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Aggression
Notes

AO1: Include keywords, facts and explanation about the topic
We have evolved adaptations designed to harm other individuals in relatively minor ways, and
in more serious ways
...
They argue that humans, particularly human males, have inherited from their
ancestors psychological mechanisms that improve their odds of passing on their genes to
future generations
...
These adaptations, including those that
function to inflict costs on other humans, comprise our human nature
...
This enhanced the survival and reproductive success of the
individual, and as a result, this mental module would have spread throughout the gene pool
...

Evolutionary explanations – why the behaviour was so effective that it was incorporated into
the gene pool – ultimate
...
Those using aggression successfully
would be more successful in acquiring mates and more successful in passing on their genes to
offspring
...

Lassek and Gaulin (2009) men have 75% more muscle mass than women
...

Puts (2010) various male traits seem to imply that competition with other males did take place
among ancestral males
...
Competition with other males may also explain why males have more robust skulls
and brow ridges than women
...

E – Smetana (1989) parents are more likely to physically punish boys for bad conduct, whereas
when girls misbehave, parents tend to explain to them why their actions were wrong
...

L – This reduces the validity of this explanation because it ignores the fact that women can also
display aggressive behaviours towards other women, making this explanation androcentric
...

E – Violent or aggressive behaviour can result in social ostracism, injury or death in extreme
cases
...

E – This criticises the notion that aggressive behaviour has evolved to help humans adapt to
their environment because aggressive behaviour seems to be more maladaptive than an
adaptive strategy
...


P – There is support for the link between aggression and status
...

E – This supports the notion that aggressive behaviours are adaptive because it is a way of
gaining status in a group and a consequence threats to that status
...


AO1: Include keywords, facts and explanation about the topic
Sexual Jealousy
Archer (2013) male aggression can occur out of sexual jealousy, which arises as result of
paternal uncertainty
...
The consequence is that the man might unwittingly invest his
resources in offspring that are not his own
...

Buss (1988) males have a number of strategies that have evolved specifically for the purpose of
keeping a mate
...

Dobash and Dobash (1984) battered women cite extreme jealousy on the part of their
husbands or boyfriends as the key cause of the violence directed toward them
...
Men are
predominantly the perpetrators and the victims
...

Livingstone Smith (2007) human warfare originated not only to obtain valuable resources, but
also to attract mates and forge intragroup bonds
...

Aggression in combat can also increase status for individual warriors, gaining them respect
from others, and so strengthens their bond between them and other males in the group
...


AO3: State whether supporting/contradicting evidence; Use research evidence – what has
been found? What does this suggest? Link to research methodology or issues and debates

P – A criticism of this approach is that there is gender bias in evolutionary explanations of
aggression
...
Even
within those societies that allow women to participate in war, they are always that rare
exception
...

L – This reduces the validity of this explanation as the aggressive displays in male warfare are
not typically seen in females, suggesting that we cannot understand aggressive behaviour in
females using an evolutionary explanation
...

E – It cannot explain the wide-scale slaughter of whole groups, such as evident in the Rwandan
genocide in 1994
...

E – This criticises the evolutionary explanation because it cannot be used to explain the often
extreme bouts of human aggression in terms of evolution and natural selection
...


AO1: Include keywords, facts and explanation about the topic

AO3: State whether supporting/contradicting evidence; Use research evidence – what has
been found? What does this suggest? Link to research methodology or issues and debates

Neural Influences
The Limbic System: area of the brain that helps co-ordinate behaviours that satisfy motivational
and emotional urges, such as aggression and fear
...

E – Pardini et al found participants with lower amygdala volumes exhibited higher levels of
aggression and violence and remained even after other confounding variables were controlled
...

L – This increases the validity of the claim that the amygdala has a role in aggressive behaviour
as it supports the idea that a reduction in the size of the amygdala would cause aggression
...

If stimulated electrically, an animal responds with aggression: snarling and adopting aggressive
posture
...

Kluver and Bucy (1937) destruction of the amygdala in a monkey who was dominant in a social
group caused it to lose its dominant place in the group
...
For example, an animal previously
attacked by another animal would respond with either fear or aggression in their next
encounter
...

Boccardi et al (2010) habitually violent offenders exhibited abnormalities of hippocampal
functioning
...

E – Raine et al found that the hippocampi of the two hemispheres in unsuccessful psychopaths
differed in size, an imbalance thought to arise in early brain development
...

L – Therefore, this explanation is biologically reductionist, as it does not acknowledge the role
of aggressive role models in the display of aggression
...
It typically
inhibits the firing of the amygdala, which controls fear, anger and other emotional responses
...

When the amygdala is stimulated by external events, it becomes more active, causing the
person to act on their impulses, making aggression more likely
...
Low levels of serotonin have been associated
with an increased susceptibility to impulsive behaviour, aggression and even violent suicide
...


P – Mixed evidence for the serotonin deficiency hypothesis
...
They also found only other-reported aggression was positively correlated to
serotonin functioning
...
However, it also suggests that the relationship between serotonin
deficiency and aggression is complex because Duke et al found this relationship only in one
group
...


[Supports Boccardi’s study]

AO1: Include keywords, facts and explanation about the topic

AO3: State whether supporting/contradicting evidence; Use research evidence – what has
been found? What does this suggest? Link to research methodology or issues and debates

Hormonal Influences
Testosterone: produces male characteristics, one of which is thought to be aggression
...
It is thought to influence aggression from young adulthood
onwards due to its action on brain areas involved in controlling aggression
...
Reinstating normal testosterone levels led to a return of aggressive
behaviour
...

E – Albert et al found positive relationships between levels of testosterone and self-reported
levels of aggression in prison inmates, whereas, no correlation was found between
testosterone levels and actual violent behaviour among male inmates in prison
...

L – This decreases the temporal validity of the results because the theories about testosterone
levels and aggression were made in 1987, and therefore cannot be generalised to the
population now
...

Dabbs (1990) men have higher concentrations of testosterone than women
...

Dabbs et al (1987) those with the highest testosterone levels had a history of primarily violent
crimes, whereas, those with the lowest levels has committed only non-violent crimes
...
Changes in testosterone levels
appear to influence aggressive behaviour by increasing amygdala activity during the processing
of social threat
...

E – Mazur claims that aggression is just one form of dominance behaviour
...

E – This criticises the hormonal influence explanation because it shows that aggression is one
type of dominance that can be expressed in different ways
...


AO1: Include keywords, facts and explanation about the topic

AO3: State whether supporting/contradicting evidence; Use research evidence – what has
been found? What does this suggest? Link to research methodology or issues and debates

Biological approach to aggression includes the belief that the propensity for aggressive
behaviour lies in an individual’s genetic make-up
...

E – Many studies conducted focus mainly on individuals convicted for violent crimes
...
This is used to explain why some studies
have not found any evidence for the heritability of violent behaviours
...


Genetic factors: the likelihood of behaving in a particular way is determined by a person’s
genetic make-up
...
e
...

Twin studies: if monozygotic twins are more alike in terms of their aggressive behaviour, then
this should be due to genes rather than environment
...

Adoption studies: if a positive correlation is found between aggressive behaviour in adopted
children and aggressive behaviour in their biological parents, a genetic effect is implied
...

Research on genetic factors in aggression: Miles and Carey (1997): found a strong genetic
influence that could account for much as 50% of the variance in aggression
...

Rhee and Waldman (2002): concluded that aggressive anti-social behaviour was largely a
product of genetic contributions
...


P – Another criticising evidence for the biological approach to aggression is that it is difficult to
determine the extent to which genetic factors have a role in producing aggressive behaviour
...
This
makes it difficult to establish its role in aggressive behaviour, as more than one gene usually
contributes to a behaviour being expressed by an individual
...
This means that an interactionist approach would be more suitable to explain why
aggression occurs in humans – genetic and environmental factors interact with one another,
causing either aggressive or non-aggressive behaviour
...

P – Another criticism of the biological approach is that studies have relied on retrospective and
observational methods to gather data that is inevitably inconsistent
...

E – This is a criticism because it shows that genetic influences alone do not cause aggression in
humans, as results from different studies have found inconsistent findings
...


AO1: Include keywords, facts and explanation about the topic

AO3: State whether supporting/contradicting evidence; Use research evidence – what has
been found? What does this suggest? Link to research methodology or issues and debates

MAOA: a gene for aggression?

P – There is supporting evidence for the role of the MAOA gene in the display of aggressive
behaviour in a study of Finnish prisoners
...
These genes were not
found in non-violent offenders, suggesting they were only specific to violent offenses
...

L – Therefore, this explanation is androcentric, as it only explains why males show aggressive
behaviour, assuming that females will also display aggression is they have the MAOA-L gene
...


MAOA: Monoamine oxidase A; an enzyme that regulates the metabolism of serotonin in the
brain
...
It regulates the metabolism of serotonin in the brain, and low levels
of serotonin are associated with impulsive and aggressive behaviour
...
They were found to
have abnormally low levels of MAOA and a defect in this gene was later identified
...
Those with MAOA-L were
significantly more likely to exhibit anti-social behaviour when they grew up but only if they had
been maltreated as children
...

The ‘warrior’ gene: MAOA-L is more frequent in populations with a history of warfare, with
about two-thirds of people in the populations with the gene
...
McDermott et al (2009): found that MAOA-L participants displayed higher levels
of aggression when provoked, than did MAOA-H participants
...

E – Niehoff (2014): found that males have a greater genetic vulnerability to the MAOA gene
because they only inherit one X chromosome from their mothers
...

E – This supports the biological explanation for aggression because it explains why there are
gender differences in aggressive behaviours, which increases the validity of this as an
explanation
...


AO1: Include keywords, facts and explanation about the topic

AO3: State whether supporting/contradicting evidence; Use research evidence – what has
been found? What does this suggest? Link to research methodology or issues and debates

The frustration-aggression hypothesis: ‘the occurrence of aggressive behaviour always
presupposes the existence of frustration’ and ‘the existence of frustration always leads to some
form of aggression
...

Predicts a cause-effect relationship between frustration, aggression and catharsis: a form of
emotional release that is achieved by the person engaging in aggressive behaviour or having
aggressive thoughts about the target
...

Brown et al (2001): found an increase in hostile attitudes towards the French as a result of the
passengers’ frustration of having their boat blocked at Calais
...

Pastore (1952): distinguished between justified and unjustified aggression, arguing that it was
mainly the latter that produced anger and aggression
...

Displaced aggression
Dollard et al assumed aggression is sometimes displaced from the source of the frustration on
to someone or something else – the ‘kicking the dog’ effect
...

A revised frustration-aggression hypothesis (Berkowitz, 1989)
Berkowitz argued that frustration is only one of many different types of unpleasant experience
that can lead to aggression
...
It is these negative feelings that triggers the aggression
...

The nature of the frustrating event is less important than how negative is the resulting affect
...

E – Social learning theorists suggest that an individual may respond to frustration by engaging
in aggressive behaviour that has worked before, (direct conditioning) or if they observed it
being effective for others (social learning)
...

L – Therefore, the frustration-aggression hypothesis lacks temporal validity as it was developed
in 1939, which means it cannot be used to explain the cause of aggressive behaviour in modern
times
...

E – Bushman (2002): aggressive behaviour kept people more angry and more aggressive,
contradicting the claims that catharsis reduces aggression
...

L – Therefore, the frustration-aggression hypothesis lacks reproducibility as the results of
Dollard’s claims have not been reproduced in further replications
...

E – Reifman et al (1991): as temperatures increased, so did the likelihood that pitchers would
display aggressive behaviour towards the batters
...

L – Therefore, this explanation is deterministic, as it suggests that frustration will always cause
aggressive behaviour, reducing the validity of the explanation
...

E – Staub (1996): mass killings are often rooted in the frustration caused by social and
economic difficulties within society
...

E – This supports the frustration-aggression hypothesis because it shows that the central
concepts can be generalised to explain aggressive behaviour in the real world
...

P – Another support is that it can be used to explain sports violence in the real world
...
A one-position drop in the league also led to a 5%
increase in unruly behaviour
...

L – Therefore, the explanation is valid, as it can be used to develop safety measures at football
events to reduce the levels of aggression directed at football players, which will have positive
effects on the economy, as fewer individuals will get into trouble with the police for their
aggressive behaviour
...
We learn the specifics
of aggressive behaviour (eg
...

Observation
Watching the behaviour of role models and then imitating that behaviour
...

Vicarious reinforcement
Children observe and learn about the consequences of aggressive behaviour by watching
others being reinforced or punished
...
By observing the consequences of
aggressive behaviour for those who use it, a child gradually learns something about what is
considered appropriate (and effective) conduct in the world around them
...

Mental representation
Bandura claimed that, in order for social learning to take place, the child must form mental
representations of events in their social environment
...
Social learning theory has been extended to include a kind of cognitive schema –
the script
...
These rules (the script) then become internalised
...

Production of behaviour – maintenance through experience
If a child is rewarded for a behaviour, he or she is likely to repeat the same action in similar
situations in the future
...

Self-efficacy expectancies
Children also develop confidence in their ability to carry out the necessary aggressive actions
...


Lack of realism in research
There are significant methodological problems with the Bobo doll studies conducted by
Bandura
...
These studies
therefore do not tell us much about the imitation of aggression toward other human beings
...
The children
then proceeded to imitate the same aggressive behaviours they had seen in the film
...
They found that players
born in North America were much more likely to be penalised for aggressive play and fighting
than players born in other countries
...
When out with friends, acts of aggression may be more
likely to receive positive consequences whereas positive consequences are less likely at school
or work
...

Cultural differences in aggression
In the !Kung San of the Kalahari desert, aggression is comparatively rare because of their childrearing practices
...
Second,
parents do not use physical punishment and aggressive postures are avoided by adults and
devalued by the society as a whole
...
Weymouth and Howe (2011) found that
parents who had completed the program demonstrated increases in positive parenting and
discontinuation of physical punishment
...
’ – William Shakespeare – The Winter’s Tale
...

It is largely based on the classic crowd theory of Gustav Le Bon
...
In a crowd, the combination of anonymity,
suggestibility and contagion mean that a ‘collective mind’ takes possession of the individual
...

The nature of de-individuation
Festinger et al (1952) described it as a psychological state in which inner restraints are lost
when ‘individuals are not seen or paid attention to as people
...
He believed that being in large groups gave people a
‘cloak of anonymity’ that diminished any personal consequences for their actions
...

The process of de-individuation
Anonymity: has the psychological consequence of reducing inner restraints and increasing
behaviours that are usually inhibited
...
Zimbardo argues that being part of a
crowd can diminish awareness of our individuality
...
There is a diminished fear of the negative evaluation of actions and a reduced sense
of guilt
...

Research on de-individuation
Stanford prison study (1972) participants who played the role of a guard acted aggressively
towards other participants who were in the role of prisoners
...
Zhong (2010) found that wearing
mirrored sunglasses make people feel greater anonymity, which in turn increases the
experience of de-individuation
...


Gender differences
Cannavale et al (1970) and Diener at al (1973) both found that an increase in aggression was
obtained only in the all-male groups and not in the all-female groups
...
Eagly (2013)
suggested that males tend to respond to provocation in more extreme ways than do females
and that these tendencies are magnified under de-individuated conditions
...
They found
that the uniformed teams showed significantly more aggressive acts during the game than did
the teams without uniforms
...
They found that disinhibition and antisocial behaviour are not more
common in large groups and anonymous settings
...
This may lead to aggressive, antinormative
behaviour, but it could also lead to increased prosocial behaviour
...
The baiting crowd supports the notion of the crowd as a de-individualised ‘mob
...

They tended to occur at: night; when the crowd was large and some distance away from the
person being taunted
...


Eating Behaviours
Notes

AO1: Include keywords, facts and explanation about the topic

AO3: State whether supporting/contradicting evidence; Use research evidence – what has
been found? What does this suggest? Link to research methodology or issues and debates

Early Diets: Early humans were hunter-gatherers whose diet included the animals and plants that were part of the
natural environment
...

Milton (2008) claims that without animals, it is unlikely that early humans could have secured enough nutrition
from a vegetarian diet to evolve into the active and intelligent creatures they became
...
Criticising evidence for the evolutionary explanation for food preferences is that not all food preferences are a
product of evolution
...
This is a criticism of the evolutionary explanations for food preferences as it suggests humans only eat to
survive; in modern environments, humans eat foods that will keep them healthy such as the consumption of low
cholesterol foods
...


Preference for Sweet Foods: The taste of sweetness is associated with a high concentration of readily available
sugar and calories
...
It
would have been adaptive for early humans to have evolved an innate preference for sweet-tasting foods
...


2
...
(1973) Cultures who
had no experience of sweet foods and drinks had come into contact with cultures that regularly consumed them
...

This is a support for Mennella’s study, as it suggests that humans evolved to prefer sweet foods and drinks so that
they could attain vitamins and minerals vital for growth and survival
...


Taste Aversion: Garcia et al
...
Rats who had been made ill
through radiation and then given saccharin developed an aversion to it and quickly associated the illness with
saccharin
...
Once learned, such aversions are very hard to shift – an adaptive quality designed to keep our
ancestors alive
...
Supporting evidence for taste aversion is provided by a real-life application to chemotherapy
...
Later, the patients acquired an
aversion to that ice cream
...
This makes the evolutionary
explanation a valid explanation for food preferences as it supports the view that behaviours are naturally selected
by evolution
...
(2003): species who had a limited range of food sources and diet were less likely to
display neophobia than species who had a broad range of food and varied diets
...

Individuals have expectations of how an acceptable food should look and smell, and so unfamiliar foods will be
rejected based on this criteria
...
This
most likely evolved because of the greater illness threat posed by rotting meat
...
Supporting evidence for neophobia has been provided by Knaapila et al
...
They found that the heritability estimate of neophobia was 67%
...
This makes the evolutionary explanation
nomothetic as it seeks to develop theories about eating behaviour and then generalise them to a large number of
people
...

Neophobia: an extreme dislike and avoidance of anything that is new or unfamiliar
...

Evolutionary explanations: focus on the adaptive nature of behaviour
...


AO1: Include keywords, facts and explanation about the topic

A03: State whether supporting/criticising evidence; Use research evidence – What has been
found? What does this suggest? Link to research methodology or issues and debates

Food Preference: refers to the way in which people choose from among available foods on the basis of biological
and learned perceptions such as taste, health characteristics, value, habit, etc
...


In contrast to evolutionary explanations, learning explanations focus on cultural and environmental influences on
food preferences
...
Brown and Ogden (2004) reported consistent correlations between parents
and their children in terms of snack food intake, eating motivations and body dissatisfaction
...
One food may
be an offer of reward to another: ‘You can’t have any ice cream unless you eat some fruit’
...
(1984) has
generally shown that although the preference for the food used as the reward increases, there tends to be a
decrease in the preference for the distasteful food
...
Criticising evidence for parental influences is provided by Russell et al
...
Parents with healthy eating
preferences were likely to influence their children to eat healthily and vice versa
...
Therefore, this explanation is environmentally deterministic because it only
acknowledges the learning aspect of acquiring certain food preferences; it does not account for the cognitive
factors that play a role in which foods a person wants to eat
...
Behaviour of same-age peers has had a powerful influence on the food preferences of children
...
(2009) found that the observation of peers had both positive + negative effects on food
preferences
...
Negative modelling
inhibited novel food consumption
...
For 4 consecutive lunchtimes, children were seated next to children who have different vegetable
preferences
...


2
...

(2005) They found that parental fruit and vegetable consumption was a strong predictor of children’s fruit and
vegetable consumption
...
This supports the role of peers explanation for
food preferences because it shows that observing other people has an impact on our own food preferences in the
presence of peers
...


Cultural Influences: Media Effects: The role of social learning is also evident in the impact of TV and other media
on food preferences
...
(1998) found that the media have a major impact both on what people eat,
and also their attitudes to certain foods
...
People thus appear to learn from the media about healthy eating
but must place this information within the broader contexts of our lives
...


3
...

Criticising evidence is provided by Robinson et al
...
They found a complex association between behaviour of parents and food preferences of
children, with girls being more influenced by parental modelling than boys
...


The Context of Meals: ‘grazing’ rather than eating meals and the desire for convenience foods are increasingly
common
...
Maguire et al
...
Gillman et al
...
Eating meals in front of the TV was
associated with greater consumption of pizza and salty snacks and less consumption of fruit and vegetables
...
Parents

4
...
Supporting
evidence is provided by Cairns et al
...
They typically focus on limiting the quantity of the advertising of unhealthy foods, so that it
reduces the effect of such advertising on children’s food preferences
...
This can be linked to psychology and the economy – if more people develop unhealthy eating
preferences, it would cause them to have health problems
...
Evolved 2 separate systems: one to turn eating ‘on’ and to turn it ‘off’
...
Consuming food – glucose levels rise again
...
However, in some animals, this does not
happen
...
There are limitations of a homeostatic explanation of neural mechanisms in eating behaviours
...
Thus, to be
adaptive, it must promote levels of consumption that maintain bodily resources above the optimal level to act as a
buffer against future lack of food
...
This makes this explanation reductionist
because it only provides one factor that influences hunger
...
Stimulation of LH elicits feeding behaviour
...
Reynolds and
Wickens
...
When injected into LH of rats, it causes them to
immediately begin feeding, even when satiated
...
(1986) repeated injections produced obesity in just
a few days
...
Stimulation of
this area inhibited feeding
...
Gold (1973)
Damage to nerve fibres passing through VMH tends to also damage other areas of the hypothalamus the PVN
alone causes hyperphagia
...


2
...
Supporting evidence is provided by Wren et
el
...
The mean difference was 28% between the 2 conditions
...
This means that this explanation is universal because it can be generalised to both animals and
humans
...
Glucose low – ghrelin
levels increase
...
Important in development of obesity – stimulating appetite – leads to increase in body
weight
...
Observation that mice lacking with ghrelin or its receptor in
hypothalamus are protected in diet-induced obesity
...
Leptin – crucial
role in appetite and weight control
...
Long-term signal amount of fat stored in adipose tissue
...
2 major functions: binds to receptors in hypothalamus – counteracts effects of
neuropeptide Y, feeding stimulant secreted in gut and hypothalamus; increases SNS activity, stimulates fatty tissue
to burn energy
...
There are problems with the role of the lateral hypothalamus as the ‘on’ switch for eating
...
Recent research has also
shown that eating behaviour is caused by neural circuits that run throughout the brain, not just by the
hypothalamus
...
This makes
this explanation reductionist because it breaks down eating behaviours into more simpler components
...

Leptin – hormone that controls appetite/weight control; produced by fat tissue; decreases appetite
...


4
...
Supporting
evidence is provided by Gold (1973) He designated the VMH as the ‘satiety centre’ in eating behaviour, with the
PVN having a particularly important role in this process
...
This therefore makes this explanation deterministic, because, even though there are biological

AO1 – Include keywords, facts and explanation about the topic

AO3 – State whether supporting/contradicting evidence; Use research evidence – What has been
found? What does this suggest? Link to research methodology or issues and debates

Genetic explanations: Family Studies: Strober et al
...
Tozzi et
al
...


Keywords: Anorexia Nervosa – A type of eating disorder in which an individual, despite being seriously underweight,
fears that s/he might become obese and therefore engages in self-starvation to prevent this happening
...


Twin Studies: Comparing the similarity MZ and DZ twins provides a measure of the relative contributions of
genetic and environmental factors in the development of AN
...
(2010) Twin studies generally
suggest moderate to high heritability of AN, with heritability estimates varying between 28% and 74%
...
(2000) interviewed over 2000 female MZ and DZ twins, evaluating them using the DSM criteria for AN
...
Twin studies such as this therefore
suggest that some people are more genetically predisposed to develop AN than are others
...
One criticism of genetic explanations of AN is that they ignore the role of the media in AN
...
This is a criticism because the genetic explanation suggests that only the composition of your genes
influences the likelihood of developing AN
...


Adoption Studies: Adoption studies study biological relatives that do not share similar environments
...
(2009) studies 123 adopted sibling pairs and 56 biological sibling pairs
...
The heritability estimates ranged from
59% to 82% for the different aspects of disordered eating, with non-shared environmental factors accounting
for the remaining variance
...
More evidence to criticise the genetic explanation of AN is provided by Fairburn et al
...
This is a criticism for the genetic explanation for AN because the results of studies have been
inconsistent
...


Neural explanations: Serotonin: Bailer et al
...
These women were compared with healthy
controls
...
In addition they found the highest levels of serotonin
activity in women who showed the most anxiety, suggesting that persistent disruption of serotonin levels
may lead to increased anxiety, which may trigger AN
...
One support for the neural explanation for AN is that it can reduce the stigma the patients experience
...

(2013) used DBS to change activity in the subcallosal cingulate in patients with chronic, sever and treatment-resistant
AN
...
This supports neural explanations because it shows that limbic system dysfunction is linked to
developing AN
...


Dopamine: Kaye et al
...
In the AN women, they found overactivity in dopamine
receptors in a part of the brain known as the basal ganglia, where dopamine plays a part in the interpretation
of harm and pleasure
...
This matches with the fact that individuals with AN find it difficult to associate good feelings with
the things that most people find pleasurable
...
There is also support for the role of dopamine in AN
...
This supports
the role of dopamine in AN because it shows that increased dopamine activity is related to the interpretation of
rewards, and therefore, AN
...


Limbic System Dysfunction: Lipsman et al
...

The researchers claim that dysfunction in these areas, whose normal functioning is to regulate emotion, can

5
...
Ferguson et al
...
This is a criticism of the role of serotonin in AN because the neural explanation suggests that anorexic

AO1 – Include keywords, facts and explanation about the topic

AO3 – State whether supporting/contradicting evidence; Use research evidence – What has been found? What
does this suggest? Link to research methodology or issues and debates

Autonomy: the freedom to make decisions and determine actions without the constraints imposed by others
...
Enmeshment: describes a
family where parents are over-emotionally involved with their children but may be dismissive of their emotional
needs
...
The concept is used in family
systems explanations of disorders such as anorexia
...


1
...
Kog and Vandereycken failed to find the characteristics predicted by the psychosomatic
family model in families of individuals with AN
...
Therefore, this criticises because research shows that there is no correlation between having
a psychosomatic family and the development of AN, which reduces the validity of this explanation
...


The ‘psychosomatic’ family: the term psychosomatic refers to conditions where no physical basis can be found, so
the illness is attributed to psychological factors
...
developed - psychosomatic family model - states
that for the development of AN - a dysfunctional family occurs alongside physiological vulnerability in child –
process is necessary context for development of AN – treatment aims to change the way family functions
...
Family members are often overinvolved with one another – lack of boundaries within family - child gets ‘lost in the system
...
Autonomy: enmeshed families greater constraints on members
– not allowed to become independent and develop autonomy
...
Enmeshed: retains
accustomed patterns – denies need for change in family
...

Overprotectiveness – a high degree of concern for each other’s welfare, can retard individuals’ beliefs regarding
extent to which they are able to control or influence outcomes in their lives
...


2
...
Manzi et al
...
Here, family cohesion was indicative of supportive
family interaction, whereas enmeshment was rooted in manipulation and control
...
Thus, this explanation has cultural relativism because these
results were found to be the same across different cultural groups, which means the results are generalisable to all
cultures
...
Minuchin – a characteristic of pathological families who,
in face of stress, increase rigidity of their patterns of behaviour and resist exploration of alternatives
...
Minuchin – AN families in constant but unresolved conflict – conflicts abandoned at most
intense level without resolution of issues that cause conflict
...


3
...
Carr concluded there is compelling evidence for the
effectiveness of family interventions for adolescent AN
...
Therefore,
this criticises as it shows families play a role in recover, and not in the development of AN, which reduces the
validity of family systems theory
...


The child’s involvement in the psychosomatic family: child with AN involved in parental conflict in particular
ways
...
therapeutic work with psychosomatic families – identified 3 characteristic patterns of
conflict-related behaviour involving the child
...
Child may ally with one parent - reject the other
...
Parent-child coalition: more
stable coalition with one parent
...
Other parent:
withdraws and less responsive
...
Child identified as problematic member – scapegoating – child’s well-being

4
...
Latzer and Gaber asked parents and daughters to choose 2 areas of disagreement between
them and asked to stay off the topic of food and eating as far as possible
...
Therefore,
this supports the lack of conflict resolution characteristic of the psychosomatic family because it shows families
who are unable to resolve issues that cause conflict makes the development of AN more likely, which increases
the validity of the family systems theory
...


AO1 – Include keywords, facts and explanation about the topic

AO3 – State whether supporting/contradicting evidence; Use research evidence – What has been found? What
does this suggest? Link to research methodology or issues and debates

Modelling and Reinforcement: Modelling – A form of learning where individuals learn a particular behaviour by
observing another individual performing that behaviour
...
Models provide examples of attitudes to food or dieting behaviour that
can be observed by the individual and imitated by them
...
Positive response: makes
individual feel better about themselves and makes them want to continue
...
(so continue to lose weight)
...


2
...
Hill et al
...
Smolak et al
...
These influences tend to be greater for daughters than they are for sons, and mothers are more
influential than fathers in this form of social learning
...
Eisenberg et al
...
Jones and
Crawford: found overweight girls and underweight boys were most likely to be teased by their peers, suggesting
that through teasing, peers serve to enforce gender-biased ideals
...
examined association between
peer dieting and thrive for thinness in over 2000 men and women of 3 age groups
...
Women: association was
strongest in late adolescence ad for same-sex peers
...


Media Influences: Jones and Buckingham: show that individuals with low self-esteem are more likely to compare
themselves to idealised images portrayed in the media
...
Button et
al
...
A report by the BMA expressed concern about the use of very thin models to advertise products and
model clothes for the fashion industry
...
Concluded the
degree of thinness exhibited by these models is both unachievable and also biologically inappropriate and
provides ‘unhelpful role models for young women
...


3
...


On one hand, there is research support for the peer influence explanation of the development of AN through
social learning
...
This association between BMI and the
likelihood of becoming anorexic was even greater in younger women
...

Thus, this explanation is deterministic, because it suggests that AN will always be caused by peer influences
...
Ogden and Steward found that, although mother and daughters were
similar in their weight and BMI, there was no associations for their restrained eating or body dissatisfaction
...
Thus, this explanation is reductionist, because it does not acknowledge that there
may be other risk factors for the development of AN
...
Shroff and Thompson found no
correlation among friends on measures of disordered eating in an adolescent sample
...
Therefore, this criticises the role of peers as an explanation of
AN because it shows that gender-based ideals have a mush larger impact on adolescents than in children,
which decreases the validity of this explanation
...

In addition, a support for the social learning explanation for AN is that research supports the role of media
influences
...
found that, after exposure to TV, girls stated a desire to lose weight in order to
become more like Western television characters
...
shows that instructional
intervention prior to media exposure to idealised female images prevents the adverse effects of exposure
...
Thus, this explanation is gender-biased, because these studies were mainly
conducted on girls, not boys, which suggests that these results must be true for males as well – this research
has a beta bias
...
Cognitive
distortions – errors in thinking – develop a negative body image
...
Misperception – overweight – feelings of self-disgust and attempt to lose weight
...
Rational beliefs are
helpful, logical and consistent with our social reality
...
Typical belief in AN individuals: must be thin for others to like them or blaming
themselves for their social exclusion because of their weight
...
Add to exposure of cultural ideals of
thinness – importance of body weight and shape
...
Losing weight = self-reinforcing for the individual – sense of
achievement and positive comments from others
...
Develops into fear of food and weight gain – food avoidance becomes norm
...

Fairburn et al
...
‘Core psychopathology’ – underlying cause of all eating disorders caused by same set of
cognitive distortions
...
Self-esteem determined by weight and appearance and ability to control them
...
Restriction of
food that is characteristic of AN individuals is maintained by 3 mechanisms:
1
...

2
...

3
...
Regular weight
checking, examining in mirror for hours, interpreting discomfort as a ‘sense of being fat
...


1
...
Lang et al
...
This supports the
cognitive explanation for AN because it shows that there may be environmental influences in the
development of eating disorders that can better explain the patterns found in studies like ones conducted by
Lang
...
Therefore, an environmental
explanation, such as the cognitive theory, cannot explain why there are genetic similarities in individuals with
AN, as there is at least some genetic input
...


Contrastingly, there are limitations of the cognitive approach, which suggest that the methodology of studies
conducted are flawed
...
criticise the cognitive theory because of the over-reliance on self-reports of
cognitive processing
...
Thus this is a criticism of the cognitive
theory, because it assumes that individuals can accurately represent their thinking processes at previous
points in time through retrospective collection and analysis of self-report
...
This makes results ungeneralisable and thus
unreliable, as cognition can only be analysed in terms of self-report, making it more likely that there would be
a social desirability bias in the results collected
...


AO1 : Include key words, facts and explanation about the topic

AO3: State whether supporting/contradicting evidence; Use research evidence – What has been found? What
does this suggest? Link to research methodology or issues and debates

Genetics – Twin Studies: average heritability varies between 40% and 75%
...
(1997) meta-analysis of
studies involving over 75 000 individuals – heritability estimates for BMI of 74% in MZ twins and 32% in DZ twins
...
(1990) MZ twins reared apart – more alike in terms of BMI than DZ twins reared together and who
experience similar environments
...
(1986) gathered information from 540 adult adoptees, their adoptive parents
and their biological parents
...

Neural Explanations – The Hypothalamus: The arcuate nucleus plays a role in appetite and obesity
...
When
activated: sends messages to other parts of the body, producing the desire to eat and co-ordinating this with
energy utilisation
...

Any malfunctions in this area can lead to overeating and obesity
...
Inhibits food intake by acting on leptin
receptors in appetite control centres of the brain
...
Bates and Meyers (2003) showed disruption of leptin signalling in the hypothalamus results in
obesity and confirms the central role of leptin in feeding regulation
...
The ‘thrifty gene’ hypothesis
...
Suggested: ‘thrifty’ genes would have been positively
selected for in feast-famine environment – during feast periods, people with these genes were particularly
efficient in the intake and utilisation of food – make such people fat, which provided energy necessary for them to
survive during famines
...
Now: such genes are disadvantageous because they promote fat deposition in preparation for a
famine that never comes, and the result is widespread obesity and diabetes
...


A criticism of the biological explanation for obesity is that the expression of genes varies with age
...
found heritability estimates varied according to the age group of
individuals who were studied
...
This therefore criticises the genetic explanations for obesity, because this shows
that obesity cannot be caused by genes alone, and the fact that a biological approach does not acknowledge
that there may be other factors contributing to the development of obesity
...
This approach suggests that some humans have a genetic predisposition for obesity,
but will mot display the genotype of the disorder, unless the environment triggers it
...


2
...

Gibson et al
...
This therefore supports the idea that low levels of
leptin in the blood contributes to an increase in feeding behaviour, thus showing that there is a neural
explanation for obesity
...
There will never be a 100% concordance rate in MZ andDZ twin studies, as in intelligence:: studies
comparing intelligence in MZ twins have found only 80% similarity on intelligence, therefore there is only an
80% chance that the other twin will display the same intelligence
...


Relationships
Notes

AO1: Include keywords, facts and explanation about the topic

AO3: State whether supporting/contradicting evidence; Use research evidence – what has
been found? What does this suggest? Link to research methodology or issues and debates

The Nature of Sexual Selection: In 1871, Charles Darwin developed the theory of sexual selection
...

In sexual selection, an individual’s survival is not at stake, but rather it is their ability to leave more offspring
...


Intra-sexual Selection: Individuals of one sex must outcompete other members of their sex in order to gain access
to the members of the other sex
...

Whatever characteristic leads to success in these same-sex contests becomes more widespread in the gene pool
by virtue of the reproductive advantage this gives to the winners
...
Criticising evidence for Buss’ study has been provided by Buller
...
This is a criticism because it reinforces a gender bias between
what females and males prefer in a potential partner
...


Inter-sexual Selection: Members of one sex evolve preferences for desirable qualities in potential mates
...
The preferences of one sex therefore determine the areas in which the opposite sex must compete
...
Supporting evidence for Buss’ study is that it took place across 37 different cultures
...
This means that Buss’ study has cultural relativism, as
looking at different cultures together can ultimately find universal criteria for what each sex looks for in a longterm partner across the world
...


Sexual Selection and Long-term Mate Preferences: The rationale behind sexual selection is that random mating is
essentially unbeneficial for future generations
...


3
...
(2006) They compared a sample
of British poets and artists and a control group of males in non-creative professions
...
This criticises the evolutionary explanation for partner preferences as it proves that there are some
human traits that serve no survival purpose that have evolved as a result of sexual selection
...


Buss (1989) – KEY STUDY
AIM: To investigate the characteristics males and females look for in a long-term partner
...
Participants were asked to rank 18 characteristics
on how important they would be in choosing a mate
...

FINDINGS: Among the main results were:
1
...
A desire for men with resources or,
qualities such as ambition or industriousness
...
Physical attractiveness: men placed more importance on attractiveness – cue to health and fertility in
potential mates
...
Youth: men universally wanted mate younger than them – value of increased fertility
...
Criticising evidence for the evolutionary explanation for partner preferences has been provided by Bernstein
...
The
fact that women have been denied political and economic power in many cultures might cause the tendency for
them to rely on men for security and economic stability
...
This makes the evolutionary explanation deterministic, as it assumes only
biological factors influence partner preferences
...

Physical Attractiveness: Is an important cue to a woman’s health and hence her fertility and reproductive value
...
(2011) suggests that attractiveness may be just as important to women as it is to men when
choosing a romantic partner
...
Men were more likely than women to rely on
physical attractiveness in long-term relationships
...
Supporting evidence for sex-differences in the importance of physical attractiveness is provided by Meltzer et
al
...
For females, this was not
related to their marital satisfaction either initially, or over time
...
This suggests that this explanation is universal because it acknowledges the
differences between the two sexes
...
When choosing a partner,
individuals first must assess their own ‘value’ in the eyes of a potential romantic partner and then select the best
available candidates who would be most likely attracted to them
...


2
...
(2009) They suggest that
a reason why research fails to support matching in terms of physical attraction is because a person may
compensate for a lack of physical attractiveness with other desirable qualities, such as a charming personality or
wealth – referred to as complex matching
...
This means that this
explanation has a nature approach to the nature-nurture debate, as it suggests that we only pick romantic
partners based on evolutionary explanations
...

Expectations are that people tend to pair up with those who are similar in terms of physical attractiveness
...
referred to these mating choices as ‘realistic’ choices because each individual is influenced by the
chances of having their affection reciprocated
...
Therefore, in real-life, people have to settle for mating ‘within their league’
whether they want to or not
...
Another piece of criticising evidence for the matching hypothesis is that it may not be relevant in initial
attraction
...
(2011) In online dating patterns, there was no evidence
that daters’ decisions were driven by a similarity between their own and potential partners’ physical
attractiveness
...
This criticises the matching
hypothesis because it suggests that individuals would be attracted to the most socially desirable partner
...


Walster et al
...

PROCEDURE: AD for a ‘computer dance’ for new students at the University of Minnesota
...
When picking up tickets, 4 student accomplices rated
each for physical attractiveness
...
Pairing was done randomly
...

FINDINGS: Did not support the matching hypothesis
...
Other factors, such as intelligence or personality did not affect liking the
dates or any subsequent attempts to date them
...


4
...
Those
with partners who demonstrate these qualities tend to be more satisfied with their relationships
...
This is a
criticism for sex-differences in the importance of physical attractiveness because it shows that there are some
similarities between men and women when they are looking for a long-term partner
...
This is because it suggests that individuals are less
likely to look for evolutionary characteristics in a long-term relationship
...

Research has typically shown that the level of self-disclosure received in a relationship was a better predicter of
liking and loving than the level of self-disclosure given
...
In a study of 50 dating couples, Sprecher found that the amount of
overall disclosure in the relationship was predictive of whether the couples stayed together for longer than 4
years
...
Self-disclosure is one of the central roles in a romantic relationship
...
This is a supporting
evidence because it shows that the amount of overall disclosure in a relationship is predictive of relationship
stability
...


Different types of self-disclosure: The relationship between self-disclosure and relationship satisfaction is not
straightforward because it takes on many forms
...
Sprecher (1987) found that disclosure of, for
example, experiences of personal experiences of personal disappointments and accomplishments, and
information about previous sexual relationships, have a greater influence on relationship satisfaction than more
‘neutral’ types of self-disclosure
...
On the other hand, criticising evidence is that there are cultural differences in the patterns of self-disclosure
...
This is a criticism of the norms of self-disclosure because the
opposite is true in western cultures
...
This makes this explanation ethnocentric because other cultural norms are
not taken into account
...
There is a norm that people should engage in
only a moderately personal level of self-disclosure in the early stages of a relationship
...
The norm of
reciprocity governs much of our social behaviour
...
The more one person discloses to another, the more disclosure is expected
in return
...
Research also suggests that self- disclosure may be greater face-to-face than in online relationships
...
(2016) Their study revealed that members of a social group disclose personal
information more often in face-to-face than online interactions and also disclose more intimate information
...
This suggests that this
explanation is reductionist because it is only 1 factor that determines attractiveness
...
(2013):
AIM: To investigate whether reciprocal self-disclosure was more influential in determining attraction than onesided self-disclosure and listening
...
Approximately 2/3 were female-female and
1/3 male-female
...
Reciprocal
condition – members immediately took turns asking questions and disclosing
...
Then the 2 switched roles for 2nd
interaction
...

FINDINGS: Reciprocal dyads reported more liking, closeness, perceived similarity and enjoyment of the interaction
than did those in non-reciprocal condition after 1st interaction
...
Showed that turn-taking self-disclosure
reciprocity is more likely to lead to positive interpersonal outcomes than extended reciprocity
...


4
...
Supporting
evidence is provided by Tal-Or and Hershman-Shitrit (2015) who showed that reality TV shows, like Big Brother,
tend to be characterised by the very intimate self-disclosure of contestants early on in the shows
...
This supports the norms of self-disclosure explanation for
attractiveness because it suggests that individuals possess a norm of reciprocity concerning self-disclosure
...


AO1 : Include key words, facts and explanation about the topic

AO3: State whether supporting/contradicting evidence; Use research evidence – What has
been found? What does this suggest? Link to research methodology or issues and debates

Social Demography: refers to variables such as age, social background and location, which determine the
likelihood of individuals meeting in the first place
...
Range is already fairly restricted – more likely to come into contact with
people from our own ethnic, social and educational groups, and those who live geographically close to us
...
Find them more attractive because we have more in
common with them
...


1
...
’ Duck (1973) claims that individuals
may use a variety of different strategies to gather information about each other, to get to the other individual’s
real feelings
...
This supports the filter theory because it shows that similarity in attitudes is
important in a relationship
...


Similarity in Attitudes: if individuals share similar attitudes, values and beliefs, communication is easier and so a
relationship is likely to progress
...

Through disclosures, individuals are able to weigh up their decisions about whether to continue or terminate their
relationship
...


2
...
Supporting evidence is
provided by Tidwell et al (2013) who decided to test this in the context of a speed-dating event
...
This supports the filter theory because it shows that similarity in attitudes is
important in establishing initial attraction in a relationship
...


Complementarity of Needs: (Final filter) refers to how well 2 individuals fit together as a couple and meet each
other’s needs
...
Finding a partner who complements them ensures own needs are likely to be
met
...
If one low, other should be high
...


3
...
Criticising evidence is provided by Thornton and YoungDeMarco (2001) who found evidence of changed attitudes toward relationships in young American adults over a
period of a few decades
...
This makes the filter theory as
an explanation for attraction ethnocentric because studies were not conducted in collectivist cultures
...

PROCEDURE: longitudinal study of 94 dating couples at Duke university in US
...
(FIRO-B Test) 7 months after initial testing, couples completed a further
questionnaire, assessing how close they felt to their partner compared to beginning of study
...
Division into short-term (18
months) and long-term (+18 months) difference emerged
...
Long-term – only complementarity of needs was predictive of
how close each individual felt to their partner
...


4
...
Levinger et al (1970) failed to
replicate the results of the Kerckhoff and Davis study
...
They also found no
significant relationship between the length of the couples’ relationships and the influence of these different
variables
...


AO1 : Include key words, facts and explanation about the topic

AO3: State whether supporting/contradicting evidence; Use research evidence – What has been found? What
does this suggest? Link to research methodology or issues and debates

KEY STUDY – Kurdek and Schmitt (1986)
Aim: To investigate whether factors that predict satisfaction are the same in all types of relationships
...
Each couple lived together and did not have children living with them
...

Findings: For each of the 4 types of couples, greater relationship satisfaction was associated with:
a) The perception of many benefits of the current relationship
...
(CLA)
Conclusion: The factors that predict satisfaction in heterosexual relationships are the same ones that predict
satisfaction in same-sex relationships
...
On one hand, there is support for the idea that the comparison level for alternatives influences relationship
satisfaction
...
In
relationships where the comparison level for alternatives was high, commitment to, and satisfaction, with the
current relationship tended to be low
...
Thus, this increases the validity of the explanation, however, it
is ethnocentric because studies have not been carried out in collectivist cultures, and therefore cannot be
generalised to all cultures
...

Rewards that we may receive from a relationship include companionship, being cared for, and sex
...
Rewards minus costs equal the outcome for that relationship
...


2
...
What
might be considered rewarding for one person may be punishing to another
...
Therefore, this criticises the notion of
‘profit and loss’ because it shows that it is difficult to classify some things as ‘benefits’ and others as ‘costs’ as the
partners may find something first though of as rewarding as punishing, which decreases the validity of this
explanation
...


Comparison Level: Thibaut and Kelley proposed that we develop a comparison level – a standard against which all
our relationships are judged
...
If we judge that the
potential profit in a new relationship exceeds our CL, then that relationship will be judged as worthwhile and the
other person will be seen as attractive as a partner
...
A romantic relationship is likely to have a greater degree of solidarity if
both partners’ outcomes or perceived profits are above their comparison level
...
In comparison, a support for social exchange theory is that it has a real-life application to relationship therapy
...
IBCT helps partners break the negative patterns of behaviour that cause
problems, thus making each other happier
...

Therefore, this supports the social exchange theory because it has been applied successfully to improve the
quality of relationships between partners, which increases the validity of the explanation
...
It is also ethnocentric
because there is no evidence to suggest the same is true for relationships in collectivist cultures
...
A new relationship can take the place of the
current one if its anticipated profit level is significantly higher
...
The more
rewarding a partner’s alternatives, the less is that individual’s dependence on their current relationship
...
As a result, partners who differ in their degree of dependence may
experience distress because one or both of them lacks commitment to that relationship
...
Additionally, another criticism of the social exchange theory is it is difficult to asses the relative value of costs
and benefits
...
They point out that not only is value difficult to determine but so is the relative value of
costs and benefits, though this tends not to be the case in commercial and economic relationships
...
Thus, this explanation does not account for individual differences
because it suggests that all people have the same expectations, and therefore the same idea of benefits, when in

AO1 : Include key words, facts and explanation about the topic

AO3: State whether supporting/contradicting evidence; Use research evidence – What has been found? What
does this suggest? Link to research methodology or issues and debates

Equity theory: claims people are most comfortable when what they get out of a relationship (benefits) is roughly
equal to what they put in (costs)
...
Hatfield
and Rapson suggest this can be achieved in three different ways:
1
...

2
...

3
...


1
...
AumerRyan et al
...
Men and women in the US claimed to be in the most equitable
relationships, whereas both men and women (especially women) from Jamaica claimed to be in the least
equitable relationships
...
Thus,
this explanation is ethnocentric, as it does not account for the maintenance of relationships in other cultures,
such as collectivist cultures
...

Procedure: asked 200 married couples to complete measures of equity and relationship satisfaction
...

Findings: satisfaction highest = perceived relationship to be equitable
...
Under-benefited husbands: lower levels of strategy use compared to equitable or
over-benefited husbands
...
Spouses treated equitably = happier; more likely
- behaviour contribute to spouse’s sense of equity and happiness
...


2
...
Brosnan and de
Waal found that female capuchin monkeys became very angry if they were denied a highly prized reward of
grapes in return for playing a game
...
Therefore, this supports equity
theory because the findings mirror what studies have found in human relationships suggesting that equity has
ancient origins, which increases the validity of equity theory
...


Inequity and Dissatisfaction: Equity theory is an extension of social exchange theory – a series of exchanges with
individuals attempting to maximise their rewards and minimise costs
...
Relationships that lack
equity are associated with distinct types of dissatisfaction
...
Greater the inequity, the
greater the dissatisfaction and stress, and the more they are motivated to do something about it
...
In comparison, a criticism of equity theory is that there are gender differences in the perception of equity
...
point out that men and women are not equally affected by inequity in romantic relationships
...
Therefore, this criticises equity theory because it shows that women are more vigilant when
faced with inequity compared to men, showing that there are gender differences, which reduces the validity of
equity theory
...


A Timetable of Equity and Inequity in Marriages: Schafer and Keith surveyed 100s of married couples of all ages,
noting those who felt their marriages were inequitable because of unfair division of domestic responsibilities
...
Marital satisfaction tended to
dip
...
Hatfield and Rapson suggest how couples are concerned with reward
and equity depends on the stage of their relationship
...
Deeply committed: less concerned about day-to-day reward and equity
...
Equitable relationships – less likely to risk extramarital

4
...
Clark argues that, in most relationships, couples do not think in terms of reward and
equity
...
This perspective suggests dissatisfaction
with a relationship is the cause, not the consequences, of inequity
...
This reduces the validity of equity theory and makes this explanation deterministic
because it suggests relationships are only maintained through equity theory, and inequity in a relationship will
always lead to relationship dissolution
...

Procedure: Meta-analysis of 52 studies conducted between late 1970s and 1990s
...
Total sample: 11 000 participants: 54% male and
46% female
...

Findings: Satisfaction level, quality of alternatives and investment size - highly correlated with relationship
commitment
...
68) than quality of alternatives (-
...
46) and commitment
...
47 – individuals
with higher levels of commitment being more likely to stay in a relationship and those with lower levels more
likely to leave
...


1
...


3
...
Eg
...

Quality of Alternatives: refers to the extent to which an individual’s most important needs might be better
fulfilled outside the current relationship
...
If alternatives not present, an individual may persist with relationship because of lack of better
options
...


Investment Size: Rusbult proposed investment size also contributes to stability of relationship
...
Partners invest time + energy into
a relationship, share friends and possessions, give things of value to each other
...
Investments = dependence on relationship – increase connections with partner - costly
to break
...
Commitment Level:
likelihood an individual will persist with current relationship
...
High: happy in relationship + anticipate little gain + high levels of loss leave the relationship
...

People satisfied, feel tied because of investments or no suitable alternatives – dependent on relationship
...


4
...

Le et al
...
Other variables that make up the model were modest predictors of
the likelihood of staying in a relationship or breaking up
...
Thus, this explanation is nomothetic, because the meta-analysis had
a large sample size, which means the results can be generalised to the target population
...
Rusbult et al
...

However, a problem is it relies on self-report measures, which often have problems with respondents wishing
to present themselves in a good light
...
Thus, this explanation is deterministic, as it suggests everyone
would perceive the variables in the investment model in the same way
...
They may, for example, lack alternatives to the relationship and may have
too much invested with that partner, making dissolution too costly
...
Therefore, this supports the investment model for relationships, because it
explains why individuals would stay with an abusive partner when they have low satisfaction in their
relationship, which increases the validity of the explanation
...

Also, another support of the investment model is that it can be applied to different cultures and different
types of relationship
...
Research has supported the
relevance of the investment model across different cultures – the US, the Netherlands, and Taiwan – and in a
variety of different types of relationship – martial and non-marital, gay and lesbian, friendships and abusive
relationships
...
Thus, this explanation has cultural relativism and temporal validity, because it can be used to explain
relationships in other cultures, and can be used to explain relationships in the 21 st century
...

Most models of relationship breakdown have depicted relationship breakdown as a ‘relentless tragedy unfolding
in a sequence of predictable and unavoidable steps
...

The Intrapsychic Phase: An individual broods over their current relationship and considers whether they might be
better off out of it
...

The individual may not say anything about their dissatisfaction to their partner but may express their
discontentment in other ways – personal diary entry, social withdrawal
...
The promise of ‘I’ll call you’ or ‘Let’s stay friends’
often disguise deeper dissatisfaction with the other person as a romantic partner
...
Feelings of guilt and anger are likely to surface as part of these
discussions
...
Couples may become aware of the forces that
bind them together and the costs that would be incurred should the relationship be terminated
...
Many partners seek
marital therapy in the hope that it may save their relationship
...

The Social Phase: Discontentment spills over to friends and family, as the distress experienced by one or both
partners is made public
...
Makes it harder for two partners to deny there really is a
problem with their relationship and also harder to subsequently bring about a reconciliation
...
Involvement of
others may even speed the partners towards dissolution through revelations about one or other partners’
behaviour
...
Having left, partners attempt to justify their actions
...
La Gaipa (1982)
makes point that every person who leaves a relationship has to leave with their ‘social credit’ intact for future use
...
Topic in grave-dressing are likely to be
stories about the betrayal of one partner by the other, or perhaps tell the story of two people who worked hard
on a relationship but eventually found that it wasn’t worth the effort
...


A criticism for the phase model of relationship breakdown is that results are collected from studies in
unethical ways
...
Thus, a guide for psychological
research is that the benefits of conducting the research must outweigh the costs
...
This makes this explanation experimentally reductionist, because it
reduces relationship breakdowns to a form that can be measured in an experiment, which cannot always be
an accurate representation of relationship breakdown in real-life
...


2
...
Tashiro and Frazier found that
individuals are able to feel better after a breakup when they focus on the situation, rather than their own
flaws
...
However, research into relationship breakdown has only been conducted on individualist
cultures, which means that there is a cultural bias in these results
...
Thus, this research has a beta
bias, as cultural differences are ignored
...
Jourard claimed self-disclosure in public domain involves the individual presenting an ‘edited’
version of the self to others
...
Secure – intimate and sensitive information in private – increased control over disclosure to a
selected individual
...
‘Strangers on
a train’ – Psychologist Zaik Rubin (1975) – self-disclosure of varying amounts of intimate details to complete
strangers, on trains, airport lounges and when standing at bus stops
...

Why is there more self-disclosure on the internet? – Explanations - psychological effects of anonymity
...
Dangers – confidentiality might be violated or the other person
might respond negatively to the disclosure, leading to ridicule or rejection
...
Self-disclosures with online acquaintances are similar to the
‘strangers on a train’ phenomenon
...
Stranger- no access to individual’s social circle - confidentiality problem is less of
an issue
...
Available features:
attractiveness, age or ethnicity to categorise potential partners
...

Absence of Gating and its Consequences: Anonymity of internet – barriers not evident – less likely to stop
potential relationships getting off the ground
...
Thus, it is a contributor to the establishment of close
relationships over the internet
...
(2008) online social networks such as Facebook can empower ‘gated’
individuals to present the identities they hope to establish but are unable to in face-to-face situations
...
Yurchisin et al
...
They found
that most online identities were still close to a person’s true identity in order to avoid unpleasant surprises in a
possible real-life encounter
...


A support for the role of self-disclosure in virtual relationships is that it could have a biological basis
...
These areas were more strongly activated when people were talking about themselves and less when
they were talking about someone else
...
However, this explanation is biologically reductionist,
because it simplifies self-disclosure to a product of our neurology
...
(such as the internet) Thus, a biologically
reductionist approach does not acknowledge the role of the environment in triggering behaviours
...


There is also support for the importance of the internet for romantic relationships
...
Even after controlling other variables
such as age and gender, those who had internet access were still twice as likely to have a partner
...
However,
this explanation has a cultural bias, because it does not take into account the cultural differences between
individualist and collectivist cultures
...
Thus, this research has a beta bias, because it does not
account for cultural differences, which also means the results are ethnocentric
...
Proximity Seeking: reduce distance between themselves and attachment figure
...
Research: people stay informed about celebrities – collect trivia, rearrange
schedules, contact them through fan letters or in person
...

2
...
PSR: little / no chance of rejection from attachment figure; individual able to create secure base - can
explore other relationships in a safe way
...
Protest at Disruption: presence of prolonged distress following separation / loss of attachment figure
...
Petition site: ‘Bring Back
Clarkson’ – ‘I want to cry,’ and ‘given their lives purpose
...
Insecure-avoidant: more likely to enter into PSRs with TV personalities
...

The Absorption Addiction Model – The Nature of Para-social Relationships: psychologically absorbed with
celebrity to establish sense of fulfilment
...
PSRs appeal to individuals because relationship makes few demands - do
not run the risk of criticism or rejection - case in real-life relationships
...
(homophily) McCutcheon et al
...
Giles and Maltby (2006) used CAS to identify 3 levels in this process:
1
...
CAS: agree with, ‘learning the life story of my favourite celebrity is a lot of fun
...
Intense-personal: intensive and compulsive feelings about celebrity, akin to obsessive tendencies of fans often
referred to in literature: ‘I love to talk to others who admire my favourite celebrity
...
Borderline-pathological: empathy with celebrity – identify with successes and failures
...
’
From Absorption to Addiction: Lange et al
...
’ Involves: ‘effortless focusing
of attention’ leads fans to believe they have a special relationship with the celebrity
...
Borderline-pathological – becomes ‘addictive’ – progressively
stronger involvement to remain ‘connected
...


1
...
Schiappa et al found supporting evidence
for the assumption that people with higher levels of parasocial relationships also watched more television
...
This supports the assumed factors involved in parasocial
relationships because it shows that attachment behaviours have a role in the development of parasocial
relationships
...


2
...

Cohen found anxious-ambivalently attached participants were more likely to anticipate the most negative
responses when expecting their favourite characters to be taken off air
...
This increases the validity of the
initial claims set out by Cole and Leets when explaining the formation of relationships through attachment
style
...
It does not account for biological vulnerabilities, such as health, that could
impact the ability to form parasocial relationships
...


Contrastingly, there is mixed evidence concerning the claim that parasocial relationships develop as a way of
dealing with loneliness
...
On the other hand, Eyal and Cohen found the intensity of
the parasocial relationship with a favourite character was the strongest predictor of their feelings of loneliness
after the broadcast of the final episode of ‘friends
...


Biopsychology
Notes

AO1: Include keywords, facts and explanation about the topic
The Nervous System: The CNS comprises of the brain and spinal cord and has 2 main functions: the control of
behaviour and the regulation of the body’s physiological processes
...
It is separated into
the sympathetic and parasympathetic branches
...

CNS: Comprises of the brain and spinal cord
...

Spinal Cord: Bundle of nerve fibres enclosed within the spinal column and connects nearly all parts of the body
with the brain
...
Is connected to
different parts of the body by pairs of spinal nerves, which connect with specific muscles and glands
...
If the spinal cord is damaged, areas supplied by spinal nerves below the damaged site will be cut off
from the brain and stop functioning
...
It is made up of 12 pairs of cranial nerves and 31 pairs of spinal nerves These nerves have both
sensory and motor neurones
...
It is also involved in reflex actions without the involvement of the CNS,
which allows the reflex to occur very quickly
...

The CEREBRUM is the largest part of the brain and is divided into 4 lobes; each has a primary function:
frontal lobe is involved in thought and production of speech and the occipital lobe is involved in image processing
...
Each hemisphere is specialised for particular
behaviours and the2 halves communicate through the corpus callosum
...
Abnormalities in this area can cause a number of problems, including motor and speech
problems and epilepsy
...
Within this structure lie the thalamus and hypothalamus
...
The hypothalamus has many functions: regulating body
temperature, hunger and thirst
...

The brain stem is responsible for regulating automatic functions that are essential for life
...
Motor and sensory neurones travel through the brain stem, allowing
impulses to pass between the brain and spinal cord
...
The ANS has 2 parts: the
sympathetic and parasympathetic nervous systems
...
This is because of the neurotransmitters associated with each division
...

The Sympathetic Nervous System: Is primarily involved in responses that help us to deal with emergencies (FIGHT
OR FLIGHT) such as increasing HR
...

The Parasympathetic Nervous System: relaxes an individual again once the emergency has passed
...
Another benefit is that digestion begins again under PNS influence
...


The Peripheral Nervous System: The part of the nervous system that is outside the brain and spinal cord
...

Synapse: The conjunction of the end of the axon of one neuron and the dendrite or cell body of another
...


Motor Neurons: form synapses with muscles and control their contractions
...
When stimulated, the
motor neuron releases neurotransmitters that bind to receptors on the muscle and triggers a response which
leads to muscle movement
...
The strength of the muscle contraction depends on the rate of firing of the axons of motor neurons
that control it
...


The Action Potential: Neurons must transmit information both within the neuron and from one neuron to the
next
...
This information is
then passed down to the cell body and on to the axon
...


Relay Neurons: are the most common type of neuron in the CNS
...
These relay neurons lie wholly within the brain and spinal cord
...
Neurons can be one of 3 types: sensory, relay and motor neurons
...
Dendrites at one end of the neuron receive signals from other neurons or from
sensory receptors
...
From the cell body,
the impulse is carried along the axon, where it terminates at the axon terminal
...
This allows
nerve impulses to transmit more rapidly along the axon
...
The
length of a neuron can vary from a millimetres up to 1 metre
...
They are found in
various locations in the body
...
When
these neural impulses reach the brain, they are translated into sensations to that the organism can react
appropriately
...
This allows reflex actions to occur quickly without the delay of sending impulses to the brain
...
It must cross the synapse between the presynaptic neuron and the
postsynaptic neuron
...
As the AP
reaches the synaptic vesicles, it causes the synaptic vesicles to release their contents through a process called
exocytosis
...
Once they have been activated, the receptor molecules produce either excitatory or inhibitory
effects on the postsynaptic neuron
...
The
neurotransmitter is taken up again by the presynaptic neuron, where it is stored and made available for later use
...
Neurotransmitters can also be
turned off after they have stimulated the postsynaptic neuron
...


Excitatory and Inhibitory Neurotransmitters: Excitatory neurotransmitters such as acetylcholine and noradrenaline
are the NS’s on switches
...
Inhibitory neurotransmitters such as serotonin and GABA are the NS’s off switches, in
that they decrease the likelihood of that neuron firing
...
An excitatory neurotransmitter binding with
a postsynaptic receptor causes an electrical change in the membrane, resulting in an excitatory postsynaptic
potential (EPSP)
...


A nerve cell can receive both ISPSs and EPSPs at the same time
...
The net result of this summation
determines whether or not the cell fires
...
Spatial summation: large no
...

2
...
of EPSPs are generated at the same synapse by a series of high-frequency
action potentials on the presynaptic neuron
...
If excitatory synapses are
more active, the cell fires at a higher rate
...


AO1: Include key words, facts and explanation about the topic
Key Terms: Endocrine System: A network of glands throughout the body that manufacture and secrete chemical
messengers known as hormones
...


Adrenal Glands: 2 adrenal glands sit on top of the kidneys
...
Adrenal cortex and adrenal medulla have very different
functions
...


Glands and Hormones: Endocrine Glands: Special groups of cells within the endocrine system, whose function is
to produce and secrete hormones
...

Each gland in the endocrine system produces different hormones, which regulate the activity of organs and tissues
in the body
...
Signal sent from hypothalamus to pituitary gland in form of ‘releasing hormone’
...
Pituitary gland secretes ‘stimulating hormone’ into the bloodstream
3
...
As levels of this hormone increase, hypothalamus shuts down secretion of releasing hormone and pituitary
gland shuts down secretion of stimulating hormone
5
...


Hormones produced by the adrenal gland: Adrenal cortex – produces cortisol which regulates or supports a
variety of important bodily functions, including cardiovascular and anti-inflammatory functions
...
Cortisol level low: low blood pressure, poor immune function and
inability to deal with stress
...

Adrenal medulla – releases adrenaline and noradrenaline, hormones that prepare the body for fight or flight
...
Noradrenaline constricts blood vessel, causing
blood pressure to increase
...
They travel through the bloodstream, influencing many different
processes including mood, the stress response and bonding between mother and new-born baby
...
They respond to a particular hormone
because they receptors for that hormone
...
When enough receptor sites are stimulated, it results in a physiological reaction in the target cell
...
Too much/little at
any one time can disrupt bodily systems
...
Most common cause is a tumour in the pituitary gland which makes too
much of a hormone called ACTH which stimulates the adrenal glands to make too much cortisol
...
Responsible for the production of eggs and for the hormones
oestrogen and progesterone
...
Maner and Miller
...
Causes the development of male
characteristics such as growth of facial hair, deepening of the voice and the growth spurt that takes place during
puberty
...
Hypothalamus instructs pituitary on
how much to produce and pituitary passes message onto testes
...
Not
exclusively a male hormone; females also have it in smaller amounts
...

Hypothalamus receives information from many sources about the basic functions of the body, then uses this
information to help regulate these functions
...
Pituitary produces hormones that travel in the bloodstream to their specific target
2
...
High levels of hormones in other endocrine glands can stop hypothalamus and pituitary releasing more of
their hormones
4
...
2 parts release different hormones, targeting different parts of the body and produce a number of
different hormones which act on different target glands/cells
...
Also produces LH and FSH
...
In males: stimulate testes to produce testosterone/sperm
...

Elabd et al
...


AO1: Include key words, facts and explanation about the topic

AO3: State whether supporting/contradicting evidence; Use research evidence – What has
been found? What does this suggest? Link to research methodology or issues and debates

Fight-or-flight response: a sequence of activity within the body that is triggered when the body prepares itself for
defending or attacking or running away to safety
...

Feedback: this system is very efficient at regulating itself
...
If these rise above normal, they initiate a reduction in CRH and ACTH levels,
thus bringing cortisol levels back to normal
...
Criticising evidence for the fight-or-flight response is that it may not be the primary response to stress
...
He
suggests that most animals, including humans, tend to display the ‘freeze’ response
...
Therefore this explanation is somewhat reductionist, as it suggests
that the stress response only include the fight-or-flight response
...
Associates
sensory signals with emotions associated with fight or flight
...
Body’s response to stress involves 2 major systems, one for acute (sudden) stressors,
such as personal attack; second for chronic (ongoing) stressors, such as a stressful job
...
Another criticism is that there are genetic differences in the fight-or-flight response
...
(2012) They found that the SRY gene, found only on the Y chromosome, directs, male development,
promoting aggression and resulting in the fight-or-flight response
...
This is a criticism because
the fight-or-flight response does not account for the differences in gender, therefore, it has a gender bias
...


Response to acute stressors:
1
...
SNS sends a signal to adrenal medulla, which responds by releasing the hormone
adrenaline into the bloodstream
2
...
Heart beats faster
(blood to muscles and vital organs) and blood pressure increases
...
Also triggers release of glucose and fats, which flow into the bloodstream
...

3
...
Slows down heart
beat and reduces blood pressure
...


3
...
This
is because the stressors of modern life rarely require such levels of physical activity, as suggested by the fight-orflight response
...
This is a criticism because this
explanation suggests that the imbalance of hormones related to the fight-or-flight response could potentially
increase the risk of heart disease and decreases the effectiveness of the immune system
...


Response to chronic stressors: if the brain continues to perceive something as threatening, the 2nd system kicks in
...

Consists of hypothalamus, pituitary gland and the adrenal glands:
1
...
In response to
continued threat, the hypothalamus releases a chemical messenger CRH, which is released into the
bloodstream as a response to the stressor
...
Pituitary gland – On arrival at pituitary gland, CRH causes the pituitary to produce and release ACTH
...

3
...
Cortisol is responsible for several effects in the body that are important in the fight-or-flight
response
...


4
...
Evidence for this is
provided by Taylor et al
...
This involves protecting themselves and their young through nurturing behaviours and
forming protective alliances with other women
...
This increases relaxation, reduces fearfulness and decreases the
stress responses characteristic of the fight-or-flight response
...
This is because the fight-orflight response does not account for the hormonal differences in males and females, and thus, does not apply to
females – it is androcentric
...

Motor Cortex –A region of the brain responsible for the generation of voluntary motor movements
...
Both hemispheres of the brain have a motor cortex, with the
motor cortex on one side of the brain controlling the muscles on the opposite side of the body
...
These regions are arranged logically next to one another
...

Somatosensory Cortex – A region of the brain that processes input from sensory receptors in the body that are
sensitive to touch
...
Dedicated to the processing of
sensory information related to touch
...

Both hemispheres have a somatosensory cortex, with the cortex of one side of the body receiving sensory
information from the opposite side of the body
...
A criticism of this explanation is that not all researchers agree with the view that cognitive functioning is
localised
...
This is the view that basic motor functions were localised, but higher mental functions were not
...
This is a criticism of localisation of function
because it suggests that individuals with brain damage to specific areas will not be able to recover some of their
cognitive abilities
...


Visual centres – primary visual centre = visual cortex, in occipital lobe of the brain
...
(rods and cones) Some nerve impulses travel to areas controlling
circadian rhythms, but majority terminate at the thalamus
...
Spans both
hemispheres, right receiving input from left-hand side of visual field and vice versa
...

Auditory centres – lies within temporal lobes on both sides of the brain – auditory cortex
...
Travel via auditory nerve to cortex
...
Another criticism is that there are individual differences in language areas
...
(1997) who found a large variability in individual patterns of activation across different individuals
...

Harasty et al
...

This is a criticism of localisation of function because it suggests that all individuals are the same
...


Broca’s area - An area in the frontal lobe of the brain, usually in the left hemisphere, related to speech
production
...
Damage to these areas in
right hemisphere did not have same problem
...
Critical for speech production
...
(2012) discovered 2 regions of this
area – 1 selectively involved in language, other involved in responding to many demanding cognitive tasks – maths
problems etc
...

Posterior portion of left temporal lobe
...
Proposed that
language involves separate motor and sensory regions located in different cortical regions
...
Sensory → close to regions responsible for auditory and visual
input
...
Neural loop → arcuate fasciculus between the 2 areas
...
A support for localisation of functions comes from aphasia studies
...
Expressive aphasia is an impaired ability to
produce language
...
Receptive aphasia is an impaired ability
to understand language, an inability to extract meaning from spoken or written words
...
This supports localisation of function because it demonstrates the importance of Broca’s and
Wernicke’s areas in the production and comprehension of language
...


AO1 : Include key words, facts and explanation about the topic

AO3: State whether supporting/contradicting evidence; Use research evidence – What has
been found? What does this suggest? Link to research methodology or issues and debates

Hemispheric Lateralisation: Refers to the fact that some mental processes in the brain are mainly specialised to
either the left or right hemisphere
...
In 1861, Paul Broca established that damage in a particular
area of the left brain hemisphere led to language deficits, yet damage to the same area of the right hemisphere
did not have the same consequence
...
An advantage of hemispheric lateralisation is that it increases neural processing capacity
...
Therefore, this provides support as it shows that
brain lateralisation improves brain efficiency in cognitive tasks that demand the simultaneous but different use of
both hemispheres
...


How can we talk about things that are experienced in the right hemisphere? (face recognition) The two
hemispheres are connected
...
The chance to investigate the different abilities of the two hemispheres
came about when, in a treatment for severe epilepsy, surgeons cut the bundle of nerve fibres that formed the
corpus callosum
...
Patients who underwent this form of surgery are often
referred to as ‘split-brain’ patients
...
A disadvantage of lateralisation is that it does not seem to stay the same as you age
...
It is difficult to know why this is the case
...
Therefore, this criticises as it shows that the efficiency of the
brain decreases because of the changes in brain lateralisation
...


Sperry and Gazzaniga’s Research: Took advantage of the fact that information from the left visual field goes to the
right hemisphere and information from the right visual field goes to the left hemisphere
...
Typical study – split-brain patient
would fixate on a dot in the centre of a screen while information was presented to either the left or right visual
field
...

For example, if the patient was flashed a picture of a dog to the right visual field and asked what they had seen,
they would answer ‘dog
...
The information from the left visual field is processed by the right hemisphere, which
can see the picture, but it has no language centre, cannot respond verbally
...


3
...
Andrewes argues that
many studies are presented with as few as three participants or even just one single participant
...
Andrewes claims that these ‘rogue’ cases are often only identified when the results of a study
have failed to be replicated
...
Thus, this explanation is idiographic, since studies
are only conducted on a few, often only one, split-brain patient
...
Eg
...
However, split-brain research
has not shown that the brain is organised into discrete regions with specific sections responsible for specific tasks
...


4
...
Gazzaniga suggests
that some of the early discoveries of split-brain research has been disproved
...
W, who developed the capacity to speak out of the right hemisphere, with the result that J
...
Therefore, this criticises as this shows that one hemisphere
can make up for the damage in the other hemisphere
...


AO1 : Include key words, facts and explanation about the topic

AO3: State whether supporting/contradicting evidence; Use research evidence – What has
been found? What does this suggest? Link to research methodology or issues and debates

Brain Plasticity: refers to the brain’s ability to modify its own structure and function as a result of experience
...
Factors that are now known to affect neuronal structure and
function include life experience, video games and even meditation
...
Firstly, there is support for brain plasticity from animal studies
...
found evidence of an

Functional Recovery: refers to the recovery of abilities and functional processes that have been compromised as a
result of brain injury or disease
...
When brain cells are damaged or destroyed, as they are during a stroke, the brain re-wires itself over
time so that some level of function can be regained
...
Neurons
next to damaged brain areas can form new circuits that resume some of the lost function
...
In addition, there is support for the brain plasticity from human studies
...
studied taxi drivers to

Plasticity as a Result of Life Experience: By developing new connections and pruning away weak ones, the brain is
able to constantly adapt to a changing environment
...
Boyke et al
...
Found increases in grey matter in the visual cortex, although when practising stopped, these
changes were reversed
...
compared a control group with a video game training
group that was trained for 2 months for at least 30mins per day on the game Super Mario
...
Concluded that video game training resulted
in new synaptic connections in brain areas involved in spatial navigation, strategic planning, working memory and
motor performance
...
compared 8 practitioners of Tibetan meditation with 10 student
volunteers with no previous meditation experience
...
Greater activation of gamma waves in the monks
...


3
...
Tajiri et al
...
Synaptic
connections that exist but their function is blocked
...
Increasing input to these synapses, when a surrounding brain area
is damaged, can then open these dormant synapses
...
Finally, there is criticism for the functional recovery of the brain after trauma provided by educational

increased number of neurons in the brains of rats housed in complex environments compared to rats housed in
laboratory cages
...
Therefore,
this supports because it shows that plasticity is a result of life experience, which increases the validity of the
results
...


see whether changes could be detected as a result of extensive experience of spatial navigation
...
Therefore
this supports because it shows that brain plasticity in humans is also a result of life experience, which increases the
validity of the results
...


for the role of stem cells in recovery from brain injury
...
After 3 months, the brains of the stem cell rats showed clear development of neuron-like cells in the area of
injury
...
Therefore, this
supports because it shows that functional recovery after trauma is possible with stem cell treatments, which
increases the validity of these results
...
This means the results cannot be generalised to the functional recovery of the human brain after
trauma
...
Schneider et al
...
39
...
8% of those with
12-15 years of education, and just 9
...


AO1 : Include key words, facts and explanation about the topic

AO3: State whether supporting/contradicting evidence; Use research evidence – What has
been found? What does this suggest? Link to research methodology or issues and debates

CASE STUDY:
Evidence for a ‘free-running’ circadian rhythm comes from a series of studies conducted by the French cave
explorer, Michel Siffre
...
Living underground: no external cues to guide hid rhythms – no daylight, no clocks or
radio
...
Only thing influencing his behaviour was his
internal ‘free-running’ circadian rhythms
...
Second: 6 months in cave in Texas, - natural circadian rhythm
settled to just over 24 hours, with some dramatic variations
...


1
...
Light/darkness: external signals
determine when we feel need to sleep and when to wake up
...
Sleepiness experienced during
circadian dips less intense when we have sufficient sleep and more intense when we are sleep deprived
...
Awake for long periods: need for sleep is increasing – amount of
energy used up during wakefulness
...
Keeps us awake as long as there is daylight, prompting us to sleep as it becomes dark
...

Internal circadian ‘clock’ described as ‘free-running’ – a cycle of 24-25 hours is maintained, even in absence of
external cues
...


Other Circadian Rhythms:
Core body temperature: lowest – 36 degrees Celsius – 4:30am – highest – 38 degrees Celsius – 6pm
...
Small drop in body temperature – in people between 2pm and
4pm – many people feel sleepy in early afternoon
...


2
...


4
...
Hughes tested the circadian
hormone release in four participants stationed at the British Antarctic Station
...
After three moths of darkness, the peak
levels of cortisol were at noon rather than as the men awoke
...
Thus, this explanation is androcentric, because the study was
conducted on four male participants, which does not acknowledge that there are gender differences in the
sleep-wake cycle
...
Duffy et al found that
‘morning-people’ prefer to rise early and go to bed early - 6am and 10pm – whereas ‘evening-people’ prefer
to wake and go to bed later – 10am and 1am
...
Thus, this explanation is reductionist, as it oversimplifies circadian rhythms to be the same in all people
...

The risk of heart attack is greatest during early morning hours after awakening
...
Evans and Marian found these
medications can be administered before the person goes to sleep, but the actual drug is not released until the
vulnerable period
...
Thus, this explanation can be linked to psychology and the
economy – using chronotherapeutic medications would increase the average life expectancy for individuals in
the UK
...

Finally, a criticism for circadian rhythms is that the research methodology is flawed
...
However, they were not isolated from artificial light because It was generally thought that dim
artificial light would not affect circadian rhythms
...
Therefore, this criticises because
artificial lighting acted as an confounding variable, which means the results are unreliable
...
Deep sleep: brainwaves slow and breathing and
heart rate decreases
...

Stage 1: 4-5% - Light sleep
...
Occasional muscle twitching
...
Slight decrease in body temperature
...
Brain begins to generate slow delta waves
...
Rhythmic breathing
...
Brain produces delta waves
...
Brainwaves speed up and dreaming occurs
...

Breathing is rapid and shallow
...
Suggested it
continues during the day, when we are awake
...
Research shows human mind can focus for 90mins, and
towards the end, the body begins to run out of resources – loss of concentration, fatigue, and
hunger
...
10:30am coffee break - allows workers to
divide 9am to noon morning session into 2, 90min phases
...


1
...
Tucker et al found large individual differences in sleep duration, time to fall asleep and the amount
of time in each sleep stage, which showed up consistently across the eight nights
...
This makes this experiment biologically deterministic, because it suggests genetic influences are
the only factor determining our behaviour
...
This is because there is only 80% similarity between the intelligence of identical
twins
...


Weekly Rhythms: Male testosterone levels elevated at weekends and young couples report more sexual activity
at weekends than on weekdays, the frequency of births at weekends is lower than on weekdays
...
(2002) reported 7-day rhythms of blood pressure and heart rate in humans, but the evidence for weekly
infradian rhythms in humans remains sketchy at best
...
(Refinetti, 2006)
...
Ovulation: halfway
through menstrual cycle, when osetrogen levels peak, and usually lasts for 16 to 32hrs
...

Annual Rhythms: Humans – calendar year appears to influence behaviour regardless of changes in
temperature
...
(Seasonal affective disorder)
...
Robust annual rhythm in human deaths, with
most occurring in January
...


3
...
Arliss et al found many midwives still believe that more babies are born during a full moon than during
a new moon, but the statistics show this is a purely subjective association
...
This makes this
explanation biologically reductionist, because it simplifies human behaviour as being caused by our biology
...
Thus, reducing such problems to the biological level ignores
the function and context of such behaviour
...


2
...
Ericsson et al found that the violinists frequently napped to recover from practice (conducted in
90-minute segments), with the best violinists napping more than their teachers
...
This suggests there is a 90-minute ultradian rhythm
occurring during the day, and supports the idea that we move from a state of alertness to a state of
physiological fatigue nearing the end of those 90-minutes
...


AO1 : Include key words, facts and explanation about the topic

AO3: State whether supporting/contradicting evidence; Use research evidence – What has
been found? What does this suggest? Link to research methodology or issues and debates

Endogenous Pacemakers - The Superchiasmatic Nucleus: The SCN lies in the hypothalamus
...
It acts as the 'master clock' with links to other brain regions
that control sleep and arousal, and has controls other biological clocks throughout the body
...
These peripheral clocks can maintain a circadian rhythm, but not
for very long, which is why they must be controlled by the SCN
...
SCN receives information about light
levels via the optic nerve
...
Slow
biological clock - morning light automatically adjusts clock, putting rhythm in step with
outside
...

The Pineal Gland: SCN sends signals to pineal gland – increase production and secretion of melatonin at night;
decrease as light levels increase in the morning
...
Pineal and SCN function jointly as endogenous pacemakers in
the brain
...


1
...
Morgan found hamsters who were transplanted with abnormal SCN neurons displayed the abnormal
circadian rhythm of 20 hours
...
This suggests that the SCN is
important in maintaining the circadian rhythms of humans and supports the idea that it has control over the other
biological clocks in the body
...
This suggests that this characteristic promoted the survival and reproduction of humans,
and thus was naturally selected
...
There is a biological vulnerability, such as being born with genes for the abnormal development of the
SCN
...

Therefore, this explanation emphasises the role of nature, but ignores the role of nurture
...
Light – resets internal biological
clock each day, keeping it on 24-hour cycle
...
3rd: a protein called melanopsin, which is sensitive to natural light, is critical in this system
...

Social Cues: Aschoff et al (1971) showed individuals are able to compensate for the absence of zeitgebers such as
natural light by responding to social zeitgebers instead
...
Thought
to be because they were exposed to social cues of new time zone, which acted as a zeitgeber
...
Both examples can now be better explained in terms of light exposure acting as
a zeitgeber
...
Connections exist between the eye and the SCN that do not involve those parts of the visual
system on which the perception of light depends
...
A support for exogenous zeitgebers in circadian rhythms is that light can also set the circadian rhythms in blind
people
...
This suggests that the pathway from retinal cells containing melanopsin are
still intact
...
This
supports the role of exogenous zeitgebers in the maintenance of circadian rhythms, because it shows that light
and melanopsin play an important role in relaying information to the SCN
...
Thus,
this explanation ignores the fact that there are social zeitgebers that can compensate for the absence of other
zeitgebers, such as natural light
...
Therefore, this explanation emphasises the role of biology, but ignores the
role of social cues in resetting circadian rhythms

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