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NEET 2019
CONTENTS
1
DIVERSITY IN LIVING WORLD
TAXONOMY
THE LIVING WORLD
BIOLOGICAL CLASSIFICATION
PLANT KINGDOM
ANIMAL KINGDOM
2
HUMAN PHYSIOLOGY
3
LEVELS OF ORGANISATION
DIGESTIVE SYSTEM
CIRCULATORY SYSTEM
EXCREATORY SYSTEM
NERVOUS SYSTEM
ENDOCRINE SYSTEM
STRUCTURAL ORGANISATION IN PLANTS AND ANIMALS
EPITHELIAL TISSUE
MUSCULAR TISSUE
CONNECTIVE TISSUE
SKELETAL TISSUE
NERVOUS TISSUES
MERISTEMATIC TISSUES
PERMANENT TISSUES( PARENCHYMA COLLENCHYMA SCLERENCHYMA)
SECRETORY TISSUES
4
PLANT PHYSIOLOGY
PLANT TRANSPORTATION SYSTEM
PHOTOPERIODISM
PHYTO CHEMISTRY
PLANT NUTRITION
TROPISM
NASTIC MOVEMENTS
PIGMENTS
PLANT DISEASES
PHOTOSYNTHESIS
RESPIRATION
PLANT GROWTH AND DEVELOPMENT
PLANT HORMONES
VERNALISATION
SENESCENCE AND DORMANCY
...
2
...
TAXONOMY & SYSTEMATICS:
Taxonomy – process of classification ie, the methodical distribution of plants in groups ;
named classes, families, genera, species; taking into account various characteristics such as
external & internal structure, structure of cell, development process & ecological
information of organisms
...
It was first proposed in 1813 by A
...
de Candolle (a professor of Montpellier University in
France) in its French form, for the theory of plant classification
...
According to Mayr (1982), “Taxonomy is the theory and practice of
classifying organisms”
...
According to Christoffersen (1995), taxonomy has become the most basic activity in biology,
dealing exclusively with the discovery, ordering and communication of patterns of biological
taxa
...
Systematics: The 1st use of term systematic can be traced to linnaeius 1751
(Latin ‘systema’) means systematic arrangement of organisms and to understand
revolutionary relationship among the groups classified
...
Systematics become interested in the process of evolution ie, in the mechanism that
produces the diversity
...
Sympson 1961 defined systematic as; scientific study of the all kinds and diversity of organism
and of any all relationships among them
...
SYSTMATICS
TAXONOMY
Systematics
deals
with
phylogenetic Taxonomy deals with classification and
classification ie, it studies the evolutionary nomenclature
...
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Systematic ascertain the sharing of common It doesn’t ascertain the sharing of common
ancestry by different organisms
...
BIOSYSTEMATICS: It involves the delimitation of natural biotic units and a system of
nomenclature which reflects their relationship, variability and dynamic structure
...
It is basis for obtaining
cataloging & retrieving information about the biodiversity
...
Taxonomy is important for conservation of biodiversity
...
These species are regularly
discovered during the course of floristic work
...
It helps in the further development of economic resources
...
Taxonomy is essential tool at all stages of conservation strategy and as biodiversity
conservation
...
It differentiates the various kinds of organisms and points out their characteristics
through descriptions, keys, illustrations etc
...
It is important in the study of economically or medically important organisms
...
LEVELS OF TAXONOMY:
α (alpha), β (beta) and Ƴ (gamma) taxonomy:
There are three phases of taxonomy symbolized as α (alpha), β (beta) and Ƴ (gamma)
taxonomy:
Alpha (α) taxonomy: this is the 1st & most basic step in taxonomy
...
Here priority is given to the one who publishes his work
first
...
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Beta (β) taxonomy: it includes identification natural groups & biological classes, or
arrangement of the species into a natural system of hierarchical categories
...
Gamma (Ƴ) taxonomy: it includes study of evolutionary processes & patterns
...
But in actual
practice it is rather difficult to dissociate them because these overlap and integrate
...
) where the taxonomy has reached up to the gamma level
...
HIERARCHICAL CLASSIFICATION:
In biological classification, organisms are assembled into groups on the basis of their
relationships
...
This pattern of groups nested with in groups is called taxonomic hierarchy
...
Orders are
grouped into classes & classes into divisions & division into kingdom
...
The categories &
ranks are entirely artificial & subjective on the other hand taxonomic groups placed in
categories represent distinct assemblages of existing organisms
...
Taxa; – It is the scientific term which indicates categories of
organisms at different levels
...
Section & series between genus & species
...
In other words, species in nature are ranked, according to their comprehensiveness, in a
hierarchy of nested categories — the so-called Linnaean Hierarchy
...
Linnaeus recognised within the animal kingdom only five categories — classis, order, genus,
species and varieties
...
The varieties used by Linnaeus was subsequently either discarded or replaced
by the sub¬species
...
Thus any
given species belong to these seven obligatory categories
TAXONOMIC CATEGORIES:
In taxonomy hierarchy we use different categories
...
The category above this rank are called supra-specific category and those below this
rank are infra specific categories
...
All categories together constitute the taxonomic hierarchy
...
Ideally a
species should be separated by distinct morphological differences from other closely related
species
...
A species should be reproductively isolated
from members of other species
...
Members of a species have a large number of similar characters
...
Practically the genus is inclusive category whose species have more characters in common in
each other than with species of other genera in the same family
...
TOURNEFORT (1700) is called father of generic
concept
...
The category of family is more
inclusive than genus & species & represents the group related genera
...
L
...
Order: A group of closely related families is called order
...
Similarly,
Felidae and Concidae belong the order Carnivora
...
For example; orders Primata
and Carnivora belong to the class Mammalia
...
In the Plant Kingdom; the
term phylum has been replaced with division
...
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Kingdom: The group of all the related phyla is called the Kingdom
...
Similarly, all heterotrophic organisms which are eukaryotic and lack a
cell wall are kept under Animal Kingdom
...
There are 5 infra
specific categories recommend by ICBN
...
PURPOSE OF CLASSIFICATION – Organise vast number of plants, animals etc into
categories that could be named, remembered & studied
...
Identification: Nomenclature is only possible when the organism is described
correctly and we know to what organism the name is attached to
...
Classification: It is the grouping of organisms into convenient categories (taxa)
based on characters
...
It
essentially deals with correct application of scientific names to plant taxa
...
It is the providing of standardized names to the organisms such that a particular
organism is known by the same name all over the world
...
The scientific names are binomial ie, composed of two names
...
The first name of binomial ie, malus is the genus name and is always
capitalized
...
The first name (Genus) starts with capital letter and the second name (species)
starts with small letter
...
g
...
Name of the author appears after the specific epithet, i
...
, at the end of the
biological name and is written in an abbreviated form, e
...
, Mangifera indica Linn
...
Zoological names are based on International Code for Zoological Nomenclature (ICZN)
...
Universal rules of Binomial nomenclature:
Scientific names are generally in Latin and written in italics
...
When handwritten, the names are underlined
...
o
PRINCIPLES OF PLANT NOMENCLATURE
a
...
The Code applies equally to names of taxonomic groups treated
as plants whether or not these groups were originally so treated
...
The application of names of taxonomic groups is determined by means of
nomenclatural types
...
The nomenclature of a taxonomic group is based upon priority of publication
...
Each taxonomic group with a particular circumscription, position, and rank can
bear only one correct name, the earliest that is in accordance with the Rules,
except in specified cases
...
Scientific names of taxonomic groups are treated as Latin regardless of their
derivation
...
The Rules of nomenclature are retroactive unless expressly limited
Nomenclatural type
The application of names is determined by means of nomenclatural type
...
The method of
determining the application of name by means of types is called type method
...
Generally, species are described by taxonomists based on a type specimen and the
details published in a scientifically recognized
...
Type specimens form part of biological collections maintained by museums and
universities where they can be accessed by other scientists
...
Thus each specimen in the series is
known as a syntype (from which neither a holotype nor a lectotype has been designated)
...
Paratype – representative specimen(s), other than the holotype, in the type series referred to
in the original description
...
Neotype – a substitute specimen selected in special circumstances to replace the holotype
after the species was first described and the original holotype has been lost or destroyed (e
...
fire, war etc
...
Allotype – a designated specimen of opposite sex to that of the holotype
...
Taxonomical Aids:
Specimens are collected from various sources and the information gathered is stored
...
This information is known as taxonomical aids because
it helps the biologists in taxonomic studies
...
THE purpose of herbarium is to
physically contain the plant specimen that serve as source of material for taxonomic
research
...
Herbarium sheet contains information about date and place of
collection, collector’s name ETC
...
The preparation of a herbarium involves:
...
In the
fields, the tools required are mainly trowel (digger) for digging roots, scissors and knife for
cutting twigs, a stick with a hook for collection of parts of tall trees, a field note book,
polythene bag, old newspaper and magazines
...
The larger specimen may’ folded in ‘N’ or’ W’ shapes
...
After 24 to 48 hrs
the press is opened
...
Mounting is done with the help of glue, adhesive or cello-tape
...
are dried without pressing and are put in small envelops called
fragment packets
...
(f) Preservation:
The mounted specimens are sprayed with fungicides like 2% solution of mercuric chloride
...
The label should indicate the
information about the locality, altitude, habit, date and lime of collection, name of collector,
common name, complete scientific name etc
...
In India Bentham and Hooker’s system of classification is used for’ his purpose
...
Also
provides quick referral systems in taxonomical studies
...
In modern times, most botanical gardens are concerned primarily with exhibiting
ornamental plants, insofar as possible in a scheme that emphasizes natural relationships
...
They are also starting to play a
role in the mitigation of the effects of climate change, and could be absolutely vital to the
survival of the planet as they are perfectly placed to help move species around and help
ecosystems to adapt to new climates in different regions
3 Museums:
Collection of preserved plant and animal specimens , Useful for study
and reference Specimens are preserved in containers or jars in preservative solutions
...
Insects are preserved in insect boxes after
collecting, killing, and pinning
...
Also have collec on
of skeletons of animals
Many public museums make these items available for public viewing through exhibits
that may be permanent or temporary
...
it Enable us to learn about their food habits and behaviour Key:
OTHER TAXONOMICAL AIDS
Flora, manuals, monographs, and catalogues are other taxonomical aids A Flora describes
plants and where they live
...
Floras are almost always designed to be simultaneously
regionally constrained and regionally exhaustive/complete (i
...
, includes all plants that grow
in that region or at least all taxonomic divisions of specified taxa)
MONOGRAPH;
...
Always
taxon-based, not geography-based
A manual ;applies much more broadly to plants, and typically instructs you on a subject (e
...
,
identification/differentiation of species)
...
However, some have used the term manual to be more or less synonymous with
Flora or otherwise similar document
A catalog; is simply a listing of all species organized in some way
...
taxonomically organized like a typical Flora)
...
Taxonomic key
Taxonomic Key:
A key is a device, which when properly constructed and used, enables a user to identify
an organism
...
The key consists of a series of choices, based on observed features of the plant
specimen
...
A single pair of contradictory statements is called a couplet and each statement of a
couplet is termed a lead
...
Types of Taxonomic Keys:
There are two types of keys:
(a) Dichotomous and
(b) Poly clave (also called Multiple Access or Synoptic)
...
Dichotomous Keys:
Keys in which the choices allow only two (mutually exclusive) alternative
couplets are known as dichotomous keys
...
e
...
Each time a choice is made, a number of species are eliminated from
consideration and the range of possible species to which the unknown specimen may belong
is narrowed
...
Dichotomous comes from
the Greek root dich meaning “two” and temnein meaning “to cut“
...
The couplets can be presented
using numbers (numeric) or using letters (alphabetical)
...
There is no apparent uniformity in presentation of
dichotomous keys
...
They differ in the method by which the couplets
are organized and how the user is directed to successive choices
...
The two
choices of the couplet are usually labelled 1 and 1′ or la and lb
...
The user goes to the next indented couplet following the
lead that was selected
...
The choices of the couplet must be numbered (or
lettered)
...
This key has exactly the same
choices as the first example
...
While this key might be more difficult to construct, it gives more information to the user
...
ii
...
The advantage of these keys is
that they allow the user to enter the key at any point
...
In a written
poly clave key there is a series of characters and character states
...
The user needs to select any character and then copy down the list of species that possess the
feature
...
This process has to be continued until the specimen is identified
...
Consider a series of standard playing
cards
...
If the card is a
spade we cut the first hole through the margin; if a club, the second hole is notched to the
margin; a heart the third hole is notched; and finally if it is a diamond the fourth hole is
notched
...
Thus, the Queen of Hearts will have a notch cut into
the third hole on the top of the card, and the Queen notch on the bottom of the card
...
Shuffle another
deck of cards and pick any card
...
To identify this unknown, we analyse the characters and two are obvious, suit and number
...
Since, only
spades are notched, the other suits will remain on the needle and spades will drop out of the
deck
...
This is the general principle of how the computerized
version of poly clave keys work
...
An example of a Poly clave key:
Poly clave Key to Pollination Type: Pollination is the process of transferring pollen from one
flower to another
...
Flowers are specialized by shape, colour, door,
nectar etc
...
These flower adaptations are collectively known as pollination syndromes or systems
...
For
example, many orchids are pollinated by only a single type of bee
...
In other cases, insects may visit flowers without actually transferring pollen
...
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How
to
Use
a
Polyclave
Key
(a) Advantages of Poly clave Keys:
The advantages of a poly clave (multiple-access) key are:
I
...
II
...
e
...
This is a significant advantage
because the user can rely on characters that are most easy to observe, rather than having to
deal with characters that may not be present in the specimen or are poorly developed
...
They are order-free i
...
the user can work in any direction with any character
...
They are faster
...
They are easily computerized
...
Paper versions are typically large and unwieldy because each character needs to list all
possible taxa
...
Technically it is the arrangement of groups of
plants or animals into some sort of ordered system
...
A classification provides an important mechanism of information storage , retrival
and usage
...
It is a difficult affair
to compare characters or to get agreement for ranking taxa
...
) to which we refer the individual taxa in accordance to the rank (cordinal level) we
recog¬nise for them
...
Two organisms we placed in the same class because they share one or more
attributes (the defining properties of that class)
...
Rules of Classification:
Some general rules of classification are:
1
...
2
...
3
...
4
...
In this hierarchy each categorical level expresses a certain level of
distinctness
...
He classified plants
into four groups; tree, shrub, sub-shrub and herbs mainly because of distinction of habit
...
Character such as habit , color, form of similar features were selected for the
development of such system of classification
...
Although such
books are useful in finding the names of taxa, they provide few clues about relationships
among the taxa and hence are not predictive, which means that you can deduce nothing
more about the plant other than that it exhibits the characteristics used to classify
Natural system;
No single character is more important thwn any other, therefore overall similarty in
morphological characters should be taken for grouping plants toghter which in effect would
reflect their natural relationship
...
The charecters are selected
aposterierly depending upon the value
Natural classifications group together plants with many of the same characteristics and
are highly predictive
...
Taxonomic floras, for example, identify species, genera, and families by listing as many
characteristics as possible concerning anatomy, morphology, cytology, ecology, biochemistry,
genetics, and distribution
...
This classification involves systems of information, storage and retrieved and start reflecting
patterns of evolution
...
The evolutionary history of a taxon is called its phylogeny
...
A taxon should be
monophyletic (all of the members of the taxon should be descendants of a single common
ancestor)
...
For example, all the parts of a flower—petals, sepals, stamens, and carpels—originate in the
same way as leaves from primordia in meristems
...
Leaves and the parts of the flower are homologous structures
...
An example of analogous structures is the prickles on two groups of succulent
desert plants, the cacti and the euphorbs
...
Spines and thorns look alike and are functionally similar in that both keep animals from
eating the plants
...
This example of analogy is also an
example of convergent evolution
...
The families are not related and have no recent common ancestor
...
It gives weightage to similarity
...
of characters from many sets of data with equal weightage
...
Cladistics:
It attempts to arrange the organisms only by their order of branching during
their evoutionry theory
...
Cladistics is the most popular method of classifying organisms today
...
The intent is to find groups of organisms that share a common ancestor and to
diagram the relationship of the groups, called clades, in a Cladogram
...
All the taxa below the node lack the character state, all those above it retain it
...
The states are hypothesized to be either ancestral or derived (evolved), and
the cladogram is a test of the hypothesis
...
An apomorphy restricted to a single species is referred to autapomorphy
...
As an example, the class Aves is defined by the presence of feathers
...
But, apomorphy alone is unable to provide any
information about the phylogenetic relationship of that species
...
For example, speech is a unique characteristic in humans but, not in other primates
...
The
synapomorphic characters can be used to strictly define monophyletic clades
...
Plesiomorphy
Plesiomorphy refers to an evolutionary character homologous within a particular clade but,
not unique to all members of that particular clade
...
As an example, bony fish have gills for respiration but, they are closely related to vertebrates
that lack gills
...
Similarly, though other reptiles have
legs, snakes do not have legs
...
The first formal scientific name given to a plant or animal taxon shall be the
name that is to be used, called the valid name in zoology and correct name in botany
...
There are formal provisions for making exceptions to this principle
...
Similarly, if the current name for a taxon is found to have an archaic
or obscure prior homonym, the current name can be declared a nomen protectum (zoology)
or the older name suppressed (nomen rejiciendum, botany)
...
The first part of the name is the name of the genus and the
second part is referred to as the specific epithet in the International Code of Nomenclature
for algae, fungi, and plants and the specific name in the International Code of Zoological
Nomenclature
...
In past editions of the zoological Code
the term tautonym was used, but it has now been replaced by the more inclusive
"tautonymous names"; these include trinomial names such as Gorilla gorilla gorilla
...
One example of a botanical tautonym is 'Larix larix'
...
but Gustav Karl Wilhelm Hermann Karsten did not agree with the placement
of the species in Pinus and decided to move it to Larix in 1880
...
For example, Linnaeus was the first to give a scientific name (under the
currently used system of scientific nomenclature) to the Norway spruce, which he called
Pinus abies
...
Autonyms are automatically created names, as regulated by the International Code of
Nomenclature for algae, fungi, and plants that are created for certain subdivisions of genera
and species, those that include the type of the genus or species
...
Autonyms "repeat unaltered" the genus name or species epithet of the taxon being
subdivided, and no other name for that same subdivision is validly published (article 22
...
For example, Rubus subgenus Eubatus is not validly published, and the subgenus is known as
Rubus subgen
...
Homonym is a name for a taxon that is identical in spelling to another such name, that
belongs to a different taxon
...
It is, however, possible that if a senior
homonym is archaic, and not in "prevailing usage," it may be declared a nomen oblitum and
rendered unavailable, while the junior homonym is preserved as a nomen protectum
...
However, Forster had already published the name Echidna in 1777 for a genus of moray eels
...
Illiger published the replacement name Tachyglossus in 1811
...
The term original combination or protonym is used in the same
way in zoology
...
The species was
originally named Pinus abies by Carl Linnaeus
...
The new name Picea abies is
combinatio nova, a new combination (abbreviated comb
...
)
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