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YEATS
He was influenced by Ezra Pound
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He started his studies in Dublin first and he soon
dedicated himself to writing poetry
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In fact, he was one of the founders of the Irish National Theatre
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His most
important collection of poems are:
“The Rose” (1893) – first volume
The Wild Swans at Coole
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In 1928 he wrote The Tower (another collection of poems)
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A VISION: critical essay written in prose where Yeats explains his vision of history and the
way this vision was applied on poetry
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He was very involved in the Irish political troubled life: IRELAND represents one of the
strongest influences on the young Yeats
Another aspect is related to his studies on OCCULTISM and SPIRITUALISM, on which he
built his interpretation of the history of humankind
As for the literary traditions he owes something to, we can refer to the
o Literary contribution of ESTHETICISM and, before estheticism,
o The idea of ART and the ROLE OF ART = GIVE IMMORTALITY TO HUMAN AND
MORAL VALUES which is to be found in the production in John KEATS
o William BLAKE for the prophetic aspects of his works
o The FRENCH SYMBOLISTS for the importance he gave to SYMBOLS

Three main phases in his literary career (book):
1
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It is defined as the romantic phase, whereas
in the second phase there are still some romantic elements but he elaborated the THEORY
OF THE GYRES
2
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To find a new basis to start from, poets and artists often refer to myth 

This is what Yeats himself does
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LATER PERIOD: The Second Coming + Sailing to Byzantium (related to his perception
of reality)

THEORY OF THE GYRES (spirals)
According to Yeats, tn the development of history there is a movement that lasts 2000 years which
is defined jyre by him
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The
movement the movement of the first jyre is over, another jyre starts with a similar movement, but
backwards, and the second one covers the first one  They represent a whole unity, but they are
opposite
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Each jyre refers to
a cycle of history, which therefore covers 2000 years
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recognizes in each cycle some recurrent
elements (which remind of the theory of Vico: corsi and ricorsi) and each phase is dominated by the
various sequences and movements of the moon each jyre will be dominated by balance, order and
harmony, or confusion, distress, anarchy, undress
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started with the birth of
Christ led to a phase of harmony in the history of men
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Yeats experienced the events of the first world war, the Russian revolution, the Irish
question, etc
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When he refers to this condition of anarchy, he refers to all the historical events taking place in the
early 20th century  political instability and wars, which also represent the mental and cultural
instability of modern men
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1st stanza: The poet expresses the desire of Yeats to leave Ireland and his present situation, to find
solace and comfort somewhere else
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Its real meaning contributes to giving this poem its real essence
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His desire is to live alone in the bee-loud glade
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The cricket’s sing is the 1st sound of nature we perceive
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Nature is perceived through the colors and noises of nature
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I will
arise and go now ≈ refrain
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He
hears lake water lapping by the shore

Y
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However, he still hears the noise of the water lapping
by the shore deep in his heart  Combination of the physical perception of the noise of the water
with the emotional one (heart’s core)
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As Yeats had read about this experience, he expressed his desire to
live a similar one
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longed for himself “a life of austerity”  Reference to a life based on
simplicity in solitude far from the confusion and hassle of city life
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Then, when he was a little older (in the last 2 verses) he expresses the fact that, while he was
walking on a grey pavement, he remembers the past
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In this way, he remembers the water lapping on the shore on the Isle of
Innisfree and this sudden vision awakens in him the memory of the past  In the deep of his
heart he feels the sweetness related to his experience on Innisfree (detachment from the
confusion of daily life, comfort)

THE WILD SWANS AT COOLE  Middle phase of Y
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The wild swans are an element of nature (still
immersed in nature)
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There is a new theme in the poem related to the idea of the passing of time, getting old and losing
what we have in our younger years
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Ideally, he refers to this great number of
swans which represent the beauty of nature and life
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He asks himself what he will feel like the day he will realize the swans have flown
to another place  Not being able to see the swans anymore implies the idea of the loss of
something: symbolic image
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The hearts of the swans do not grow old (≠ people): they are the symbol for the circular movement
of nature, which renews itself year after year
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Need to look for a way out, a solution to men’s limited experience  One of Y’s themes
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However, the answer to the question will be given in “Sailing to
Bisanzio”  Ability to overcome this existential doubt in the world of art, which gives eternity to
the poet’s achievement and the poet himself
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represent the development of
history  Y
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The wings of the swans are linked to the gyres
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In “I wandered lonely as I cloud”, there were golden daffodils  unexpected sight of a sublime
beauty  Similar experience to the “brilliant creatures”
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Memory was enough for
Wordsworth, but it isn’t enough for Yeats
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Connected to the theory of gyres that the
poet will study in A Vision
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There is no communication and
respect: a revolution is coming, things are falling apart, there is total chaos
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The falcon keeps turning in a widening gyre
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The
tide is of the color of blood, it's a metaphor for the war
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All the people die because of the conflict and drown in their blood
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The best people lack all conviction, they have no more certainties and beliefs, whereas wicked
people have a passionate intensity to drive them
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Summary of the 1st stanza
In the first stanza, Yeats describes in symbolic terms the situation characterizing the whole world,
the universe, and the mind of people
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There is a total lack of control (everything falls
apart) and the center of the universe cannot hold  Gradual losing of values and references even in
the most trivial things in everyday life




Image of the falcon: mankind
Falconer = any form of authority and power
Ceremony of innocence  Image of innocent people who are slaughtered



The ones who represent the worst part of society are full of passionate intensity, therefore
they seem to be the winners

2nd stanza
The focus and tone changes
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He repeats surely twice
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This shape is huge and moves its thighs
(membra) slowly
v
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Yeats analyses the ways these tragic and world-wide
events will affect the future of mankind

In the “Wild Swans at Coole”  Focus on the poet’s feelings about getting old  Old age becomes
synonym for the loss of some perceptions in life and the possibility of having an active life
The theory of the gyre refers to the effects that the war had on the mind of the poet, but he followed
2 main lines in his production and also in the 2nd stanza we refer to his more prophetic vision of
reality
SAILING TO BYSANZIUM
The poem is included in the collection “The Tower” (1928) and belongs to the 3rd phase of his
production)  More prophetic phase  He overcomes the idea of disillusionment and failure that
he perceived in his reality, but in himself as a human being and he portrays Byzantium as the
symbol of eternity and perfection in arts and decides to go there himself in order to find a new
dimension for himself, where he will finally be able to combine his philosophical and intellectual
aspirations with his having got older, because only in the perfection of art will he be able to reach
this compromise (getting old- taking advantage of the eternity granted by arts to everybody)
Why does he choose Byzantium? In the essay “A Vision” he explained why choosing Byzantium
for this ideal flight into a new dimension of life  The Byzantium of 1000 A
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, a phase in which
subjectivity and objectivity were balanced and art expressed at the same time the personality of an
individual and the interests and needs of a collectivity
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Some critics define this poem as belonging to a metaphysical phase in the production of
Yeats
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Themes of old age and symbolic expression of the perfection of art
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OLD AGE  1st theme
SYBOLIC EXPRESSION OF THE PERFECTION OF ART  2nd theme
THE REALITY HE LIVES IN AND THAT OF BIZANTIO  2rd theme
Then he refers to the image of the younger generations whose destiny is to fade away
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Whatever is born and whatever dies 

The poet expresses in just three phases the destiny of ordinary life
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Second stanza
An old man is like a tattered (logoro) coat upon a stick  Could be related to the image of a
SCARECROW (also in another poem by Elliot, “The Hallow Men”)
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These monuments represent the new
dimension of eternity (out of reality)
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The poet seems to become himself a piece of art by describing the mosaics and
masterpieces he can see in Byzantium and identifying himself with them
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is now part of the artifice of eternity which he sees around him
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He does not care about reacquiring his bodily form, since it has
now been transformed into sth which is completely detached from the bodily form he had before
becoming a piece of art
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In the lines in the 4th stanza, he describes with care and details once again the works of art around
him

EASTER 1916
1886: first bill granting home rule (independence from Britain)
Sin Fein = "ourselves alone"
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After the failure of the eastern rising there sphere elections in Ireland
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Newly elected members should have joined the Westminster
parliament in Britain
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This led to the beginning of the war of
independence in 1919
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This war ended in 1921 with the establishment of the so called Irish Free State, an
independent Ireland in the British commonwealth
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During the civil war one of the partied was called The
Irregulars, but they were finally defeated in 1931
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He began the
foundation of the Republic of Ireland (EIRE, 1937)
1916 is the year in which armed republicans rebelled against the British in Dublin
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The attack lasted several days but the republicans were defeated at the end: some of them were
killed and some others were injured
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The two main promoters of this bill
where Charles Parnell and William Blackstone (prime minister)
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In 1914 one bill passed but the house of commons differed it until the end of the war: this was one
of the causes of the Easter rising which was 2 years later
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After Easter rising there were elections in Ireland and in these election this party won expect in
Ulster
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This war ended in 1921with the establishment of the so called Irish free state which meant an
independent island within the British commonwealth (Northern Ireland still remained with Britain)
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In the first three stanzas, Yeats recreates the atmosphere and he refers to the people who are actually
involved in this action, rising, rebellion
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The
poet focuses on that sense of unity and community that the rebels had and that drove them to act on
this occasion and he emphasizes the fact that all these hearts (line 41 – opening line of stanza
number 3) are guided from the same purpose
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Final idea  A terrible beauty is born, but this terrible beauty is doomed to represent a new
beginning in Ireland’s history
Green = color of the Irish flag

FIRST STANZA
•
Yeats starts the poem by talking about some people whom he's met at the "close of
day" or the end of the business day (probably 5pm)
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The poet knows these rebels and he meets them, they start
this polite and meaningless sequence of words about how the situation will evolve
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SECOND STANZA
In the second stanza Yeats presents the story of people participating in the revolution
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School teachers; Pearse, Thomas MacDonagh and personal
enemy of the poet John MacBride, the man whom Maud Gonne married forsake their individual
roles and fight with a unified aim-that of winning freedom for their country
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The poet celebrates their
death
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Yeats refers MacBride to a drunken, vainglorious lout, who had done most bitter wrong
to someone who was very dear to Yeats (which means Maud Gonne)

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