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Title: Neurophysiology Level 2
Description: Neurophysiology university level 2 - topics covered include cell membrane and membrane transport, resting membrane and action potentials, neuronal impulses and transmission, functional organisation of the nervous system, sensory receptors and pathways, muscle structure and function, and motor pathways and reflexes.
Description: Neurophysiology university level 2 - topics covered include cell membrane and membrane transport, resting membrane and action potentials, neuronal impulses and transmission, functional organisation of the nervous system, sensory receptors and pathways, muscle structure and function, and motor pathways and reflexes.
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FINAL EXAM NOTES NEUROPHYSIOLOGY
Week 6 Motor Pathways and Muscle Physiology
* Motor units and Pathways
The motor pathway is the efferent branch of the peripheral nervous system
...
Skeletal muscle
activity can be either involuntary (involves mainly proximal and truncal muscle groups,
critical for postural stability, involves regulatory centres found in the brainstem) or voluntary
(distal muscle groups, critical for movement and fine motor tasks, regulatory centres found in
motor cortex of frontal lobe
...
The somatic efferent NS consists of motor neurons that regulate muscle activity
...
They carry information to the
LMN via pyramidal cells
...
LMN are the final common pathway by which CNS exerts control over skeletal muscle activity
...
Motor pathways from the cortex are pyramidal and pathways from BS are extra-‐pyramidal
...
The
functional areas of the motor cortex that control voluntary movement are
Primary motor cortex
Premotor cortex (planning, deliberation)
Supplementary motor area (programming)
Prefrontal cortex
Primary somatosensory cortex
Association area of parietal lobe
...
Premotor cortex receives input from parietal lobe 2
...
PMC directs inputs to MN
...
Betz cells the largest neurons in the entire body only found in layer V of the primary motor
cortex
...
The corticospinal tract transmits impulses from
brain to spinal cord and consists of lateral and anterior tract
...
Controls axial
and limb motor movements
...
It targets the LMN in the
spinal cord It is part of the lateral indirect extra0pyramidal tract responsible for large muscle
movement and fine motor control
...
The corticobulbar tract is a two neuron white matter motor pathway connecting the cortex
to the BS
...
Muscles of the face, head, and neck are controlled with bilateral innovation bilateral
inputs to both sides of spinal tract for facial muscles
...
a alpha MN – control extrafusal muscle fibre contractions which provide movement
2
...
A motor unit is one LMN as well as all muscle fibres that it innervates
...
Each muscle fibre is innervated by only one motor neuron,
but 1 motor neuron can innervate many muscle fibres
...
Size refers to how many muscle fibres the MN
innervates
...
Small motor units develop small increases in force slowly but are more
precise and fatigue resistant
...
Firing properties of motor units
can be tonic or phasic; some LMN receive continuous inputs from UMN that keeps them
active continuously, important for maintaining muscle tone and posture (tonic), whilst other
LMN fire in bursts and are necessary for movement
...
Extra-‐pyramidal motor tract descending from reticular formation to
trunk and proximal limb muscles is relevant for postural control and muscle tone
...
Axon potential of MN travels to axon terminal
2
...
Ca2+ entry causes synaptic vesicles to release acetylcholine via exocytosis
4
...
5
...
Na+ ions enter the muscle fibre and K+ ions exit muscle fibre and membrane potential
depolarises
7
...
Chemical agents and disease affect neuromuscular junctions:
-‐ black widow spider venom causes excess release of Ach (rigidity)
-‐ botulinum toxin blocks Ach release (paralysis)
-‐ curare blocks Ach receptor function (paralysis)
-‐ organophosphates inhibit AChE (rigidity)
myasthenia gravis is an autoimmune disease that destroys Ach receptors (paralysis)
* Muscle tone and function
Muscle tone is the continuous and passive partial contraction of the muscle or the muscle’s
resistance to passive stretch during rest
...
There are
three neural factors affecting muscle tone:
1
...
Brainstem postural centres modulation of spinal cord circuitry
3
...
Upper limb muscle tone can be clinically checked by having the patient stand up with their
arms hanging loosely at their side and moving shoulders around patient’s arms should
dangly freely, however, if increased tone both arms present as being held stiffly when
standing and walking
...
Increased tone results in abrupt restriction on the excursion of the feet
...
If you cut the LMN the muscle has no
input and will experience flaccid paralysis (continuously relaxed), decreased muscle tone
(hypotonia), and decreased reflex (hyporeflexia) but no innervation of the muscle (atrophy)
...
There are three types of muscle categorised according to structure and control:
1
...
Cardiac Muscle – striated, involuntary
3
...
Connective tissue covering muscle divides muscle internally into columns
...
Tendons attach muscle to
bone
...
This
is the series-elastic component
...
The load is the opposing force exerted on the muscle by the weight of an object
...
The muscle fibre extends along the length of muscle from tendon to tendon
...
Anchored by tendons, each muscle consists of
long, cylindrical, multinucleate cells called fibres, arranged in parallel
...
Myoblasts (individual cells) form together to
make myotubes
...
Muscle fibres also contain
sarcoplasmic reticulum (smooth ER), many mitochondria (high energy), sarcoplasm
(cytoplasm), sarcolemma (plasma membrane), and transverse tubules (T-‐tubules)
...
Each myofibril is made of regular arrangements of thick and thin
filaments (thick = myosin, thin = actin) that form the sarcomeres, the functional unit of the
muscle
...
It is a protein consisting of two identical subunits
where tail ends are intertwined and toward the M line, globular heads project out at one end
and toward the I band, and heads form cross-‐bridges between thick and tin filaments
...
Cross bridges project from each thick filament in 6 directions toward the surrounding thin
filaments
...
Actin interacts with the
myosin cross bridges
...
Tropomyosin lies alongside the groove of actin spiral and covers actin sites blocking cross
bridge binding
...
Titan is an elastic protein that supports protein in muscle and anchors thin filaments
between M line and Z line
...
T tubules run
perpendicular from surface of muscle cell membrane to central portions of the muscle fibre
...
The sarcoplasmic reticulum is a modified ER that
stores and releases calcium to promote muscle contraction
...
ATP binds to myosin heads and detaches it from actin
...
Sliding filament theory holds that thin filaments on each side of the sarcomere slide inward
over stationary thick filaments
...
As the sarcomere shortens, the entire fibre shortens
...
Cross bridge formation leads to a power stroke
...
and reflex responses
...
A
twitch is an all-‐or-‐nothing response for a given muscle fibre at rest
...
Latent period – time from AP in muscle cell to onset of contraction; typically a few
msec, involves excitation-‐contraction coupling
...
2
...
3
...
Acetylcholinesterase breaks down Ach at
neuromuscular junction so that muscle fibre AP stops
...
There are 3 primary types of contraction:
1
...
Force of contraction exceeds total load
...
2
...
Rare type of
movement, eg
...
3
...
Holding an object without
moving it
...
When load > tension
the muscle does not shorten so load cannot be lifted
...
Whilst
some purely isometric contractions can occur, purely isotonic contractions are rare
...
Isometric continues
(tension increases) until tension exceeds load, then isotonic contraction begins
...
Graded contraction is varying strength contractions of a whole muscle
...
* Factors Affecting Tension of Individual Muscle Fibre
1
...
As the stimulation frequency
increases, muscles move from twitch to treppe, to summation, and finally to tetanus
...
Twitch summation is the increase
in tension accompanying repetitive stimulation of a muscle fibre, resulting from sustained
elevation of cytosolic Ca2+ upon repetitive stimulation
...
If stimulation lasts long enough, the
muscle will reach peak force and plateau, this is known as a tetanic contraction
...
Contraction is usually 3-‐4x
stronger than a single twitch
...
The amount of tension developed depends on amount of
Ca2+ bound to troponin
...
release exceeds re-‐uptake, and eventually saturates
system (tetanus)
...
Fibre Diameter: force-‐generating capacity = inherent ability of muscle to generate force
...
More cross brides/sarcomeres = more force, and
more sarcomeres in parallel = more force
...
3
...
There is an optimal muscle length at which maximal tension can be
developed
...
The
attachment of muscles to bones limits muscle shortening and lengthening
...
4
...
Central fatigue occurs when the CNS no
longer adequately activates MN, and excess post-exercise oxygen consumption (EPOC) is
the need for elevated oxygen uptake during recovery from exercise leading to fatigue at rest
...
For muscles that produce
precise, delicate movements (hand and eye muscles) a single MU may contain as few as a
dozen fibres
...
There is an orderly recruitment of MN by the CNS
...
For small loads, slow twitch, low force, fatigue resistant muscle fibres are activated prior
to the recruitment of fast twitch, high force fatigue prone muscle fibres
...
Adding more active MU produces a stronger
contraction
...
All four steps in the excitation, contraction, and relaxation processes require ATP; the binding
of ATP to myosin breaks cross bridges, ATP provides energy for next power stroke, active
transport of Ca2+ back into SR, and the activity of the Na/K pump during AP production
...
Muscle fibres must have alternate pathways for
forming new ATP
...
Transfer of high-‐energy phosphates from creatine phosphate to ADP: the enrgy
released from hydrolysis of creatine phosphate can be donated directly to ADP to
form ATP
...
2
...
3
...
There are three types of skeletal muscle fibres, based on differences in ATP hydrolysis and
synthesis:
1
...
Type 2a – activate quickly, specialised for rapid repetitive movements ie
...
3
...
* Smooth and Cardiac muscle
Smooth muscle is found in walls of hollow organs and tubes
...
It does not contain sarcomeres and so is not striated, rather
cells are arranged in sheets
...
Phasic SM contracts in bursts, triggered by AP that lead to increased
cytosolic Ca2+; rapid contraction and relaxation
...
Multiunit SM is
neurogenic, so contraction is initiated in response to stimulation by nervous system
...
Found in walls of blood vessels and small
airways of lungs
...
Fibres become excited and contract as a single unit
...
Cardiac muscle is found only in the heart
...
It is self-‐excitable with cells that can generate APs, which spread
throughout the heart through gap junctions
...
* Reflexes
A reflex is an automatic patterned response to a stimulus; an involuntary and nearly
instantaneous movement in response to a stimulus
...
There are two types of muscle receptors; muscle spindles which monitor muscle length, and
golgi tendon organs which detect changes in tension
...
Muscle Spindle are sensory receptors within a muscle
...
They contain both
afferent and efferent nerve fibres and play key roles in stretch reflex
...
It provides
automatic regulation of muscle length
...
For example, if leaning to one side, postural muscles will stretch, and so stretch
receptors in those muscles contract to correct posture
...
Tension information is used subconsciously for smoothly executing motor activity
...
Is the inverse of stretch reflex in that
muscles stretch and relax rather than contracting
...
Crossed extension reflex is the contralateral stimulation of motor neurons to stabilise the
body
...
How you will execute that movement needs programming, done in SMA and premotor
area
...
Prefrontal cortex forms a response premotor area get information from parietal
association area for programming SMA decides on action/movement and rehearses it
primary motor cortex (Betz cells) project to LMN
* Cerebellum
Accounts for 10% of weight of brain and contains more than 50% of all neurons in the brain
...
Plays a major role
in timing of motor activities and in rapid, smooth progression from one muscle movement to
the next
...
The cerebellum also plays a role in motor learning
...
It has 3
lobes: the anterior lobe (spinocerebellum) responsible for regulation of muscle tone and
skilled voluntary movements, posterior lobe (cerebrocerebellum) responsible for planning
and initiation of voluntary activity, storage of procedural memories, and flocculonodula lobe
(vestibulocerebellum) responsible for maintenance of balance and control of eye movements
...
The cytoarchitecture of the cerebellar cortex is divided
into 3 layers; the molecular layer, the Purkinje cell layer, and the granular layer
Title: Neurophysiology Level 2
Description: Neurophysiology university level 2 - topics covered include cell membrane and membrane transport, resting membrane and action potentials, neuronal impulses and transmission, functional organisation of the nervous system, sensory receptors and pathways, muscle structure and function, and motor pathways and reflexes.
Description: Neurophysiology university level 2 - topics covered include cell membrane and membrane transport, resting membrane and action potentials, neuronal impulses and transmission, functional organisation of the nervous system, sensory receptors and pathways, muscle structure and function, and motor pathways and reflexes.