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Title: IB Astrophysics Notes
Description: Notes for option D of the IB Physics course - Astrophysics. They also include all long answer past paper questions and answers throughout the notes for that specific topic.

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ASTROPHYSICS  
 
STELLAR  QUANTITIES  
 
Objects  that  make  up  the  Universe  
 
-­‐   The  Solar  System  
A  collection  of  planets,  moons,  asteroids,  comets  and  other  rocky  objects  travelling  in  elliptical  orbits  
around  the  Sun  under  the  influence  of  its  gravity
...
 The  inner  planets  are  small  and  rocky  and  the  outer  
planets  are  large  and  mainly  gas
...
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
•   Asteroids  
Asteroids  are  rocky  objects  orbiting  the  Sun  and  can  be  found  in  the  asteroid  belt  between  Mars  and  
Jupiter
...
 
Their  very  elliptical  orbits  can  last  from  a  few  years  to  thousands  of  years
...
 
 
•   Stars  
All  stars  are  initially  formed  when  gravity  causes  the  gas  in  a  nebula  to  condense
...
 
This  raises  the  temperature  of  the  atoms  which  then  form  a  protostar
...
 Ignition  
reduced  emission  of  radiation  from  the  core,  producing  a  radiation  pressure  that  opposes  the  
inward  gravitational  forces
...
 As  the  
hydrogen  is  used  up  the  star  will  eventually  undergo  changes  that  will  move  it  from  the  main  
sequence
...
 The  original  mass  of  material  in  the  star  determines  how  the  star  
will  change  during  its  lifetime
...
 They  are  important  in  
astrophysics  because  their  interactions  allow  us  to  measure  properties  that  we  have  no  other  way  of  
investigating
...
 
 
•   Constellations  
A  constellation  is  a  pattern  formed  by  stars  that  are  in  the  same  general  direction  when  viewed  from  
the  earth
...
 
Describe  what  is  meant  by  a  constellation
...
   
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
[2  marks]  
 
 
•   Stellar  Clusters  
These  are  groups  of  stars  that  are  positioned  closely  enough  to  be  held  together  by  gravity
...
   
•   Open  Clusters  
These  consist  of  up  to  several  hundred  stars  that  are  younger  than  10  billion  years  and  may  
still  contain  some  gas  and  dust,  e
...
 the  Milky  Way
...
 
 
Describe  what  is  meant  by  a  stellar  cluster
...
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
[2  marks]  
 
   
•   Nebulae  
Nebulae  are  regions  of  intergalactic  cloud  of  dust  and  gas
...
  “The  Matter  Era”  –  Dust  and  clouds  were  formed  when  nuclei  captured  electrons  
electrostatically  and  produced  the  hydrogen  atoms  that  gravitated  together
...
  Supernova  explosion  –  Formed  as  the  remnant  of  a  supernova
...
 
 
•   Galaxies  
A  galaxy  is  a  creation  of  stars,  gas  and  dust  held  together  by  gravity  and  containing  billions  of  stars
...
 
•   Spiral  galaxies:  These  have  a  disc  shape  with  spiral  arms  spreading  out  from  a  central  
galactic  bulge  that  contains  the  greatest  density  of  stars
...
 

•   Other  galaxies  are  elliptical  in  shape  which  contain  much  less  gas  and  dust  than  
spiral  galaxies
...
 
 
•   Clusters  of  galaxies  
The  Milky  Way  is  part  of  a  cluster  of  about  30  galaxies  called  “The  Local  Group”
...
 
•   Irregular  clusters  also  exist,  with  no  apparent  shape  and  a  lower  concentration  of  
galaxies  within  them
...
 In  between  the  clusters  there  are  voids  that  are  apparently  empty  of  
galaxies
...
  The  Light  Year  (ly)  =  9
...
 
2
...
50  x  1011m  
The  average  distance  between  the  Sun  and  the  Earth
...
  The  Parsec  (pc)  =  3
...
09  x  1016m  
These  are  used  for  distances  between  nearby  stars
...
 As  the  Earth  orbits  the  Sun,  the  stars  that  are  quite  close  to  us  appear  to  
move  across  the  distant  “fixed”  stars
...
 
 
1
Parallax  a ngle  
𝑑 =  
𝑝
Given  that,  
 
d  =  distance  in  parsecs  
p  =  parallax  angle  in  arcsecond  
 
This  relationship  is  used  for  defining  the  
parsec:  when  a  star  is  at  a  distance  of  1  pc  
from  the  Earth  the  parallax  angle,  given  by  the  
equation,  will  be  one  arcsecond
...
 Thus  1  
arcsecond  is  very  small  being  1/3600  of  a  degree
...
01  arcsecond  are  difficult  to  measure  from  the  surface  of  the  
Earth  because  of  the  absorption  and  scattering  of  light  by  the  atmosphere
...
01  =  100  pc
...
 
 
Luminosity  –  The  total  power  emitted  by  a  star
...
 
 
𝑃
𝐼=
 
4𝜋𝑑 )
Where,  
I  =  Intensity  
P  =  Power  
r  =  The  distance  from  the  star  
𝐿
𝑏=
 
4𝜋𝑑 )
Where,  
b  =  Apparent  brightness  
L  =  Luminosity  
 
Black  Body  Radiation  and  Stars  
 
We  consider  black  bodies  as  theoretical  objects  that  absorb  all  the  radiation  that  is  incident  upon  
them
...
 
•   Such  bodies  would  also  behave  as  perfect  emitters  of  radiation,  emitting  the  maximum  
amount  of  radiation  as  possible  at  their  temperature
...
 
 
Although  stars  are  not  perfect  black  bodies  they  can  emit  and  absorbing  all  wavelengths  of  
electromagnetic  radiation
...
67  x  10-­‐8  
 
If  we  assume  that  the  star  is  spherical  we  can  say  that  
 
𝐿 =  𝜎 (4𝜋𝑅 ) )𝑇 0  
Where,  R  is  the  radius  of  the  star
...
 
Such  spectra  provide  information  about  the  chemical  composition,  density,  surface  temperature,  
rotational  and  translational  velocities  of  stars
...
 In  general,  the  density  and  temperature  of  a  star  decreases  with  distance  from  its  
centre
...
 
 
Wien’s  Displacement  Law  
 
By  treating  a  star  as  a  black  body,  it  is  possible  to  estimate  its  surface  temperature  using  Wien’s  Law
...
9x1089
𝑇=
 
⋋;<=
Where,  
 
⋋;<=  =  Wavelength  of  maximum  intensity  
T  =  Temperature  
 
 
Cepheid  Variables  
•   Cepheid  variables  are  extremely  luminous  stars  that  undergo  regular  and  predictable  
changes  in  luminosity
...
 
Although  the  period  is  regular  it  is  not  sinusoidal  and  it  takes  less  time  for  the  star  to  
brighten  than  it  does  to  fade
...
 The  Sun’s  
luminosity  is  conventionally  written  as  𝐿⊙
...
 The  variation  in  luminosity  occurs  because  the  outer  layers  within  the  star  expand  and  
contract  periodically
...
  The  layer  becomes  compressed  and  less  transparent  to  radiation
...
  The  temperature  inside  the  layer  increases,  building  up  internal  pressure
...
  This  causes  the  layer  to  be  pushed  outwards
...
  During  the  expansion,  the  layer  cools,  becoming  less  dense
...
  It  also  becomes  more  transparent,  allowing  radiation  to  escape  and  letting  the  
pressure  inside  fall
...
  The  layer  falls  inwards  under  gravity
...
 
 
Cepheid  stars  can  also  be  called  ‘standard  candles’  since  they  allow  us  to  measure  the  distances  to  
the  galaxies  containing  Cepheid  variable  stars
...
 
 
i)

State  what  is  meant  by  a  standard  candle
...
 
 
ii)
Outline   the   properties  of  a   Cepheid  star   that   allow  it   to  be  used  as   a  standard  candle
...
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
iii)
Explain  how  astronomers  use  their  observations  of  a  Cepheid  star  to  determine  the  distance  
from   the  star   to   Earth
...
 
The  luminosity/absolute  magnitude  is  d etermined  from  p eriod
...
 
0@A B
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
[6  marks]  
 
 
Hertzsprung-­‐Russel  (HR)  Diagram  
 
This  diagram  shows  a  correlation  between  the  luminosity  of  a  star  and  its  temperature
...
 
 
There  are  4  main  features  that  
emerge  from  the  H-­‐R  diagram:  
1
...
 Nearly  
90%  of  all  stars  fit  into  this  category
...
  Red  Giants  
Red  giants  are  cooler  than  the  Sun  and  so  emit  less  energy  per  square  metre  of  surface
...
 This  

means  that  they  must  have  a  greater  surface  area  to  be  able  to  emit  such  large  energies
...
 
3
...
 A  supergiant  emitting  100,000  times  the  energy  per  
second  and  at  the  same  temperature  of  the  Sun  must  have  a  surface  area  100,000  times  larger
...
 
(Only  about  1%  of  stars  are  giant  and  supergiant
...
  White  Dwarfs  
White  dwarfs  are  the  remnants  of  old  stars  and  constitute  about  9%  of  all  stars
...
 These  very  small,  hot  stars  are  very  dense  and  take  billions  of  
years  to  cool  down
...
 
The  core  is  mostly  made  up  of  helium  and  the  outer  layer  has  an  
abundance  of  hydrogen
...
   
L  ∝  M3
...
 For  a  stable  star  of  higher  mass  there  will  be  greater  gravitational  compression  and  so  the  
core  temperature  will  be  higher
...
 The  mass  of  a  star  is  fundamental  to  the  star’s  lifetime  –  those  with  
greater  mass  have  far  shorter  lives
...
 The  
loss  of  potential  energy  leads  to  an  increase  in  the  gas  temperature
...
 The  star  moves  onto  the  main  where  it  remains  for  as  long  as  its  hydrogen  is  being  fused  
into  helium  –  this  time  occupies  most  of  a  star’s  life
...
 

 
•   The  fate  of  stars  
All  stars  collapse  when  most  of  the  hydrogen  nuclei  have  fused  into  helium
...
 The  hydrogen  in  the  layer  
surrounding  the  shrunken  core  is  now  able  to  fuse,  raising  the  temperature  of  the  outer  layers  which  
makes  them  expand,  forming  a  giant-­‐star
...
 The  
very  massive  stars  will  continue  to  undergo  fusion  until  iron  and  nickel  are  formed
...
 
 
A
...
 This  means  that  the  core  will  continue  to  shrink  while  still  emitting  radiation,  once  
the  helium  is  used  up
...
 
When  the  remnant  of  the  core  has  shrunk  to  about  the  size  of  the  Erath  it  consists  of  carbon  and  
oxygen  ions  surrounded  by  free  electrons
...
 Pauli’s  
exclusion  principle  prevents  two  electrons  
from  being  in  the  same  quantum  state  and  
this  means  that  the  electrons  provide  a  
repulsive  force  that  prevents  gravity  from  
further  collapsing  the  star
...
 Such  stars  are  of  very  high  density  
of  about  109  kgm-­‐3
...
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
a) State  the  condition  that  must  be  satisfied  for  a  main  sequence  star  to  eventually  become  a  
white  dwarf
...
4  solar  masses
...
 
 
Residual/thermal/internal  energy  of   the  star
...
 
 
C/O/Ne/Mg  
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
[3  marks]  
 

 
 
 
Outline  why  the  neutron  star  that  is  left  after  the  supernova  stage  does  not  collapse  under  the  action  of  
gravitation
...
 He  found  that  
the  spectra  from  the  galaxies  
invariably  appeared  to  be  redshifted  in  
line  with  the  Doppler  effect
...
 
 
The  diagram  to  the  right  shows  the  
redshifted  absorption  spectra
...
 This  shift  applies  to  all  waves  in  the  spectrum
...
 
 
In  addition  to  recognizing  the  consistent  redshift,  Hubble  showed  that  the  further  away  the  galaxy  
the  greater  the  redshift
...
 
Although  his  data  had  large  uncertainties  he  suggested  that  the  recessional  speed  of  a  galaxy  is  
proportional  to  its  distance  from  Earth:  
𝑣 = 𝐻E 𝑑  
Where,  
v  =  Velocity  of  recession  (from  Earth)  
d  =  Distance  of  the  galaxy  (from  Earth)  
H0  =  the  Hubble  constant
...
 
 
 
 
 
The  recessional  speeds  of  galaxies  are  proportional  to  their  distance  from  Earth/us/each  other;  
𝑣 = 𝐻E 𝑑  (with   terms  defined)
...
 
 
The  local  velocity  of  Andromeda,  relative  to  Earth,  is  greater  than  the  recessional  speed  due  to  the  
expansion  of  the  universe
...
 The  same  line,  
viewed  from  Earth,  in  the  spectrum  of  a  distant  galaxy  has  wavelength  682nm
...
 
 
 
 
 
The  galaxy  is  moving  away  from  the  Earth  and  so  the  wavelength  is  Doppler/Red  shifted
...
   
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
[3  marks]  
 

 
Outline   the   measurements   that   must  be   taken   to   determine  a  value  for  the  Hubble  constant
...
 A  Cepheid  variable   can  be  used   to  yield  
the  distance  to  galaxies
...
 The   elements/  nuclear  reactions  arrange   themselves  in  layers,  h eaviest  at  
the  core,  lightest  in  the  envelope
...
 This  is  because  they  need  higher  core  
temperatures  and  pressures  to  prevent  them  
from  collapsing  under  gravity
...
 Therefore,  massive  stars  use  up  
their  core  hydrogen  more  quickly  and  spend  less  
time  on  the  main  sequence  than  stars  of  lower  
mass
...
O  
 
Luminosity  is  the  total  energy,  E,  released  by  the  star  per  
unit  time  while  hydrogen  is  being  fused  or  
 
𝐸
𝐿 =  
𝑡
 
While  fusion  occurs,  the  energy  emitted  is  accompanied  by  a  loss  of  mass
...
 Since  E  
=  mc2,  the  energy  emitted  during  the  hydrogen  burning  phase  of  a  star’s  life  gives  E  =  kmc2
...
V

 

or  

𝑇 ∝ 𝑀 8)
...
 
 
Supernovae  
 
Supernovae  are  rare  events  in  any  given  galaxy  buy  are  detected  quite  regularly  given  the  number  of  
galaxies
...
 
Supernovae  can  be  categorized  as  being  Type  I  or  Type  II  in  terms  of  their  absorption  spectra
...
 One  of  
the  stars  is  a  white  dwarf  and  the  other  is  either  a  giant  star  or  a  smaller  white  dwarf
...
 
 
These  are  very  useful  to  us  as  they  always  emit  light  in  a  predictable  way  and  behave  as  a  standard  
candle  for  measuring  the  distance  of  the  galaxy  in  which  the  supernova  occurs
...
 When  the  mass  of  the  growing  
Title: IB Astrophysics Notes
Description: Notes for option D of the IB Physics course - Astrophysics. They also include all long answer past paper questions and answers throughout the notes for that specific topic.