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MECHANICAL SEPARATION
A technique used to separate components of mixtures with mechanical devices
...
Evaporation or evaporation to dryness
- Requires the process of heating the mixture
- Allows the liquid component to evaporate
- Retains the solid which has been dissolved in the mixture
Integration:
– A method that removes salt from ocean water to produce fresh water
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The plant
provides 50% of the country’s drinking water
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Filtration
- used in separating insoluble solids from liquid substance
- uses filter paper or similar filtering material
- the liquid that passes through the filter paper is called “filtrate”
- the insoluble solid that is retained is called “residue”
3
...
Mixture of grains, mixtures of metals and non-metals
4
...
Washing of rice grains for cooking
5
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Ex
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Dissolution using a solvent
- Two solid substances mixed together are added with solvent (water)
- One of the solid substances is soluble while the other solids are insoluble
- The insoluble solid can be then be filtered while the solid that has dissolved may be
obtained through evaporation

Ex
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Distillation
- Involves using heat to allow a more volatile liquid to evaporate
- The liquid changes changes into vapour and condenses back to liquid state
- The liquid produced form the condensation of the vapour is called “distillate”
Ex
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Threshing
9
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Sieving

Kinds of pure substance
Element
Concepts:
Element





The simplest form of matter
Considered as the building blocks of matter since all forms of matter are made up of elements
An element cannot be broken down into simpler substance
An element is made up of only one kind of atom
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011 – atomic mass

6

C
Carbon
12
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Chemical symbol – letter or letters that represent an element
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Rules to be observed in writing the chemical symbol of an element
1
...

2
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The first letter must be written in capitalized
form while the second letter is in lowercase
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Elements were arranged according to order of increasing atomic number
- From the element with the least atomic number (hydrogen) to the element with the
greatest atomic number (Oganneson)
The arrangement of elements in order of increasing atomic number was first proposed by a
Russian chemist named “Dmitri Ivanovich Mendeleev” in the late 1800’s
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Elements were also arranged in column is called “group” or “family”
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- Each group has a corresponding family name and group number
There are 18 groups of elements in the periodic elements in the periodic table
numbered from left to right by the International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry
(IUPAC) Bureau
Group number
Name of group or family
1
Alkali metals
2
Alkaline earth metals
3-7
Early transition metals
8-12
Late transition metals
13
Boron
14
Carbon
15
Nitrogen
16
Oxygen
17
Halogens
18
Noble gases

Elements in the Periodic Table are generally classified onto three
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) Metals
2
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) Metalloids
Elements can be distinguish through their physical and chemical properties
Characteristics of Metals
1
...
)
3
...
)
5
...

They are generally solid at room temperature except for Mercury
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) Metals are good conductors of heat ( high thermal conductivity ) and electricity ( high electrical
conductivity )
7
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Characteristics of Non-metals
1
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Sometimes, they are transparent
2
...

3
...
They are neither malleable nor ductile
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Most non-metals have low melting point and boiling point
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Most non-metals are poor conductors of heat and electricity
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Non-metals are good insulators of heat and electricity
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Atomic number
5
14
32
33
51
52
84

Name of Element
Boron
Silicon
Germanium
Arsenic
Antimony
Tellurium
Polonium

Chemical symbol
B
Si
Ge
As
Sb
Te
Po

Group Number
13
14
14
15
15
16
16

COMPOUNDS
Important Concepts:
1
...

3
...

5
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Unlike elements, a compound may be broken down into simpler substances
Ex
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H20

H

O

6
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These numbers are written as subscripts
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Compounds are made up of molecules
Molecule – the basic particle of a compound
- It is a group of two or more atoms that are chemically combined
Ex
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O

ganism-

r

the scientific term for a living thing

General Groups of Organisms

1
...
Plants
3
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Bacteria (Bacterium)
b
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Protists (Plant-like and Animal – like organisms)
Kingdom Animalia
Kingdom Plantae:
Mosses are non-vascular plants
Kingdom Archaebacteria

--- Ancient bacteria

Kingdom Eubacteria

--- True bacteria

Bacteria (unicellular organism)
 Single-celled organism
Kingdom Fungi
Mushrooms
Neurotoxins are highly poisonous that paralyzes your diaphragm
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Each
level therefore relates to one another
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Ex
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 Tissue – a group of similar cells performing the same or similar function
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Name some examples of human body organs
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Adrenal Glands

LYMPHATIC SYSTEM

Helps filter out diseases – causing
organisms that may cause infection

Spleen, Lymph Nodes

URINARY SYSTEM

Filters wastes in the blood and
expels fluids in the form of urine
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Tonsils

INTEGUMENTARY SYSTEM

Serves as an outer covering for
protection against heat and
unwanted elements

Skin, hair, scale, feather, fur

CIRCULATORY SYSTEM

Transports blood and nutrients to
different body parts

Heart, Blood vessels, blood

RESPIRATORY SYSTEM

Brings in oxygen from air and
releases wastes into the air

Lungs

DIGESTIVE SYSTEM

Breaks down food into simple
forms to obtain energy from for
body purposes

Stomachs

Respiratory –
Nose -> Nostrils -> Cilia -> nasal cavity -> pharynx -> larynx -> trachea -> bronchi -> Bronchioles -> Alveoli

Digestive –
1
...

3
...




5
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Epithelial Tissues
 Forms on the outer covering of organs
 Found on the linings on the stomach
 Found on the tissues of the kidney that filters waste
 Forms glands on secretion
2
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Tendons- attach muscles to bones
Ligaments-connects bones to other bones
3
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Skeletal Muscles
 Involuntary Muscles – muscles which move automatically without being controlled
Ex
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Interpretation
Root system
 Consist of all root structures in plants
Organ: roots
 Funtions
A
...
anchors the plant on the roots
 Types of Root system
a
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Fibrous root system – consist of roots which are fiber – like
Other kinds of roots:
a
...

Ex
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Aerial roots – roots which are not anchored on the soil but are efficient in the absorbing
moisture in air
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Orchids

3
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Stem
b
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Flower
d
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Stem
 Functions:
1
...

2
...

B
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Serves as primary organ for the production of food through photosynthesis
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It has numerous chloroplasts on its cells which contains the green pigment that traps the
light energy from the sun
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Flower
Functions:
1
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Processes related:
Pollination (transfer of pollens)
Syngamy (fertilization)
Fact:
Most flowers possess both the male and female reproductive organs
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Other concepts:
According to be presence of reproductive structures
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Perfect flower – both male and female reproductive organs are present
2
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Complete flower – all reproductive structures and accessory organs are present
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Incomplete flower – one or two accessory organs are not present
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Fruits
 Function
1
...

2
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Dermal tissue – forms the outer covering of plants
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Ground tissue – they make up the bulk of the plant
- They are made up of cells that function for storage, photosynthesis, and support

3
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Xylem – transport water and nutrients from the soil to the stem and leaves
b
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PLANT AND ANIMAL CELLS





Plasma Membrane is also known as ‘Plasmalemma’
The largest part of the cell is the Cytoplasm
The nucleus is the ‘control center’
The building blocks of cells are mainly protein

CELL STRUCTURE
Nucleus
Plasma/Cell Membrane
Cytoplasm
Cell wall
Chloroplasts
Vacuoles/Vesicles
Centrioles
Smooth ER
Golgi Body
Lysosome
Ribosome

ANIMAL CELL
Present

PLANT CELL
Present

The Cell Story
 The term cell was first introduced in 1665 by Robert Hooke, am English botanist by examining
thin slices of cork from the bark of an oak tree
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 Robert Hooke published a book entitled ‘Micrographia’ which relates to his discovery
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The Cell Theory
The cell theory states that:
1
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The cell is the basic unit of structure and function of all organisms
3
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Classification of Organism based on Cell Number
a
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Bacteria and some protists
b
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Plants, Animals, Protists




Precursor Cells are also the pre-existing cells
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Nucleus
 Directs or controls different cell activity
 Contains the genetic material known as DNA or Deoxyribonucleic Acid
 The nucleus was first observed by Robert Brown in 1830 as darkly stained region within
a cell
 Chromatin are undeveloped/ uncoiled chromosomes

2
...
In animal cells, this is the outermost part
 It is flexible and may change its shape when needed
 Also known as cell membrane or plasmalemma
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Cytoplasm
 The largest part of the cell
 This is where most activities take place
 It is consist of a jelly like substance called “cytosol” where other cell parts are suspended
 Cytoplasmic Streaming
- pertains to the movement of materials in the cytoplasm
Other cell structure:
Organelles – terms used to describe the parts of the cell which are suspended in the
cytoplasm except for the nucleus
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) Cell wall
 Forms the outermost part of the cell
 It provides plant cells with rigid shape and protection
2
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) Vacuoles
 Are cell structures present in both plant and animal cells
 Stores water and nutrients and increases cell size during growth
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Plant
cell vacuoles are responsible for the crisp appearance of fresh vegetables
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They serve as storage of water and
food and functions in the excretion of waste materials
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) Centrioles
 Present in animal cells only
 Has an important role in cell reproduction
5
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2 types of endoplasmic Reticulum
a
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) Rough ER (with attached ribosomes
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) Golgi Body
 Described as a stack of flattened sacs
 Serves as packaging center of the cell
- Single stack- golgi apparatus
- All stack golgi complex
2 sides of GOLGI COMPLEX
Cis face or entry face
Trans face or transport face
7
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 It also helps the cell digest foreign materials such as bacteria and viruses
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) Ribosomes
 Has an important role in protein synthesis or assembly of proteins in the cell
Proteins
- Are the main building blocks of cell
9
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About 36-38
ATP molecules are produced during cellular respiration with other products as
water and carbon dioxide



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