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Title: IB Astrophysics Notes
Description: Notes for option D of the IB Physics course - Astrophysics. They also include all long answer past paper questions and answers throughout the notes for that specific topic.
Description: Notes for option D of the IB Physics course - Astrophysics. They also include all long answer past paper questions and answers throughout the notes for that specific topic.
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ASTROPHYSICS
STELLAR QUANTITIES
Objects that make up the Universe
-‐ The Solar System
A collection of planets, moons, asteroids, comets and other rocky objects travelling in elliptical orbits
around the Sun under the influence of its gravity
...
The inner planets are small and rocky and the outer
planets are large and mainly gas
...
• Asteroids
Asteroids are rocky objects orbiting the Sun and can be found in the asteroid belt between Mars and
Jupiter
...
Their very elliptical orbits can last from a few years to thousands of years
...
• Stars
All stars are initially formed when gravity causes the gas in a nebula to condense
...
This raises the temperature of the atoms which then form a protostar
...
Ignition
reduced emission of radiation from the core, producing a radiation pressure that opposes the
inward gravitational forces
...
As the
hydrogen is used up the star will eventually undergo changes that will move it from the main
sequence
...
The original mass of material in the star determines how the star
will change during its lifetime
...
They are important in
astrophysics because their interactions allow us to measure properties that we have no other way of
investigating
...
• Constellations
A constellation is a pattern formed by stars that are in the same general direction when viewed from
the earth
...
Describe what is meant by a constellation
...
[2 marks]
• Stellar Clusters
These are groups of stars that are positioned closely enough to be held together by gravity
...
• Open Clusters
These consist of up to several hundred stars that are younger than 10 billion years and may
still contain some gas and dust, e
...
the Milky Way
...
Describe what is meant by a stellar cluster
...
[2 marks]
• Nebulae
Nebulae are regions of intergalactic cloud of dust and gas
...
“The Matter Era” – Dust and clouds were formed when nuclei captured electrons
electrostatically and produced the hydrogen atoms that gravitated together
...
Supernova explosion – Formed as the remnant of a supernova
...
• Galaxies
A galaxy is a creation of stars, gas and dust held together by gravity and containing billions of stars
...
• Spiral galaxies: These have a disc shape with spiral arms spreading out from a central
galactic bulge that contains the greatest density of stars
...
• Other galaxies are elliptical in shape which contain much less gas and dust than
spiral galaxies
...
• Clusters of galaxies
The Milky Way is part of a cluster of about 30 galaxies called “The Local Group”
...
• Irregular clusters also exist, with no apparent shape and a lower concentration of
galaxies within them
...
In between the clusters there are voids that are apparently empty of
galaxies
...
The Light Year (ly) = 9
...
2
...
50 x 1011m
The average distance between the Sun and the Earth
...
The Parsec (pc) = 3
...
09 x 1016m
These are used for distances between nearby stars
...
As the Earth orbits the Sun, the stars that are quite close to us appear to
move across the distant “fixed” stars
...
1
Parallax a ngle
𝑑 =
𝑝
Given that,
d = distance in parsecs
p = parallax angle in arcsecond
This relationship is used for defining the
parsec: when a star is at a distance of 1 pc
from the Earth the parallax angle, given by the
equation, will be one arcsecond
...
Thus 1
arcsecond is very small being 1/3600 of a degree
...
01 arcsecond are difficult to measure from the surface of the
Earth because of the absorption and scattering of light by the atmosphere
...
01 = 100 pc
...
Luminosity – The total power emitted by a star
...
𝑃
𝐼=
4𝜋𝑑 )
Where,
I = Intensity
P = Power
r = The distance from the star
𝐿
𝑏=
4𝜋𝑑 )
Where,
b = Apparent brightness
L = Luminosity
Black Body Radiation and Stars
We consider black bodies as theoretical objects that absorb all the radiation that is incident upon
them
...
• Such bodies would also behave as perfect emitters of radiation, emitting the maximum
amount of radiation as possible at their temperature
...
Although stars are not perfect black bodies they can emit and absorbing all wavelengths of
electromagnetic radiation
...
67 x 10-‐8
If we assume that the star is spherical we can say that
𝐿 = 𝜎 (4𝜋𝑅 ) )𝑇 0
Where, R is the radius of the star
...
Such spectra provide information about the chemical composition, density, surface temperature,
rotational and translational velocities of stars
...
In general, the density and temperature of a star decreases with distance from its
centre
...
Wien’s Displacement Law
By treating a star as a black body, it is possible to estimate its surface temperature using Wien’s Law
...
9x1089
𝑇=
⋋;<=
Where,
⋋;<= = Wavelength of maximum intensity
T = Temperature
Cepheid Variables
• Cepheid variables are extremely luminous stars that undergo regular and predictable
changes in luminosity
...
Although the period is regular it is not sinusoidal and it takes less time for the star to
brighten than it does to fade
...
The Sun’s
luminosity is conventionally written as 𝐿⊙
...
The variation in luminosity occurs because the outer layers within the star expand and
contract periodically
...
The layer becomes compressed and less transparent to radiation
...
The temperature inside the layer increases, building up internal pressure
...
This causes the layer to be pushed outwards
...
During the expansion, the layer cools, becoming less dense
...
It also becomes more transparent, allowing radiation to escape and letting the
pressure inside fall
...
The layer falls inwards under gravity
...
Cepheid stars can also be called ‘standard candles’ since they allow us to measure the distances to
the galaxies containing Cepheid variable stars
...
i)
State what is meant by a standard candle
...
ii)
Outline the properties of a Cepheid star that allow it to be used as a standard candle
...
iii)
Explain how astronomers use their observations of a Cepheid star to determine the distance
from the star to Earth
...
The luminosity/absolute magnitude is d etermined from p eriod
...
0@A B
[6 marks]
Hertzsprung-‐Russel (HR) Diagram
This diagram shows a correlation between the luminosity of a star and its temperature
...
There are 4 main features that
emerge from the H-‐R diagram:
1
...
Nearly
90% of all stars fit into this category
...
Red Giants
Red giants are cooler than the Sun and so emit less energy per square metre of surface
...
This
means that they must have a greater surface area to be able to emit such large energies
...
3
...
A supergiant emitting 100,000 times the energy per
second and at the same temperature of the Sun must have a surface area 100,000 times larger
...
(Only about 1% of stars are giant and supergiant
...
White Dwarfs
White dwarfs are the remnants of old stars and constitute about 9% of all stars
...
These very small, hot stars are very dense and take billions of
years to cool down
...
The core is mostly made up of helium and the outer layer has an
abundance of hydrogen
...
L ∝ M3
...
For a stable star of higher mass there will be greater gravitational compression and so the
core temperature will be higher
...
The mass of a star is fundamental to the star’s lifetime – those with
greater mass have far shorter lives
...
The
loss of potential energy leads to an increase in the gas temperature
...
The star moves onto the main where it remains for as long as its hydrogen is being fused
into helium – this time occupies most of a star’s life
...
• The fate of stars
All stars collapse when most of the hydrogen nuclei have fused into helium
...
The hydrogen in the layer
surrounding the shrunken core is now able to fuse, raising the temperature of the outer layers which
makes them expand, forming a giant-‐star
...
The
very massive stars will continue to undergo fusion until iron and nickel are formed
...
A
...
This means that the core will continue to shrink while still emitting radiation, once
the helium is used up
...
When the remnant of the core has shrunk to about the size of the Erath it consists of carbon and
oxygen ions surrounded by free electrons
...
Pauli’s
exclusion principle prevents two electrons
from being in the same quantum state and
this means that the electrons provide a
repulsive force that prevents gravity from
further collapsing the star
...
Such stars are of very high density
of about 109 kgm-‐3
...
a) State the condition that must be satisfied for a main sequence star to eventually become a
white dwarf
...
4 solar masses
...
Residual/thermal/internal energy of the star
...
C/O/Ne/Mg
[3 marks]
Outline why the neutron star that is left after the supernova stage does not collapse under the action of
gravitation
...
[1 mark]
B
...
When such stars are in the red giant phase, the core is so large that the
resulting high temperature causes the fusion of nuclei to create elements heavier than carbon
...
The giant phase ends with the star having layers of elements
with proton numbers that decrease from the core to the outside
...
Even with this pressure, massive stars cannot stabilize
...
4 times the mass of the Sun
...
The star collapses with neutrons coming as close to each other as in a
nucleus
...
This blows off the outer layers and leaves the remnant core as a neutron star
...
The Oppenheimer-‐Volkoff limit places
an upper value of a neutron star for which neutron degeneracy is able to resist further collapse into
a black hole
...
Nothing can escape from a black hole and
for this reason it is impossible to see a black hole directly but their existence can be strongly inferred
by the following:
• The X-‐rays emitted by matter spiralling towards the edge of a black hole and heating up
...
It is
suggested that only black holes are powerful to produce such jets
...
COSMOLOGY
The Redshift and Hubble’s Law
When comparing the spectra of distant galaxies with their Earth-‐bound equivalents
...
Such
consistent results could only mean
that all galaxies were moving away
from the Earth
...
For optical spectra, the wavelengths
are moved towards the red end of the
spectrum
...
The shift applies to all waves in the
spectrum, so the absorption lines the spectrum can be seen to have shifted
...
To do this he used the standard candles available to him, Cepheid variables
...
State Hubble’s Law
...
State why Hubble’s law cannot be used to determine the distance from Earth to nearby galaxies, such as
Andromeda
...
[2 marks]
The spectrum of hydrogen from a source has a spectral line at wavelength 656nm
...
Suggest why the two
have different wavelengths
...
OR
The universe is expanding and so the space in b etween galaxies is stretched/ increases and this means
that the wavelength of the received light will also b e stretched/increased
...
Red shift is used to measure the recessional speed of galaxies
...
This is repeated for many galaxies/clusters o f galaxies
...
[2 marks]
The Big Bang model and the age of the universe
About 13
...
At that
instant, the entire universe exploded in a Big Bang, undergoing an immense explosion in which both
time and space came into being
...
7 K
...
As the galaxies move apart the space already between them becomes
stretched
...
The space
through which the electromagnetic radiation travels is expanding and it stretches out the
wavelength of light
...
Hubble’s Law suggests that the galaxies were closer together after the Big Bang than they are now
...
Assuming that Hubble’s law has held true for all galaxies at all times, the light from the most distant
star has taken the age of the universe to travel to us
...
This makes the recessional speed of
the galaxy that of the speed of light
...
Given that,
𝑣 = 𝐻E 𝑑 and 𝑑 = 𝑐𝑇,
𝑣 ≈ 𝐻E 𝑐𝑇
1
𝑇 ≈
𝐻E
Using this we can estimate the age of the universe to be 1
...
The derivation of the age of the universe equation assumes that the galaxy and the Earth are moving
at a relative constant speed of c and that there is nothing in their way to slow them down
...
In 1948, it was predicted that the universe should show a
spectrum of a black body emitter at a temperature of about 3K
...
This
meant that space had become transparent to electromagnetic radiation, allowing radiation to
escape in all directions
...
At earlier times the photons would have been much more
energetic and of far shorter wavelengths, peaking in the visible or ultraviolet region of the
electromagnetic spectrum
...
State two features of the CMB radiation which are consistent with the Big Bang model
...
Wavelength is stretched b y expansion
...
But, has minor anisotropies predicted b y Big Bang model
...
The universe is expanding and so the wavelength of the CMB in the past was much smaller, which
indicates a very high temperature at the b eginning
...
By using type Ia supernovae as standard candles to estimate galactic distances up to
around 1000 Mpc and measuring their redshifts, strong evidence was obtained suggesting the
universe might currently be undergoing an accelerated expansion
...
Acceleration,
therefore, would require some sort of invisible energy source and, although none had been directly
observed, it has been named ‘dark energy’
...
State what is meant by the expansion of
the universe
...
[3 marks]
Describe how type la supernovae could be used to measure the distance to the galaxy
...
By measuring apparent brightness, we can d etermine the distance using
𝑑=K
?
0@L
...
• Stars can form out of nebulae (interstellar clouds of dust, hydrogen, helium, and heavier
elements)
...
Eventually something happens to disturb the
calm, e
...
a collision with another cloud
...
The total energy of a gas cloud is a combination of positive kinetic energy and negative gravitational
potential energy
...
When they are close and the potential energy dominates, the particles are bound
...
This depends on the temperature and the particle density in the
cloud: A cold, dense gas is far more likely to collapse than a hot low-‐density gas
...
§ The mass must exceed a critical mass for the particular radius and temperature
...
A star will form out of a cloud of gas,
When the gravitational potential energy of the clouds exceeds the total random kinetic energy of the
particles o f the cloud
...
[2 marks]
Nuclear Fusion
The energy generated by a star is the result of thermonuclear fusion reactions that take place in the
core of the star
...
For sun-‐like stars the process advances through the proton-‐proton
chain but stars of greater than four solar masses undergo a series of reactions known as the CNO
cycle
...
The
beryllium nucleus is unstable and fuses quickly with another helium nucleus to produce
carbon (triple alpha process)
...
• Nuclei more massive than iron cannot be produced by fusion as the energy released is less
than the energy taken in
...
As neutrons are
neutral, they can approach close enough to the nucleus to be captured by the strong force
...
If there is sufficient time
before the nucleus is bombarded by another neutron, a neutron may decay into a proton by
negative beta decay
...
This means there is time for the nuclides to under-‐go beta decay before further
neutron captures build up their nucleon number – producing successively heavier isotopes
of the original element
...
Type II supernova produce a very high neutron flux and
form very heavy nuclides
...
There is also a high neutrino flux in a supernova and this has the effect of causing
neutrons to convert into protons through the weak interaction, forming new element
...
Discuss this structure with reference to the nuclear reactions taking place in
such stars
...
The elements/ nuclear reactions arrange themselves in layers, h eaviest at
the core, lightest in the envelope
...
This is because they need higher core
temperatures and pressures to prevent them
from collapsing under gravity
...
Therefore, massive stars use up
their core hydrogen more quickly and spend less
time on the main sequence than stars of lower
mass
...
O
Luminosity is the total energy, E, released by the star per
unit time while hydrogen is being fused or
𝐸
𝐿 =
𝑡
While fusion occurs, the energy emitted is accompanied by a loss of mass
...
Since E
= mc2, the energy emitted during the hydrogen burning phase of a star’s life gives E = kmc2
...
V
or
𝑇 ∝ 𝑀 8)
...
Supernovae
Supernovae are rare events in any given galaxy buy are detected quite regularly given the number of
galaxies
...
Supernovae can be categorized as being Type I or Type II in terms of their absorption spectra
...
One of
the stars is a white dwarf and the other is either a giant star or a smaller white dwarf
...
These are very useful to us as they always emit light in a predictable way and behave as a standard
candle for measuring the distance of the galaxy in which the supernova occurs
...
When the mass of the growing white dwarf exceeds the
Chandrasekhar limit of 1
...
The fusion of carbon and
oxygen into nickel generates such radiation pressure that the star is blown apart, reaching a
luminosity of 1010 times that of the Sun
...
After the explosion, the effected material continues to expand in a shell around the
remnant for thousands of years until it mixes with the interstellar material – giving the potential to
form a new generation of stars
...
Ø Type II supernovae
This type of supernovae consists of single massive stars in the final stages of their evolution
...
After approximately 10 million years all the hydrogen in the core has converted into helium, and
hydrogen fusion can now only continue in a shell around the helium core
...
This phase lasts for about a million years until the core’s helium is exhausted; it will then
contract again under gravity, causing it to heat up and allowing the fusion of carbon into heavier
elements
...
This pattern continues
with each heavier element lasting for successively shorter lengths of time, until silicon is fused into
iron-‐56 – taking a few days
...
On reaching the Chandrasekhar limit of 1
...
The implosion is opposed by a neutron degeneracy pressure that causes an
outward shock wave
...
Although this process this process lasts just a few hours it results in the heavy elements being
formed
...
The type II emits light up to 109 times the luminosity of the Sun; however, the burst falls a little
before reaching a slight plateau where it stays for some days before falling away more rapidly
...
Distant supernovae were dimmer/further away than expected
...
Dark energy is a h ypothesis that explains this
...
The Universe in homogenous: the universe is the same everywhere
...
The Universe is isotropic: the universe looks the same in all directions
...
It must contain sufficient matter to reverse the observed expansion through
its gravitational contraction
...
o Flat – If there is just enough matter in the universe for its gravitational force to bring
the expansion associated with the big bang to a stop in an infinitely long time,
the universe is said to be flat
...
With less than the critical density the
universe would be open and infinite
...
The
critical density of matter appears to be no greater than ten particles per cubic metre and current
research suggests that the average density is very close to this critical value
...
Instrumental to the fate of the universe is the uncertainty about how much
matter is available to provide a strong enough gravitational force to reverse the expansion and cause
a gravitational collapse
...
We can derive a relationship for the critical density using Newtonian mechanics:
Imagine a homogenous sphere of gas of radius, r, and density, p
...
By Hubble’s law the velocity of the galaxy is given by:
𝑣 = 𝐻E 𝑟
The total energy of the galaxy is the sum of its kinetic energy and its gravitational potential energy;
𝐸X = 𝐸Y + 𝐸[
1
𝑀𝑚
𝐸X = 𝑚𝑣 ) − 𝐺
2
𝑟
, remembering that potential energy is always negative for objects separated by less than infinity
...
The galaxy will continue to move providing that it has sufficient kinetic energy, thus making ET
positive
...
Simplifying this equation gives:
3𝐻E )
𝑝_ =
8𝜋𝐺
The cosmic scale factor and time
The cosmic scale factor against time for the
different possible shapes of space time give
graphs like this:
(the blue line should plateau more and the y
label can be replaced by R)
-‐ Flat universe: Critical density = 1
-‐ Open universe: Critical density < 1
-‐ Closed universe: Critical density > 1
We know that
and that λ varies with R
...
We can
equate Newton’s law of gravitation to the centripetal force and obtain:
𝑀𝑚 𝑚𝑣 )
𝐺 ) =
𝑟
𝑟
Where,
This can also become:
𝐺
𝑀
= 𝑣 )
𝑟
In terms of density and taking the central hub to be spherical, this gives…
4 9
𝜋𝑟 𝑝
𝐺3
= 𝑣 )
𝑟
This means that (𝑣 =
a0@b
9
𝑟) or (𝑣 = 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡 𝑥 𝑟 )
...
𝐺
T
h
= 𝑣 ) and so 𝑣 ∝
i
h
Although we can believe dark matter is present in the universe, since the matter is not normal
‘luminous’ or ‘baryonic’ matter and emits no radiation, it cannot be detected
...
32, where pc @ 10-‐26 kgm-‐3 is the critical density
...
05 p c
...
27 pc is
accounted for
...
[1 mark]
Evidence for dark matter:
1
...
One
explanation for this effect is the presence of dark matter forming a halo around the outer
rim of the galaxy
...
The velocities of galaxies orbiting each other in clusters – these galaxies emit far less light
than they ought to in relation to the amount of mass suggested by their velocities
...
The gravitational lensing effect of radiation from distant objects – because the radiation
passes through a cluster of galaxies it becomes much more distorted than would be
expected by the luminous mass of the cluster
...
The X-‐ray images of elliptical galaxies show the presence of haloes of hot gas extending well
outside the galaxy
...
Explain why the rotation curves are e vidence for the existence of dark matter
...
The flat curve suggests existence o f matter/mass that cannot be seen – now called dark matter
...
These are all high density (compact) stars at the end of their lives and might be
hidden by being a long way from any luminous objects
...
• WIMPs
(Weakly Interacting Massive Particles) – subatomic particles that are not made up of ordinary matter
(non-‐baryonic)
...
Massive does not mean “big”, it means that these particles have mass (albeit
very small mass)
...
Dark Energy
Evidence from distant supernovae shows that the universe is expanding faster now than it was in the
past
...
This form of energy would
subsequently cause the expansion of the universe
to accelerate
...
Anisotropies in the CMB
Missions such as COBE, WMAP and Planck have shown that there
are variations in the CMB, suggesting variations in the density of
the early universe that could be explained by the inflationary
model (period of accelerated expansion immediately after the
big bang)
...
CMB anisotropies a re related to fluctuations in d ensity which are the cause for the formation of
structures/nebulae/stars/galaxies
[1 mark]
Title: IB Astrophysics Notes
Description: Notes for option D of the IB Physics course - Astrophysics. They also include all long answer past paper questions and answers throughout the notes for that specific topic.
Description: Notes for option D of the IB Physics course - Astrophysics. They also include all long answer past paper questions and answers throughout the notes for that specific topic.