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Title: Decision theory and game theory for economics
Description: Summary of decision theory and game theory concepts, from UoB Russell group university. Aimed at 2nd year Economics student.
Description: Summary of decision theory and game theory concepts, from UoB Russell group university. Aimed at 2nd year Economics student.
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Decision Theory & Games
Revision
Q: Describe the differences between
the following:
i) descriptive and normative decision
theory
ii) right and rational
iii) decision under risk and decision
under ignorance/uncertainty
A:
i) Descriptive = explaining and predicting how people
make decisions
Normative = develop theories to explain what decision
makers ought to do
ii) right = the actual outcome is at least as good as
every other possible outcome
rational = decision maker chooses to do what she has
the most reason to do at that point in time
iii) Decision under risk = known probability of possible
outcomes
ignorance = unknown or non-existent probabilities
Q: What is social choice? Give an
example
...
E
...
voting
Q: What is a state?
A: A state is a part of the world
that is not an act or an outcome
...
and adding any number)
ii) Ratio = Multiplying by a positive
constant, f’(x) = kf(x)
iii) Interval = Positive linear
transformation, f’(x) = kf(x) + m
Q: What do these signs mean?
> , ≥, ~
A:
> = strictly dominant, more rational
≥ = weakly dominant, at least a
rational
~ = equally rational
Q: What rule is this describing?
ai ≥ aj iff min(ai) ≥ min(aj)
A: Maximin rule
Q: Which is the best act according to
Leximin?
S1
S2
S3
S4
A1
6
9
3
2
A2
-5
7
4
12
A3
6
4
5
2
A: Leximin says if the best worst
outcomes (i
...
maximin outcomes) are
equal then compare the second worst
outcomes
...
Q: What is a in the OP rule?
A: a is the degree of optimism, where
1 = maximal optimism
...
7
A1
55
18
28
10
36
100
A2
50
87
55
90
75
70
A:
A1 = (0
...
7)*(10) = 73
A2 = (0
...
7)*(50) = 78
Therefore act A2 preferred
according to the Optimismpessimism rule
...
State 2 disadvantages of the rule
...
Seems irrational to ignore the
values in between
...
Q: How do you create a regret
matrix?
A: Regret matrix requires an interval
scale and suggests that regret is
relevant to rational decision making
...
A1
12
18
20
20
A2
10
15
16
8
A3
30
6
25
14
A4
20
4
30
10
A: Minimax regret gives us an
answer A3
...
A1
-18
-7
-10
0
A2
-20
0
-14
-12
A3
0
-9
-5
-6
A4
-10
-11
0
-10
Q: Explain the concept of the
decreasing marginal value of
money
...
E
...
we would rather have £1m for
certain than £3m at a probability of
50%
...
i) Principle of maximising expected
monetary value
ii) Principle of maximising expected
value
iii) Principle of maximising
expected utility
A:
i) Principle of maximising expected
monetary value (EMV): (P*M1)… M1 =
money from option 1
ii) Principle of maximising expected value:
(P*V1)… V1 = value from option 1
iii) Principle of maximising expected utility
= maximising utility from DM’s point of
view is subjective: (P*U1)… U1 = utility
from option 1
Q: What are the 2 reasons why it is
rational to maximise expected
utility?
A:
1) Law of Large no
...
Gamble A: 100% OF $1 million
Gamble B: 10% chance of $5m, 89% chance of $1m 1% and chance of nothing
Gamble C: 11% chance of $1m or 89% chance of nothing
Gamble D: 10% chance of $5m and 90% chance of nothing
Which paradox is this and what is the problem?
A: This is the Allais Paradox
...
So their preferences are
inconsistent
...
A:
St Petersburg Paradox is where a fair dice is
tossed repeatedly until tail appears
...
of tosses that are not tails when
you play
...
Q: Which of the following is FALSE about the Ellsberg
paradox?
a) Occurs when people avoid uncertainty about
outcomes
...
The Ellsberg
paradox relates to the urn with an
unknown quantity of black or yellow
balls and 30 red balls out of 90
...
Q: How would you describe a riskloving person?
A:
Risk-loving: WTP > expected value,
always accept a fair bet
Q: Absolute risk aversion is the
maximum amount of wealth an
individual is willing to expose to
risk as a function of changes in
wealth
...
Q: The ___________ is the amount
of money offered for certain that
gives the consumer the exact same
utility as the gamble
...
Q: What is the risk premium for a
risk-neutral individual?
A: The risk premium (π) = E(L) – CE,
i
...
the expected value of the
gamble and the certainty
equivalent
...
A:
Agent A: risk-averse – 56
...
5
Agent B: risk neutral - 62
...
5
Agent C: risk-loving – 72
...
5
Q: What are the 4 Von Neumann-
Morgernstern axioms?
A: The vNM axioms require an interval
scale and include
1
...
Transitivity: if x>y, y>z the x>z
3
...
Independence: L1 ≥ L2 then (L1,p ;
L3,(1-p)) ≥ (L2,p ; L3,(1-p))
Q: What is negative transitivity?
A: If it is false that x>y and false
that y>z, then it is false that x>z
...
A: Asymmetry states that if x>y
then it is false that y>x
...
Q: What is the voting paradox?
A: Idea that voting can lead to a
cyclical preference ordering where
a>b>c but c>a
...
Q:
___________ , max the sum of
total utility
...
A:
Utilitarian , max the sum of total
utility
...
Q: What is a SWF – Social Welfare
Function? Give an example
...
E
...
Majority rule
Q: Define:
i) Social Choice theory
ii) Decisive
iii) Non-dictatorship
A:
i) Social choice theory = to analyse if
and how a set of individual preference
ordering G can be aggregated in a
systematic manner into a social
preference ordering S
...
Q: _____________ states that no
SWF satisfies:
1 – independence of irrelevant
alternatives
2 - pareto condition
3 – non-dictatorship
4 – ordering condition
A: Arrow’s impossibility theorem
Q: What did Sen say?
A: Sen proved, no SWF satisfies
minimal liberalism, pareto
condition and ordering
...
Q: Why are models used in game
theory?
A: Model = abstraction we use to
help us understand our
observations and experiences
...
They are neither right
or wrong
...
A:
Summary: Two suspects in a major crime are held in separate
cells, Enough evidence to convict each of a minor offense
...
If both
stay quiet, each one will be convicted of minor offense and
spend one year in prison
...
If both fink, each will spend 3 years
in prison
...
A:
Working on a 2-person group
project: work hard or goof off and
let other person do all the work
Duopoly – set high or low prices to
gain most profit
Q: What is the difference between
PD and BoS – Battle of the Sexes:?
A: PD is about deciding about
whether to cooperate
...
Q: Draw the decision matrix for
BoS
...
A: Two merging firms that
currently use different computer
technologies
...
Q: Which game is purely conflictual
and why?
A:
MATCHING PENNIES:
Two people choose, simultaneously, whether to show head or
tail of a coin
...
Each person only care about the money they receive and
more is better than less
...
- You can have multiple nash equilibria or none
...
Q:
A player’s action weakly dominates
another action if the first action is
at least as good as the second
action, no matter what the players
do
...
Q: What is a symmetric game?
A: A two–player strategic game with ordinal
preferences is symmetric if the players’ sets of
actions are the same and the players’ preferences are
represented by payoff functions u1 and u2 for which
u1(a1, a2)= u2(a2, a1) for every action pair (a1, a2)
...
g
...
E
...
Chess
Imperfect information: while making
a move, a player may
not know at which branch of the game
tree she is
...
g
...
Title: Decision theory and game theory for economics
Description: Summary of decision theory and game theory concepts, from UoB Russell group university. Aimed at 2nd year Economics student.
Description: Summary of decision theory and game theory concepts, from UoB Russell group university. Aimed at 2nd year Economics student.