diploid
...
 
 
How  does  it  work?  
Meiosis  involves  two  divisions  of  the  nucleus,  known  as  meiosis  I  and  meiosis  II
...
 
 

IB  Standard  Level  Biology    
Chapter  1  –  Cell  Biology  

 
 
 

 

IB  Standard  Level  Biology    
Chapter  1  –  Cell  Biology  

Two  processes  ensure  that  the  four  daughter  cells  produced  by  meiosis  are  genetically  different:  
 
• Independent  assortment  of  maternal  and  paternal  homologous  chromosomes  
o Bivalents  line  up  randomly  at  the  cell’s  equator  in  metaphase  I  
o Separation  of  homologous  chromosomes  is  independent  –  the  new  cells  will  have  a  
mixture  of  maternal  and  paternal  chromosomes  
 
• Crossing  over  of  segments  of  non-­‐sister  chromatids  (between  maternal  &  paternal  chromosomes)  
o This  results  in  new  combinations  of  genes  on  the  chromosomes  of  the  gametes  produced  
 
 
 
 
 

 


Title: IB Standard Level Biology, Chapter One, Cell Biology
Description: Incredible notes that clearly summarise Chapter One, "Cell Biology", including all points of the IB Standard Level Biology syllabus PLUS the best diagrams to make learning the course easier. (14 pages) (International Baccalaureate, Standard Level Biology)