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Title: IB Astrophysics Notes
Description: Notes for option D of the IB Physics course - Astrophysics. They also include all long answer past paper questions and answers throughout the notes for that specific topic.
Description: Notes for option D of the IB Physics course - Astrophysics. They also include all long answer past paper questions and answers throughout the notes for that specific topic.
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ASTROPHYSICS
STELLAR QUANTITIES
Objects that make up the Universe
-‐ The Solar System
A collection of planets, moons, asteroids, comets and other rocky objects travelling in elliptical orbits
around the Sun under the influence of its gravity
...
The inner planets are small and rocky and the outer
planets are large and mainly gas
...
• Asteroids
Asteroids are rocky objects orbiting the Sun and can be found in the asteroid belt between Mars and
Jupiter
...
Their very elliptical orbits can last from a few years to thousands of years
...
• Stars
All stars are initially formed when gravity causes the gas in a nebula to condense
...
This raises the temperature of the atoms which then form a protostar
...
Ignition
reduced emission of radiation from the core, producing a radiation pressure that opposes the
inward gravitational forces
...
As the
hydrogen is used up the star will eventually undergo changes that will move it from the main
sequence
...
The original mass of material in the star determines how the star
will change during its lifetime
...
They are important in
astrophysics because their interactions allow us to measure properties that we have no other way of
investigating
...
• Constellations
A constellation is a pattern formed by stars that are in the same general direction when viewed from
the earth
...
Describe what is meant by a constellation
...
[2 marks]
• Stellar Clusters
These are groups of stars that are positioned closely enough to be held together by gravity
...
• Open Clusters
These consist of up to several hundred stars that are younger than 10 billion years and may
still contain some gas and dust, e
...
the Milky Way
...
Describe what is meant by a stellar cluster
...
[2 marks]
• Nebulae
Nebulae are regions of intergalactic cloud of dust and gas
...
“The Matter Era” – Dust and clouds were formed when nuclei captured electrons
electrostatically and produced the hydrogen atoms that gravitated together
...
Supernova explosion – Formed as the remnant of a supernova
...
• Galaxies
A galaxy is a creation of stars, gas and dust held together by gravity and containing billions of stars
...
• Spiral galaxies: These have a disc shape with spiral arms spreading out from a central
galactic bulge that contains the greatest density of stars
...
• Other galaxies are elliptical in shape which contain much less gas and dust than
spiral galaxies
...
• Clusters of galaxies
The Milky Way is part of a cluster of about 30 galaxies called “The Local Group”
...
• Irregular clusters also exist, with no apparent shape and a lower concentration of
galaxies within them
...
In between the clusters there are voids that are apparently empty of
galaxies
...
The Light Year (ly) = 9
...
2
...
50 x 1011m
The average distance between the Sun and the Earth
...
The Parsec (pc) = 3
...
09 x 1016m
These are used for distances between nearby stars
...
As the Earth orbits the Sun, the stars that are quite close to us appear to
move across the distant “fixed” stars
...
1
Parallax a ngle
𝑑 =
𝑝
Given that,
d = distance in parsecs
p = parallax angle in arcsecond
This relationship is used for defining the
parsec: when a star is at a distance of 1 pc
from the Earth the parallax angle, given by the
equation, will be one arcsecond
...
Thus 1
arcsecond is very small being 1/3600 of a degree
...
01 arcsecond are difficult to measure from the surface of the
Earth because of the absorption and scattering of light by the atmosphere
...
01 = 100 pc
...
Luminosity – The total power emitted by a star
...
𝑃
𝐼=
4𝜋𝑑 )
Where,
I = Intensity
P = Power
r = The distance from the star
𝐿
𝑏=
4𝜋𝑑 )
Where,
b = Apparent brightness
L = Luminosity
Black Body Radiation and Stars
We consider black bodies as theoretical objects that absorb all the radiation that is incident upon
them
...
• Such bodies would also behave as perfect emitters of radiation, emitting the maximum
amount of radiation as possible at their temperature
...
Although stars are not perfect black bodies they can emit and absorbing all wavelengths of
electromagnetic radiation
...
67 x 10-‐8
If we assume that the star is spherical we can say that
𝐿 = 𝜎 (4𝜋𝑅 ) )𝑇 0
Where, R is the radius of the star
...
Such spectra provide information about the chemical composition, density, surface temperature,
rotational and translational velocities of stars
...
In general, the density and temperature of a star decreases with distance from its
centre
...
Wien’s Displacement Law
By treating a star as a black body, it is possible to estimate its surface temperature using Wien’s Law
...
9x1089
𝑇=
⋋;<=
Where,
⋋;<= = Wavelength of maximum intensity
T = Temperature
Cepheid Variables
• Cepheid variables are extremely luminous stars that undergo regular and predictable
changes in luminosity
...
Although the period is regular it is not sinusoidal and it takes less time for the star to
brighten than it does to fade
...
The Sun’s
luminosity is conventionally written as 𝐿⊙
...
The variation in luminosity occurs because the outer layers within the star expand and
contract periodically
...
The layer becomes compressed and less transparent to radiation
...
The temperature inside the layer increases, building up internal pressure
...
This causes the layer to be pushed outwards
...
During the expansion, the layer cools, becoming less dense
...
It also becomes more transparent, allowing radiation to escape and letting the
pressure inside fall
...
The layer falls inwards under gravity
...
Cepheid stars can also be called ‘standard candles’ since they allow us to measure the distances to
the galaxies containing Cepheid variable stars
...
i)
State what is meant by a standard candle
...
ii)
Outline the properties of a Cepheid star that allow it to be used as a standard candle
...
iii)
Explain how astronomers use their observations of a Cepheid star to determine the distance
from the star to Earth
...
The luminosity/absolute magnitude is d etermined from p eriod
...
0@A B
[6 marks]
Hertzsprung-‐Russel (HR) Diagram
This diagram shows a correlation between the luminosity of a star and its temperature
...
There are 4 main features that
emerge from the H-‐R diagram:
1
...
Nearly
90% of all stars fit into this category
...
Red Giants
Red giants are cooler than the Sun and so emit less energy per square metre of surface
...
This
means that they must have a greater surface area to be able to emit such large energies
...
3
...
A supergiant emitting 100,000 times the energy per
second and at the same temperature of the Sun must have a surface area 100,000 times larger
...
(Only about 1% of stars are giant and supergiant
...
White Dwarfs
White dwarfs are the remnants of old stars and constitute about 9% of all stars
...
These very small, hot stars are very dense and take billions of
years to cool down
...
The core is mostly made up of helium and the outer layer has an
abundance of hydrogen
...
L ∝ M3
...
For a stable star of higher mass there will be greater gravitational compression and so the
core temperature will be higher
...
The mass of a star is fundamental to the star’s lifetime – those with
greater mass have far shorter lives
...
The
loss of potential energy leads to an increase in the gas temperature
...
The star moves onto the main where it remains for as long as its hydrogen is being fused
into helium – this time occupies most of a star’s life
...
• The fate of stars
All stars collapse when most of the hydrogen nuclei have fused into helium
...
The hydrogen in the layer
surrounding the shrunken core is now able to fuse, raising the temperature of the outer layers which
makes them expand, forming a giant-‐star
...
The
very massive stars will continue to undergo fusion until iron and nickel are formed
...
A
...
This means that the core will continue to shrink while still emitting radiation, once
the helium is used up
...
When the remnant of the core has shrunk to about the size of the Erath it consists of carbon and
oxygen ions surrounded by free electrons
...
Pauli’s
exclusion principle prevents two electrons
from being in the same quantum state and
this means that the electrons provide a
repulsive force that prevents gravity from
further collapsing the star
...
Such stars are of very high density
of about 109 kgm-‐3
...
a) State the condition that must be satisfied for a main sequence star to eventually become a
white dwarf
...
4 solar masses
...
Residual/thermal/internal energy of the star
...
C/O/Ne/Mg
[3 marks]
Outline why the neutron star that is left after the supernova stage does not collapse under the action of
gravitation
...
[1 mark]
B
...
When such stars are in the red giant phase, the core is so large that the
resulting high temperature causes the fusion of nuclei to create elements heavier than carbon
...
The giant phase ends with the star having layers of elements
with proton numbers that decrease from the core to the outside
...
Even with this pressure, massive stars cannot stabilize
...
4 times the mass of the Sun
...
The star collapses with neutrons coming as close to each other as in a
nucleus
...
This blows off the outer layers and leaves the remnant core as a neutron star
...
The Oppenheimer-‐Volkoff limit places
an upper value of a neutron star for which neutron degeneracy is able to resist further collapse into
a black hole
...
Nothing can escape from a black hole and
for this reason it is impossible to see a black hole directly but their existence can be strongly inferred
by the following:
• The X-‐rays emitted by matter spiralling towards the edge of a black hole and heating up
...
It is
suggested that only black holes are powerful to produce such jets
...
COSMOLOGY
The Redshift and Hubble’s Law
When comparing the spectra of distant galaxies with their Earth-‐bound equivalents
...
Such
consistent results could only mean
that all galaxies were moving away
from the Earth
...
For optical spectra, the wavelengths
are moved towards the red end of the
spectrum
...
The shift applies to all waves in the
spectrum, so the absorption lines the spectrum can be seen to have shifted
...
To do this he used the standard candles available to him, Cepheid variables
...
State Hubble’s Law
...
State why Hubble’s law cannot be used to determine the distance from Earth to nearby galaxies, such as
Andromeda
...
[2 marks]
The spectrum of hydrogen from a source has a spectral line at wavelength 656nm
...
Suggest why the two
have different wavelengths
...
OR
The universe is expanding and so the space in b etween galaxies is stretched/ increases and this means
that the wavelength of the received light will also b e stretched/increased
...
Red shift is used to measure the recessional speed of galaxies
...
This is repeated for many galaxies/clusters o f galaxies
...
[2 marks]
The Big Bang model and the age of the universe
About 13
...
At that
instant, the entire universe exploded in a Big Bang, undergoing an immense explosion in which both
time and space came into being
...
7 K
...
As the galaxies move apart the space already between them becomes
stretched
...
The space
through which the electromagnetic radiation travels is expanding and it stretches out the
wavelength of light
...
Hubble’s Law suggests that the galaxies were closer together after the Big Bang than they are now
...
Assuming that Hubble’s law has held true for all galaxies at all times, the light from the most distant
star has taken the age of the universe to travel to us
...
This makes the recessional speed of
the galaxy that of the speed of light
...
Given that,
𝑣 = 𝐻E 𝑑 and 𝑑 = 𝑐𝑇,
𝑣 ≈ 𝐻E 𝑐𝑇
1
𝑇 ≈
𝐻E
Using this we can estimate the age of the universe to be 1
...
The derivation of the age of the universe equation assumes that the galaxy and the Earth are moving
at a relative constant speed of c and that there is nothing in their way to slow them down
...
In 1948, it was predicted that the universe should show a
spectrum of a black body emitter at a temperature of about 3K
...
This
meant that space had become transparent to electromagnetic radiation, allowing radiation to
escape in all directions
...
At earlier times the photons would have been much more
energetic and of far shorter wavelengths, peaking in the visible or ultraviolet region of the
electromagnetic spectrum
...
State two features of the CMB radiation which are consistent with the Big Bang model
...
Wavelength is stretched b y expansion
...
But, has minor anisotropies predicted b y Big Bang model
...
The universe is expanding and so the wavelength of the CMB in the past was much smaller, which
indicates a very high temperature at the b eginning
...
By using type Ia supernovae as standard candles to estimate galactic distances up to
around 1000 Mpc and measuring their redshifts, strong evidence was obtained suggesting the
universe might currently be undergoing an accelerated expansion
Title: IB Astrophysics Notes
Description: Notes for option D of the IB Physics course - Astrophysics. They also include all long answer past paper questions and answers throughout the notes for that specific topic.
Description: Notes for option D of the IB Physics course - Astrophysics. They also include all long answer past paper questions and answers throughout the notes for that specific topic.